Education in Developing Countries-Senior Project

Running head: EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 1
Maximizing the Positive Effects of Public Education in Developing Countries
Bethany I. Hansel
Instructor: Gregory Falls
Global Studies and World Languages Academy at Tallwood High School
December 17, 2018

EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 2
Table of Contents
Abstract 3
Introduction 4
Limitations 5
Literature Review 8
Discussion 7
References 8
Abstract
Quality education is a key component of a country’s development. Unfortunately, across
the globe today, 265 million children are out of school and 617 million still lack basic literacy
and numeracy skills, meaning that education’s potential to advance development is severely
being held back. This is an issue that must be addressed in order to achieve the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals, as quality education is a fundamental necessity for achieving
nearly all other Development Goals. This paper will discuss the proven positive effects that
quality education has on a country’s political, social, and economic development and then move
into outlining the many different issues that are holding these effects back from taking their full
force, whether that be through the denial of basic access to millions of children, the lack of actual
learning that goes on within the public schools of developing countries, among many others. This
paper will also highlight some possible solutions to these issues in order to showcase to
policymakers and benefactors where investment and changes would be most beneficial in order
to improve the education of these countries and thus catalyze their political, social, and economic
development.
Keywords: Education, developing countries, development

Introduction
The United Nations cites quality education as the “foundation to creating sustainable
development” (Quality Education, n.d., para. 1) through increasing the political, economic, and
social development in developing countries. However, education must be utilized in an effective
manner in order to promote the desired outcomes in developing countries. As hundreds of
millions of children in developing countries across the world have been left behind in obtaining
access to education for the past number of decades, many countries have attempted to resolve
this problem by focusing on simply providing access to an educational building or teacher to
students, but have failed to ensure that students are actually receiving a quality education and are
being adequately prepared for higher education and the workforce (Brookings Institution, 2011).
Even despite the efforts put in to increase attendance, 265 million children to this day remain out
of school and 617 million youth lack basic literacy and numeracy skills (United Nations, n.d.).
Furthermore, millions of students each year drop out of school--approximately 42 percent of
students across sub-Saharan Africa and 33 percent of students in southern and western
Asia--contributing to a major dropout crisis that undermines all the potential benefits students
could reap from staying in school (Knofczynski, 2017). These are some of the primary reasons
that developing countries remain in a perpetual state of poverty, corruption, inefficiency, and
conflict, and these issues also in turn feed the primary issues that education--one of the most
essential solutions to these matters--faces, creating a vicious cycle. Entitled the “Learning Crisis”
(World Bank, 2017) and the “Education Crisis” (Brookings Institution, 2011), these are issues
that plague many developing countries and significantly hinder their social, economic, and
political development. To address these issues, there have been many studies to examine what
sort of policies, programs, and practices in the public schools of developing countries are most
effective in increasing attendance, performance, learning, and future success of students. Though
results of various studies may differ by area or be limited to one area and may not be credibly
generalized to all developing nations (Null, Cosentino, Sridharan, Meyer, 2017), it is important
to analyze various pieces of research and consider them with the desired region’s cultural,
economic, political, and environmental factors to conclude if the studies might be effectively
extended. As this paper will seek to discover how education in developing countries can be
improved, it will first look at the studies that found all the positive effects that education has
been proven to have, and then proceed to discuss the main issues that hinder these benefits and
propose solutions to these issues so that the positive effects that education has may be
maximized, and public schools in developing countries can reach their full potential in acting as
a primary contributor to the social, economic, and political development of countries. In order to
encourage their overall political, social, and economic development through public education,
developing countries ought to invest further in providing students with resources such as free and
nutritious meals, toilets and technology, offer small scholarships to students who do well and
Conditional Cash Transfers to families, encourage families to send their girls to school, as well
as some more minor additional practices that help make a significant difference in communities.
