Power Series:

What is a Power Series?

➢ A function can be represented exactly by an infinite series called a power series
➢ If x is a variable, then an infinite series of the form
∞
∑ an xn = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 xn + · · · + an xn + · · · is called a ​power series.
n=0
➢ Power series can be centered around any constant, c, and are generally of the form
∞
∑ an (x − c)n = a0 + a1 (x − c) + a2 (x − c)2 + a3 (x − c)n + · · · + an (x − c)n + · · ·
n=0
➢ The higher the degree of the last term of the power series, the larger the interval over
which the series will represent the function

Power Series Models of Sine

The red line represents the actual function sin(x) while the other lines are power series used to
approximate the behavior of the function. The higher the degree of the last term of the power
series, the longer it “holds on to” sin(x).

Convergence of a Power Series

For a power series centered at ​c​, precisely one of the following is true.
1. The series converges only at ​c​.
2. There exists a real number ​R > 0​ such that the series converges absolutely for |x − c| < R ,
and diverges for |x − c| > R .
3. The series converges absolutely for all x.
Radius of Convergence
➢ R​ is the radius of convergence of the power series.

If the series converges at... The radius of convergence is...

c R=0

x R= ∞

➢ The set of all values of x for which the power series converges is the ​interval of
convergence ​of the power series.

Radius of Convergence

How do we find the Radius of Convergence?

➢ Perform either the root test or the ratio test on the series (whichever is easier)
➢ Remember that for both tests, the series converges when the result is <1, so you should
set up an inequality where the result of whichever test you did is <1.
➢ Solve for your x value.

How do we find the Interval of Convergence?

The Radius of Convergence is not enough to determine what the interval is for which a series
converges. To find the Interval of Convergence you must:
➢ Test the endpoints of the radius by plugging them into the series
➢ Determine the convergence of each series
➢ If a series using a given endpoint diverges, then the interval is open on that endpoint; if
the series converges using a given endpoint, then the interval is closed on that endpoint
 Taylor Polynomials
➢ A Taylor Polynomial is any polynomial that can be used to represent a function as the
summation of an infinite number of terms.
➢ Taylor Polynomials are calculated using the formula
∞
f (n) (c)
f (x) = ∑ n! (x − c)n
n=0
f ′′(c) f ′′′(c) f (n) (c)
= f (c) + f ′(c) + 2! (x − c)2 + 3! (x − c)3 + ... + n! (x − c)n
where c is the point around which the function is centered. If the function is centered at
c=0, then the function is a Maclaurin Series.

Maclaurin Series
➢ A Maclaurin series is a special type of Taylor Polynomial that is centered at 0. Because
of this, the general formula for a Maclaurin series is
∞
f (n) (0) n
f (x) = ∑ n! (x)
n=0
➢ There are several Maclaurin series that you should know by heart. Those include:

∞
1
1−x = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ... + xn = ∑ xn
n=0
∞
1
1+x = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + ... + (− 1)n xn = ∑ (− 1)n xn
n=0
∞
x2 x3 xn xn
ex = 1 + x + 2! + 3! + ... + n! = ∑ n!
n=0
∞
x3 x5 x7
1)n (2n+1)!
x2n+1
= ∑ (− 1)n (2n+1)!
2n+1
x
sin(x) = x − 3! + 5! − 7! + ... + (−
n=0
∞
x2 x4 x6
+ ... + (− 1)n (2n)! = ∑ (− 1)n (2n)!
2n 2n
x x
cos(x) = 1 − 2! + 4! − 6!
n=0
∞
x2 x3 x4
+ ... + (− 1)n−1 xn = ∑ (− 1)n−1 xn
n n
ln(1 + x) = x − 2 + 3 − 4
n=1
∞
tan−1 (x) = x − x3 x5 x7
+ ... + (− 1)n 2n+1 = ∑ (− 1)n 2n+1
2n+1 2n+1
x x
3 + 5 − 7
n=0