Reproduction: The Continuity of Life

Reproduction – the ability of an organism to produce its own kind

- one of the characteristics that distinguishes living things from nonliving things.

MODES OF REPRODUCTION
I. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION – a type of reproduction that does not require the union of sex
cells.
- gives rise to offspring that are identical to the parents.
Types Asexual Reproduction
1. Vegetative propagation is a kind of asexual reproduction where a new individual,
known as the offspring, is produced from a single parent
*During reproduction, certain traits are passed on from parent to offspring. These traits
are in the form of codes contained in genes. Genes are found in chromosomes
which are in turn located in the nucleus of cells.
*In asexual reproduction, the parent and the resulting offspring have the same genes
and this is the reason why they have the same traits. They are genetically identical.
Examples
 Potato tuber – a specialized stem which functions as a food storage organ.
- from a single potato, several new potato plants can be produced
- axillary buds where shoots can emerge
- propagated vegetatively
 Kalanchoe – a medicinal plant, can reproduce through its leaves
 Kamote (sweet potato)
 cassava
 ginger
 pineapple
 some ornamental plants.
Advantages
*Vegetative propagation results in plants that reach maturity faster than plants grown
from seeds.
*Another good thing about vegetative propagation is that the same good agricultural
traits such as taste, yield, and resistance to pests will be passed on from generation
to generation.
Disadvantage
*The population might be wiped out if environmental conditions become unfavourable.

2. Fission – single cell divides to form identical daughter cells

- Each daughter cell continues to grow until it becomes as large as the parent cell.
Examples
 Protococcus – unicellular algae
- can be found growing on moist,
dark patches of trees, rocks and soil
- reproduces by dividing cells separated
by wall-like structure
 Paramecium
 Amoeba

3. Budding – a new individual may form as an outgrowth of the parent that eventually
separates from the parent and becomes a new individual
Examples
 Yeast – a microorganism used in baking
 Hydra
 Sponges Hydra Yeast

*The smaller cell is called a bud which detaches itself from the
mother cell and grows into a mature cell.

4. Spore formation – a type of sexual reproduction common to fungi where fruit-like

structures called spores are released from spore cases and each spore develops into a
new organism,
Examples
 Bread mold
Spore case - the black, round structure at the tip of a stalk
which contains the spores
*When the spore case opens, the tiny spores are released and may
 be carried by wind or water.
*Once the spore lands on a favorable environment, it develops into a new organism.

*Proper temperature, amount of moisture, and food source are necessary for the spores
to germinate
 Mushrooms (Kabute)
 Fern (Pako)

5. Fragmentation – a form of asexual reproduction wherein a parent organism breaks

into fragments, each capable of growing independently into a new organism.
Examples
 Hydra – when cut into several pieces, each piece can grow into
another hydra
 Starfish – an arm that breaks off from the body can develop
into new individual

Regeneration – the process in which organisms replace or restore their lost or

damaged body parts
Examples
 Lizards
Through regeneration, they can replace missing parts like tails or legs but their tails or
 Crabs
legs cannot regenerate the missing heads.
 Lobster
 In general, increased specialization in animals corresponds to a decrease in
capacity for regeneration.

II. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - a mode of reproduction that involves two parents

- requires the union of reproductive cells or gametes
- Parents produce reproductive cells called gametes through a type of cell division
called meiosis.
- The female gamete is called egg cell or ovum; and the male gamete is called
sperm cell.
- Gametes from the two parents unite in a process called fertilization.
- The fertilized cell is referred to as a zygote which develops into a new organism.
Meiosis – a type of cell reproduction in resulting the formation of egg cells in females and
sperm cells in males
Gametes – refers to the sex or reproductive cells
Fertilization – the union of two cells forming a zygote
Zygote – the cell produced from the union of egg cell and sperm cell.
Ways of Sexual Reproduction
1. Conjugation – a type of sexual reproduction where the content of one cell is
transferred to another cell to form a zygote by forming a bridge between two cells
Examples
 Spirogyra – green alga, can be found in freshwater habitats such
as ponds and rivers.
- During conjugation, a bridge forms between two cells of two
Spirogyra filaments lying side by side.
-The contents of one cell pass into the other cell through the
bridge, emptying the other cell.
-The contents of both cells combine in the other cell and
form the zygote.
-This zygote is able to secrete a substance that forms
a wall around itself for protection against unfavorable environmental
conditions (e.g. when
the pond dries up).
-When conditions become suitable for growth and development, the zygote
grows into a new individual.
 Paramecium
 Bread Mold

2. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Flower - the reproductive organ in flowering plants
-have structures that produce the gametes necessary for reproduction
Examples
 Gumamela Flower
Flower is attached to the stem by a short stalk-like structure.
Sepals provide protection to the unopened flower.
Stigma is sticky so the pollen grains that fall on it can better adhere on it.
 Pollen grains may reach the pistil through agents of pollination like
insects, wind, water, and humans.
Pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the sigma of a
flower
Fertilization occurs after pollination
-the fusion of the nuclear contents of the egg and the sperm resulting to
zygote formation
* In plants, the zygote or embryo is within the seed.

- Pollination brings together the gametes of a flower and it occurs when a

pollen grain of the right kind lands on the stigma of the pistil.
- Each pollen forms a tube that grows down through the pistil and reaches
the ovule in the ovary.
- One of the nuclei in the pollen tube unites with the egg nucleus in the
ovule to form a zygote.
- The other sperm nucleus combines with another bigger nucleus in the
ovule which develops into the endosperm.

3. Sexual Reproduction in Humans and Animals

- Humans (and all animals that reproduce sexually) have gonads for the
production of the male and female gametes.
Gonads – an organ that produces gametes; a testis or ovary.
- Gametes are microscopic cells formed during meiosis and come in the form
of sperm (produced by males) or eggs (produced by females).
- Gametes differ in form and structure.
- When conditions are right, sperm and egg unite in a process known as
fertilization.
- The resulting fertilized egg, or zygote, contains genes from both parents.

2 Methods Fertilization
1. External fertilization – usually occurs in aquatic animals
2. Internal fertilization – specialized structures transport the sperm into
the egg within the body of the female.

 Sexual reproduction gives rise to offspring that are a combination of the traits from
its parents. Thus, the offspring differ genetically from their parents and their
siblings. These genetic differences help to ensure the survival of the species in
changing environmental conditions.

III. COMPARISON OF ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

In asexual reproduction, a single organism is the sole parent and the offspring is
genetically identical to the parent.

In sexual reproduction, two parents produce offspring that have unique combinations of
genes. Offspring of sexual reproduction differ genetically from their siblings and
both parents.