Limitations
Boundaries of Research
This paper, though pulling marginally from some research done in developed countries,
will be limited to focusing on public education in developing countries, particularly in

Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, as this is where most research exists. This paper will not discuss
private school education in developing countries and will take on the assumption that public
school education is one of the most important areas to study because many families in poverty
cannot afford to send their children to private school and thus need the public education system
to be effective in preparing children to pull themselves out of poverty. This paper will primarily
utilize information and identify solutions that are applicable to nearly all developing countries,
though some information will only be applicable to countries under certain conditions or with
certain prevailing issues; however, any more specific solutions will be identified as such, and the
paper will also discuss country-specific considerations that must be taken into account when
looking to improve public education in developing countries globally. Lastly, research will be
concentrated on issues and solutions addressed to primary and secondary schools in developing
countries, and will not look at postsecondary or pre-primary education at all.
Amount of Available Research
The author of this paper had to primarily synthesize the available research on the topic of
public education in developing countries, because only approximately three months were given
to complete research and the author could not conduct any of her own studies to test various
hypotheses and methods to increase the efficiency and success of public schools in developing
countries. Because of this, the author was limited to the research available to her and was
restricted by the lack of adequate and extensive research on certain topics and hypotheses. While
there are a number theories that have been put out into the academic world on various policies,
programs, and practices in education in developing countries, many have insufficient research to
back it up or have not been replicated in multiple countries and therefore cannot safely be
generalized to all developing countries. There has also been a great deal of research done on
specific classroom practices and programs in developed countries, but a lot of this research has
not been replicated in developing countries. Finally, despite the innumerable positive effects that
education has on individuals and societies that could be covered, author limited her research to
only those which are hindered by issues
Personal Bias
Although education is one of the most studied areas of development, most of those
conducting and financing the research on education hold strong opinions on the virtues of
education and fundamentally believe that education is a critical key to development, as well as
have their own ideas about how it should best be conducted, and will thus often conduct research
that might not properly account for causal relationships or have sound methodology, simply
because they have biases that cause them to look for specific results (Kristof & WuDunn, 2009).
Despite all efforts to be as objective as possible, the author of this paper holds some of these
same biases and is approaching this paper from the perspective that education is instrumental in
development and ought to be treated as one of the primary tools to encourage development. The
author acknowledges and will briefly explore the various cultural considerations that must be
taken into account when looking at improving education in developing countries, as well as the
anti-western sentiment that is prevalent in many developing countries, but this paper will
nonetheless be approached from a largely unavoidably western perspective on education and
cultural values that may inadvertently be included, as the author has spent many years living in
the United States and participating in a western education system. However, on the flip side, the
author spent her first ten years of life attending a public primary school in a developing country
in the Middle East, and thus holds some of her own opinions and biases about the educational
systems in such developing countries. However, the author did not attend a public secondary
school in a developing country and instead attended one in the United States, so she lacks that
specific experience in understanding secondary school in developing countries and has certain
biases resulting from attending a privileged secondary school.
Literature Review
In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly the Convention on the Rights of the
Child, which called on every country to enact legislation that would reduce all barriers to
children attending and staying in school (Heymann, Sprague, Savage, 2015). Although 194
countries ratified this document, agreeing to adhere to its demands, ten percent of these 194
countries do not have free and compulsory primary education, and nearly a quarter do not have
free and compulsory secondary education (Heymann, Sprague, Savage, 2015). Fees pose a
significant barrier to children attending school, as many families are too impoverished to be able
to afford the fees, and these fees and the lack of compulsory education laws suggest to the public
that the government does not consider equitable and accessible education, or even education in
general, to be important.
In Africa, the concept of free and universal education came from the colonial era, when
many colonizers restricted Africans’ access to education and segregated and provided them with
unequal educational systems. Upon the independence of many African countries, therefore,
Africans recognized the significance of equitable and quality education, and governments thus
invested heavily in trying to provide this for their citizens (Fleshman, 2010). However, the lack
of economic development in African nations has made it difficult for governments to actually go
about providing this (Fleshman, 2010).
