MODULE 3

Content

Coagulation aided sedimentation- Jar Test, chemical feeding, flash mixing,

Clarriflocculators.
Filtration: mechanism -theory of filtration, types of filters, slow sand, rapid sand and
pressure filters including construction, operation, cleaning. Operational problems in filters.
Design of slow and rapid sand filter without under drainage system.

JAR TEST
Laboratory testing for determining optimum dosage of coagulant quantities
The best coagulant dose is first determined in laboratory and then adjusted by actual
observations at the treatment plant. The use of optimum amount of coagulant is indicated by
the formation of large feathery flakes. The common test performed to determine the optimum
dosage of coagulant in laboratory is known as JAR TEST. This method allows adjustments in
pH, variations in coagulant, alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different coagulant types,
on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale treatment operation.
JAR TEST APPARATUS:
• The apparatus used for this test is as shown in figure below. It involves the use of stirring
device. The stirrer consists of six paddles capable of rotation with the variable speed
between 0 to 100 rpm.
• In the test, 1 litre of sample of the water to be tested is placed in each of the jars or
beakers (usually 6 jars are used, where one jar is control and other 5 jars can have
varying operating conditions which are being tested).
• Different amounts of coagulants are then added to each jar.
• The driving unit is started. The paddles placed inside the jars, and connected with the
driving shaft through vertical stirring rods, are thus made to rotate.
• The contents of the jar are rapidly mixed (60-80 rpm for 1 minute) to disperse the
chemical. Then, they are slowly stirred (30 rpm for 15 minutes) for floc formation; and
then let to settle under quiescent conditions.
• After the stirrer is stopped, the nature and settling characteristics of the floc are observed
and recorded in qualitative terms, such as poor, fair, good, very good or excellent.
• A hazy sample indicates poor coagulation, while proper coagulated water contains floc
that is well formed, with clear liquid between particles.
• The amount of coagulant in the jar which produces a good floc and provides good
turbidity removal with the least amount of coagulant indicates optimum dosage.
• The speed of the paddles and the time of mixing may also be varied for different tests
during determining this optimum dosage.

Figure: Apparatus for Jar Test for determining optimum dosage of coagulant

THE CONSTITUENTS OF A COAGULATION SEDIMENTATION PLANT

The coagulation sedimentation plant/ coagulation plant/ clariflocculator contain 4 units:
1. Feeding device;
2. Mixing device or mixing basin;
3. Flocculation tank or flocculator;
4. Settling or sedimentation tank.
A clariflocculator containing all these 4 units is shown in the figure below.

• Here, the chemical coagulant is fed (either dry or in solution form) into the raw water
through feeding device.
• This mixture is then thoroughly mixed and agitated in mixing basin.
• The floc, thus formed due to the chemical reaction taking place in the mixing basin, is
then allowed to consolidate in the flocculation tank.
• The flocculated water is finally passed into the sedimentation tank where these
flocculated particles settle down and be removed.
 • The resultant water of low turbidity can be taken out through the outlet of the
sedimentation tank, directly to the rapid gravity filters.
This complete process may help in removing turbidities up to 10-20 mg/l. Also, help in
reducing the bacteria from the water and reduce B-coli index by 70% or so.
Now, let us look at each of these units in detail.
1. FEEDING DEVICES:
• The chemical coagulant may be fed into the raw water either in a powdered form (Dry
feeding) or in a solution form (Wet Feeding).
• Wet feeding equipments are costlier than dry feeding equipments, but advantage is that
wet feeding devices can be easily controlled and adjusted.
• The choice between these two types depends on the following factors:
1. The characteristics of the coagulant and the convenience with which it can be applied.
Chemicals which clog or which are non-uniform in composition cannot be fed by dry
feeding. Eg., Alum is fairly fine and uniform in size and can be fed easily by dry
feeding, but copperas may give trouble in dry feeding, because the water of
crystallization present in it, may change with temperature, thereby turning it into a
solid or a sticky mass.
2. The amount of the coagulant to be used. This is an important factor in choosing the
type of feeding arrangement. Eg., if the dose of the coagulant is very small, then for
reasons of accuracy, it must be fed in a solution form.
3. Cost of the coagulant and the size of the plant. In a plant which uses large amounts of
coagulant,the chemicals should be purchased in its cheapest form and the plant should
be equipped to use the chemical in that form. The cost of feeding machine is,
therefore, less important as compared to the cost of the coagulant in a large plant.
Whereas, if the plant is small, the cpst of feeding equipment may become the
governing factor, and in that case, the chemicals may be purchased in dry form,
because dry fed machines are cheaper.
The wet feeding machines in addition require making and preparing solutions of required
strength, and to keep them available when needed. Thus, sufficient watch and ward staff is
required, which is easily available at a large plant.
Hence, large plants usually use wet feeding devices and smaller plants utilise dry feeding,
unless objected by the characteristics of the coagulant.