For the international community, education was not considered a factor of development
until around the 1960s, as all the focus was on GDP growth, technological advancement and
industrialization rate, and improvements in living standards (Hezel, 1974). In developing
countries, education was typically seen as merely a luxury for those who could afford it, and not
a necessity that would catalyze a country’s overall social, economic, and political development
(Hezel, 1974). In the 1960s, however, more intensive research on economics and development
were occuring, and there was a discovery that a country’s economy can be rapidly growing and
not necessarily be benefiting the majority of people in that country (Wickstead, 2015). This was
when development theory began shifting to focus on other development indicators as well, as
economists were discovering that there was a strong correlation between education and
economic, social, and political development in a country, which were new important areas of
development that focus was being shifted toward (Hezel, 1974). As education as a development
factor arose, there was a divergence in theories about how just how this worked (Hezel, 1974).
Economists disagreed over whether merely a primary education was substantial in boosting
economic growth, whether higher education was the most important factor, or whether simply
general literacy was most important (Hezel, 1974). Regardless, the world saw a several changes
in how the international community treated education and development. Because development
thought was previously so centered around GDP and economics, most foreign aid was allocated
toward stimulating economic growth through funding factories and industries (Hezel, 1974).
However,
More modernally, a country’s level of development is thought to be much more than
economics, though economics still play a crucial role. Development is most popularly split into
three sectors: social development, economic development, and political development. Social
development includes factors such as birth and death rates, infant and maternal mortality, people
per doctor, literacy rate, life expectancy, and the like (Types of Development, n.d.). Economic
development still encompasses most of the same factors, such as Gross Domestic Product and
Gross National Product (Types of Development, n.d.). Political development is an essential
portion of development that refers to the political systems and freedoms afforded by a country,
and can be examined through the Corruption Perception Index, the Human Freedom Index, and
more (Types of Development, n.d.).
In 1990, the United Nations launched the Education for All movement to “bring the
benefits of education to every citizen in every society” (World Bank, 2014, para. 1). Some
specific goals of this initiative included ensuring that all children gain access to a quality free and
compulsory primary education, expanding and improving early childhood care, achieving a 50
percent improvement rate in adult literacy, equitable access to higher education for adults,
achieving gender equality in education, and ensuring the mastery of essential literacy, numeracy
and life skills, all with a special focus on marginalized and oppressed groups, and all by 2015
(World Bank, 2014). Today, although considerable improvements have been made, it is clear
that these goals have still not been entirely met.
Discussion
Proven Effects of Quality Education on Individuals and Developing Countries
Social development.
Health and mortality. Education has a proven effect on the health and mortality rates of a
population. Mass education of individuals in a country is an accepted commonplace tactic to
increase the overall health and decrease the mortality rate of a population. UNESCO (2014)
calculated that if all women in a population had a primary education, child mortality would
decrease by 15 percent, a number which dramatically increases to a 49 percent reduction if all
women in a population had a secondary education.
An educated mother is 23 percent more likely to give birth in the hospital with the help of
a skilled birth attendant (UNESCO, 2014), which reduces and the probability of her infant
surviving childbirth increases by five to ten percent for each additional year of schooling their
mother has (UNESCO, 2010). That mother, with even a primary education, will have a 66
percent less chance of dying during pregnancy or childbirth (UNESCO, 2014). The children will
also then lead healthier lives, as their mothers are much more likely to employ healthier practices
with their children, such as getting them vaccinated (UNESCO, 2010) and providing them with
better nutrition and sanitation (UNESCO, 2014), and will be 50 percent more likely to survive
past the age of 5 (UNESCO, 2010).
More years of schooling also reduces the risk of disease. Pneumonia--the leading cause of
child deaths in the world as of 2014--has a death rate that decreases by 14 percent with every
extra year of schooling that maternal education increases by on average in a country (UNESCO
2014). Diarrhoea--the third largest cause of child deaths in the world as of 2014--would decrease
in occurence overall by 30 percent if all women in a population had a secondary education, and
the death rate would subsequently decrease dramatically as well (UNESCO, 2014). Another one
of the world’s deadliest diseases, malaria, has been proven to decrease in prevalence by 22 to 36
percent in children depending on the level of education their mother had received, and
preventative measures against malaria were seen to increase by 75 percent if the head of the
household had received even a primary education (UNESCO, 2014). The HIV/AIDS epidemic
has had a rapid decline that can also be attributed to education. The better-educated in
developing countries have been seen to be much less likely to be infected with HIV/AIDS, and
the HIV prevalence in a country has been seen to decrease by over 15 percent in 13 years when
75 percent of women in a population had completed at least a lower secondary education
(UNESCO, 2014).