Types of feeding devices:

1. Dry feeding devices:
The common devices used for dry feeding of coagulants are shown in figures below:
 Figure: Dry feeding Devices. (a) With a toothed wheel (b) with a helical screw

• These devices are in a form of a tank with a hopper bottom.

• Agitating plates are kept inside the tank to prevent the arching of the coagulant.
• The coagulant in powdered form is filled in the tank, and is allowed to fall in the
mixing basin.
• Its dose is regulated by the speed of a toothed wheel or a helical screw, which is in
turn controlled by connecting it to a venture-device installed in the raw water pipes
bringing water to the mixing basin.
• The quantity of the coagulant released is thus controlled in proportion to the quantity
of the raw water entering the mixing tank.
2. Wet feeding devices:
• Here, a solution of required strength of coagulant is prepared and stored in a tank,
from where it is allowed to trickle down into the mixing tank through an outlet.
• The level of coagulant solution in the coagulant feeding tank is maintained constant
by means of float controlled valve. This is to ensure a constant rate of discharge for a
certain fixed rate of raw water flow in the mixing basin.
• When the rate of inflow of raw water changes, the rate of outflow of coagulant must
also change.
• In order to make these two flows in proportion to each other, a ‘conical plug type
arrangement’ can be used. It is shown in the figure below.
❖ Working of conical plug type arrangement:
• The mixing basin and the float chamber are interconnected together, so that the water level
remains the same in both of them.
• As the flow of raw water increases, the depth of water, and therefore, its level increases in
the mixing tank.
• Correspondingly the water level in the float chamber increases and thereby, lifting the
float of the float chamber.
• As the float rises, the pinion and pulley rotates in the same direction, thereby lifting the
conical plug & allowing more quantity of coagulant solution to fall down into the mixing
basin.
• When the flow of water decreases, the conical plug descends down and allows the feeding
to continue at a lower rate.
• The constant head coagulant feeding tank, thus, automatically controls the dose of
coagulant.

2. MIXING DEVICES: After addition of the coagulant to the raw water, the mixture is
thoroughly and vigorously mixed, so that the coagulant gets fully dispersed into the entire
mass of water. This violent agitation of the water can be achieved by mixing devices such as
centrifugal pumps, compressed air, mixing basins etc. Out of these mixing devices are most
important and normally adopted.
Mixing basins equipped with mechanical devices
Flash mixer
▪ The mechanically agitated mixing basins provide the best type of mixing.
▪ The chemical added to raw water is vigorously mixed and agitated by FLASH MIXER
for its rapid dispersion in raw water.
▪ The water is then transferred to a flocculation tank provided with a slow mixer.
▪ Mixing involves high degree of turbulence and power dissipation.
▪ A mixing basin provided with a flash mixer is shown in the figure below.