The better-educated are also less likely to engage in more risky behaviors that could
compromise their health or life. Education reduces the likelihood of dangerous sexual behavior,
and empowers women to take more control over their sexual lives, thus reducing many of the
issues that come with irresponsible sexual behavior, such as unplanned pregnancy, unsafe
abortions, sexually transmitted diseases, and so forth (UNESCO 2014). Several studies have
proven that schooling that includes proper sexual education reduces the amount of sexual activity
individuals engage in, significantly postpones the initiation of sex, and significantly increases the
use of contraceptives (Dei Jnr, 2016). Education has also been proven to discourage smoking, a
practice that has significantly contributed to the massive rise of lung cancer and other subsequent
health issues (UNESCO, 2014). The Global Adult Tobacco Survey found that in Bangladesh,
Egypt, and the Philippines, individuals with less than a secondary education were twice as likely
to smoke than those with a tertiary education (UNESCO, 2014).
Those in poverty who are without access to a quality education are also more at risk for a
myriad of mental health disorders which significantly hinder their ability to work to bring
themselves up out of poverty and function in society. Parents with low education are less likely
to seek help for their children with psychiatric disorders, both due to their lack of knowledge on
the subject and available resources that could help, as well as a lack of income to afford
psychiatric care that can directly be attributed to lower education levels (Patel & Kleinman,
2003). Furthermore, lower education level have been associated with general feelings of
hopelessness in life, leading to individuals losing motivation to seek out further educational and
career prospects and further entrapping them of a cycle of unproductivity and mental turmoil
(Patel & Kleinman, 2013). A quality education grants individuals direction, and a chance at and
hope for the future, thus combatting many of the mental and emotional disorders that those
without quality education often suffer from.
As a result of the aforementioned effects, developed countries in which access to quality
education is commonplace often have a higher average life expectancy than developing
countries. Average life expectancy in developing countries is typically about 11 years shorter
than the life expectancies in developed countries (Inderscience, 2016).
Population. The rate at which a country’s population is increasing or decreasing is
indicative of the level of development of that country and thus the average educational
attainment of individuals in that country. Typically, because of such high birth rates, more
impoverished countries have populations that are rapidly increasing, which consequently places
more economic, political, and social burdens on the country and its inhabitants. Birth rates are
often much higher in developing countries than in developed countries due to the fact that those
in poverty often have much less ability or knowledge to decrease the number of children they
have. Every additional year of primary education has been found to lead a girl to have .26 fewer
children (Osili, Long, 2007) which will in turn allow families to move up out of poverty, as they
will have less children to take care of and spend money and time on.
Economically.
Poverty. Education is the key to ending poverty across the globe. More years of quality
education have been proven to have a strong positive impact on individual life chances. Access
to education combats illiteracy, which in turn encourages children to pursue more schooling and
will thus fight poverty by increasing their chances of getting a job and making money to support
themselves and their families. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) stated that if all low-income students achieved even basic reading
skills, world poverty could be cut by 12% and lift 171 million people out of poverty (UNESCO,
2010). Education’s impact on literacy and relevant skills is substantial, and UNESCO stated that
each additional year of schooling a student receives will on average increase their earnings by 10
percent (UNESCO, 2014). Higher earnings subsequently allow individuals to provide for their
families and end the cycle of chronic poverty, creating a better life for future generations to come
(UNESCO 2014). On average, each additional year of education that an individual receives is
associated with a 10 percent increase in their wage earnings (UNESCO, 2014, p. 3).