• The flash mixer consists of a rectangular tank which is provided with an impeller fixed to
an impeller shaft. The impeller is driven by an electric motor, and it revolves at a high
speed inside the tank.
• The coagulant is brought by the coagulant pipe and is discharged just under the rotating
fan.
• The raw water is separately brought from the inlet end, and is deflected towards the
moving impeller by a deflecting wall; the thoroughly mixed water is taken out from the
outlet end.
• A drain valve is also provided to remove the sludge from the bottom of flash mixer.
• The impeller’s speed is kept between 100 – 120 rpm, and detention period is 0.5 – 2
minutes.
• Power required in flash mixing may vary from 2 to 5 kW/m3/minute
• Power input is expressed in terms of temporal mean velocity gradient , G’, expressed by
the equation:
 1/2
𝑃
𝐺′ = [ ]
µ. 𝑉
Where, G’= velocity gradient (per second)
P= power dissipated in watts i.e., N.m/s
µ= absolute or dynamic viscosity of raw water in Ns/m2
V= volume of raw water to which P is applied, in m3
For rapid mixing, the product G’T (unit less) should be 30,000 to 60,000, where T is the
detention period or mixing period, usually 60-120seconds.

3. FLOCCULATION TANK OR FLOCCULATOR:

• Best floc will form when the mixture of water and coagulant are violently agitated
followed by a relatively slow and gentle stirring to permit build up and
agglomeration of the floc particles.
• The water is taken from the mixing basin to a flocculation tank called flocculator,
where it is given slow stirring motion,
• Rectangular tanks fitted with paddles operated by electric motors can best serve this
purpose.
• A typical flocculator fitted with slowly moving paddles is shown in figure below.

• The water coming out from the flocculator is taken to the sedimentation tank.
• The paddles usually rotate at a speed of 2 – 3 rpm and detention period ranges from
20 – 60 minutes ( 30 minutes as normal value) and velocity gradient (G’) ranges
between 20 to 80 s-1
• The clear distance between the paddles and the wall or the floor is about 15 – 30 cm.

4. SEDIMENTATION TANK:
 • The function, design and other details are same as a plain sedimentation tank.
• Only difference is that, here, a lower value of detention period (say about 2 to 4
hours) is sufficient.
• Also, higher value of surface loading (or the overflow rate) varying between 24 – 30
m3/d/m2 of plan area is generally permitted.
COMBINED COAGULATION-CUM-SEDIMENTATION TANKS

• It has been possible to combine flocculation tank along with sedimentation tank, as shown
in figure above, such a tank is known as coagulation sedimentation tank.
• In such a tank, a plain floc chamber without any mechanical devices is provided before the
water enters the sedimentation chamber.
• The detention period for the floc chamber is kept about 15 to 40 minutes, and that for the
settling tank, at about 2 to 4 hours. The depth in the floc chamber may be kept about half
that of in the settling chamber,
• The water from the mixing basin enters this tank, and the clarified water comes out of the
outlet end, the design principles for such a tank are the same as those applied to a plain
sedimentation tank except that these are kept deeper. A depth varying from 3 to 6 m is
generally provided. They may be cleaned at intervals of about 6 months or so.
Production of sludge in the coagulation –Sedimentation Process:
Dewatering and disposal of sludge from water treatment:

Wet or watery sludge is produced in a water treatment plant in the following units:
1. Sedimentation-flocculation tank or Clariflocculator
2. Filters
• The sludge obtained from above units were discharged into rivers in the past, but with
the increase in pollution of river waters, advanced methods for disposing of these wastes
have been adopted.
• They are sometimes disposed of by ponding in artificial or natural lagoons, which are
constructed by excavation or enclosing an area by dikes. Lagoons provide a popular,
acceptable and economical method for dewatering, thickening, and temporary storage of
waste sludge, provided sufficient open land is available in the vicinity of the plant.
• Sand drying beds are sometimes constructed for temporary storage of wet sludge, to
allow its filtration through the beds of sand and gravel, to effect dewatering by gravity
drainage.
• Gravity thickeners, high speed centrifuges, pressure filters are other methods which can
be used for above purpose.
• The dewatered sludge is finally disposed of either by incineration or by burial in
trenches.
FILTRATION
THEORY OF FILTRATION
FILTER MATERIALS:
SLOW SAND FILTERS
-
RAPID SAND FILTERS
Note: Operational problems of filters include
1. Air binding
2. Formation of mud balls
3. Cracking of filters