Higher levels of education, particularly at least a lower secondary school education,
across the board decreases the likelihood of individuals and their families of being in poverty. In
Vietnam, for example, households which have a head that has at least a lower secondary
education were 24 percent less likely to be in poverty, with large percentage increases being
associated with the greater the number of years of schooling received (UNESCO, 2014). When
one generation receives higher levels of education, the next generation is much more likely to
receive higher levels of education as well, thus breaking the chronic cycle of poverty and
increasinging the overall development of a country over time.
GDP. A country’s gross domestic product (GDP) refers to the value of all the goods and
services being produced within a country over a given period of time, and is a valuable indicator
of a country’s economic status and level of development. Education has broad impacts beyond
individual’s lives; higher average levels of education in a country have been associated with a
resulting increase in a country’s GDP. Studies have concluded that the cognitive skills of a
country’s students that result from a quality education serve as a key predictor of GDP growth
(Null, Cosentino, Sridharan, & Meyer 2017). Furthermore, the World Bank has stated that when
student reading and math scores increase by one standard deviation, GDP has an associated
increase of two percentage points (Tarnoff, 2016).
Politically.
martya Sen (2013) argues that the definition of development, when being
Freedom. A
limited to GDP and other such narrow indicators of development, is not nearly as useful as
examining development holistically, specifically by determining to what extent individuals have
the freedom and capability to fully develop and exercise their capabilities as they please. The
Human Freedom Index is a measure of political development because it looks at how individuals
in a society are able to exercise their freedoms of speech, assembly, religion, and such, as well as
the ability of various groups to exercise their rights equally (Types of Development, n.d.).
Overall levels of freedom are generally much higher in countries where there are higher average
levels of education among citizens. The freedom to associate and assemble peacefully, for
example, is increased within a country when average education levels are higher within that
country (Vasquez & Porcnik, 2017). Higher levels of education also result in citizens’
increasingly self-reporting feelings of freedom and happiness, feeling that they can trust their
peers and their government officials, (Kaffenberger, 2012).
Research has also proven that education grants individuals a sense of autonomy and
personal freedom (Van Hiel, Van Assche, De Cremer, Onraet, Bostyn, Haesevoets, & Roets,
2018). Countries with low levels of education tend to “endorse a more closed, conservative
worldview with an emphasis on traditional values and economic and physical security,” while
countries with higher levels of education “endorse a more open-minded, liberal worldview,
emphasizing freedom, individualization and self-expression” (Van Hiel, Van Assche, De
Cremer, Onraet, Bostyn, Haesevoets, & Roets, 2018).
Civic and political engagement. Education increases the probability that an individual
will exercise more of their political rights and be actively engaged in their society. Individuals
who lack an effective education may be legally prevented from participating in government and
society through literacy requirements, or they might simply be excluded because lack of literacy
and legal knowledge prevents them from understanding their legal rights (Torpey-Saboe, 2018).
Aside from these sorts of barriers, higher education levels have been proven to increase civic and
political engagement among citizens (Kaffenberger, 2012). More educated citizens are more
likely to vote and more likely to volunteer their time and give back to their communities, and
overall have an increased tendency to display good citizenship and carry out their civic duties
(Kaffenberger, 2012). Those with higher levels of education are also less likely to participate in
criminal behavior and are more likely to behave in safe and legal manners (Kaffenberger, 2012).
Additionally, several studies have found that higher average levels of education in a country are
strongly associated with lower levels of corruption among individuals in the country
(Kaffenberger, 2012).
Problems and Solutions
All the available evidence has led to the indisputable conclusion that education has
immense benefits not just on individuals, but on entire communities and nations, and is the
ultimate key to peace and development. However, one must be wary of looking at these pieces of
evidence and statistics and thinking that education is the end-all solution to all the issues that
plague the globe. Many issues and flaws still exist within the educational systems of developing
countries across the world, and these issues are hindering the benefits of education, halting them,
or even sending them in retrograde.
Access.
The issue. Today, 265 million school-aged children are not attending school (Quality
Education, n.d.). Reasons for this are varied and often complex and thus must be examined from
multiple perspectives and be combated with a diverse array of solutions.
lack of infrastructure and staff in developing countries means that many

Distance. A
students have to travel incredibly long distances to attend school. This poses a major barrier to
many children and is one of the primary deterrents to children attending school. Glennerster,
Kremer, Mbiti, & Takavarasha (2011) in examining Kenya as a case study, found that there were
over 26,000 primary schools in Kenya, but only approximately 6,500 secondary schools that the
primary schools fed into. The significant lack of secondary schools d eters enrollment and
attendance, as the lack of infrastructure suggests that secondary education is not as important as
primary education, and also means that schools are further spread out and further away from
households, making it difficult for students to travel long distances to get to school. The distance
also poses a danger to some children. In Bangladesh, for instance, children run the risk of being
abducted and sold while simply on their way to school (The Guardian, 2016).
Fees. For families in poverty, it is much more difficult to send children to school. Many
public schools in developing countries have fees associated with attending due to a lack of
available funding for schools from the government. Many families often cannot afford the fees
that come with public education, thus acting as a deterrent for students attending. In 2013, the
transition rate for girls entering secondary school from primary school was 32 percent in
Tanzania, compared to the 62 percent across sub-Saharan, which was likely due to the fees
associated with attending secondary school in Tanzania (BBC, 2013).
Because school is so expensive in some regions, families sometimes have to engage in
dangerous, illegal, or excessive work simply in order to afford the education that will grant their
children an opportunity to escape the poverty that they are stuck in. In a documentary by The
Guardian (2016) about a brothel village in Bangladesh, a mom explains that she is stuck doing
sex work because it is the only way she can afford to send her daughter to school. School fees, in
addition to simply barring students from being able to attend school, place a great deal of extra
burdens on students’ families that should not be placed on families that are already struggling.
ften, families in poverty will send their children to work in order to bring
Child labor. O
in extra income for the family. In 2016, 152 million children were child laborers, and 36 million
children aged 5 to 14 were not attending school at all due to work (International Labor Office,
2017). However, despite only being 32 percent of all working children in that age group, the
children that are working that do still manage to attend school face their own set of obstacles in
relation to their education (International Labor Office, 2017). Working children who also attend
school often perform much lower in school because of the physical, emotional, and mental toll
that working takes on them, and due to the fact that they do not have as much time to study and
complete assignments outside of school as their non-working peers (International Labor Office,
2017).
ater is a necessary element to life. Unfortunately, millions of people across the

Water. W
globe struggle to obtain this basic life necessity. I n sub-Saharan Africa, 319 million people
struggle with access to water, and have to walk for miles every single day to obtain water for
themselves and their families (Reid, 2017). The task of travelling to and collecting water falls
generally to women and children, who have to walk an average of 3.7 miles a day, and
sometimes much farther (Reid, 2017). This lack of access to water and the significant time that
obtaining water takes up acts as a barrier to children’s education, as they are often unable to
attend school or miss significant amounts of school because they have to spend so much time
gaining access to their basic life necessities (The Water Project, n.d).
Besides the travel time that eating up time that could be spent in school, lack of clean and
safe water provides additional costs that directly affect a child’s education. Unsanitary water can
causes diseases and infections that cause students to miss school or at the very least affect their
concentration and mental ability, thus causing them to perform worse (The Water Project, n.d.).
Health. I nhabitants of developing countries often suffer innumerable health issues as a
result of poor sanitation, lack of adequate medical care Poor nutrition results in a host of
serious issues that directly contribute to a lack of educational success in learning. Without proper
nutrition, children become stunted developmentally, which numerous studies have shown
decreased behavioral development, school enrollment, educational attainment, and cognitive
abilities (Prendergast & Humphrey 2014).
Zinc is a natural, essential mineral found in high amounts in meats, beans, nuts, whole
grains, and some dairy products (National Institutes of Health, 2018). Zinc deficiency is quite
common in developing countries, mainly because diets in developing countries are typically
more plant-based and thus do not contain sufficient amounts of zinc (Gibson, 2006). Zinc
deficiency commonly causes growth and development retardation, loss of appetite, increased
susceptibility to diseases, weight loss, delayed healing of wounds, mental lethargy, and much
more (National Institutes of Health, 2018). Not only is this an issue that affects the day-to-day
lives and well-being of many individuals in developing countries, but has a direct effect on
education and students’ ability to attend and focus in school, thus impeding the progress of
overall development in developing countries.
A lack of iodine for a child in the first trimester can decrease that child’s IQ by 10 to 15
points, which can risk hindering a child’s later performance in school and thus their ability to
excel (Kristof & WuDunn, 2009). In 2007, 118 countries were recognized as having a
significant iodine-deficiency problem (Kapil, 2007), however, that number has dropped to 54
countries as a result of salt iodization programs (World Health Organization, 2018).
Solutions.
Providing free meals. In a speech to the 2016 Global Child Nutrition Forum, Ertharin
Cousin--the World Food Programme’s Executive Director--stated that “school meals still too
often represent the only meal a hungry child receives.” The significance of healthy, substantial
meals in growing, school-aged children cannot be understated. In developing countries,

undernutrition and malnutrition are rampant issues that significantly affect a child’s ability to
learn and even show up to school. Providing students with free meals at school grants excellent
opportunity to address some other pressing issues in developing countries that affect a country’s
education and its overall potential for development. Due to the widespread issue of malnutrition
across developing countries and its tremendous potential consequences on education and a
country’s development, schools ought to provide students at school with free, nutritious meals at
school. Providing students at school with meals provides an ideal opportunity to address some of
the other nutritional issues that many children in developing countries face that affect their health
and thus their access to school and ability to learn.
The World Health Organization (2018) called Iodine Deficiency Disorders the world’s
“most prevalent, yet easily preventable, cause of brain damage” (World Health Organization,
2018, para. 1). Salt iodization is the official recommendation of the World Health Organization
to combat iodine deficiency disorders (World Health Organization, 2013). Salt iodization is an
incredibly effective but underutilized and overlooked solution to an extremely prevalent and
pressing issue. It costs only about 50 cents per capsule of iodized oil (Kristof & WuDunn,
2009).
ransparency International (2010), in its overview of corruption

Eliminating fees. T
pertaining to education in Africa in 2010, brought light to the issue that many public schools in
developing countries, such as those in sub-Saharan Africa, have in the past required tuition fees
in order for children to be allowed to attend school. Because these tuition fees served as an
enormous barrier to many children’s access to education, many governments in the past number
of years have made the decision to abolish these tuition fees in order to increase attendance rates
in schools (Transparency International, 2010). Although this has served as an effective means of
increasing attendance and should thus be replicated in areas that still require tuition fees, the
eliminating of tuition fees has not always equated to the elimination of the extra costs of
textbooks, uniforms, and other school materials (Transparency International, 2010). These fees
continue to burden many impoverished families and act as a yet another barrier to receiving
education. (Transparency International, 2010).
The number of primary school attendants in Kenya increased by 2 million after the
abolition of school fees, and the primary school completion rate jumped from 62.8 percent in
2002 to 76.2 percent in 2004 for the same reason (Fleshman, 2010). Burundi, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mozambique, and many other countries also
experienced explosive growth in enrollment and major decreases in the drop-out rates after
eliminating school fees (Fleshman, 2010). Enrollment in primary school in sub-Saharan Africa
increased by 42 percent after these countries eliminated their school fees (Fleshman, 2010). As
the elimination of fees has had a proven significant positive effect on the number of students
enrolled in and completing school, the other countries that lag behind this reform or that still
require certain fees in other regards need to eliminate these fees.
Deworming. I ntestinal parasitic infections are extremely prevalent in developing
countries across the world, affecting an estimated 3.5 billion people globally and causing death
in approximately 450 million people (Tyoalumun, Abubaker & Christopher, 2016, para. 5). The
issue affects mostly schoolchildren, particularly those under five years of age, as they typically
play in the dirt frequently and engage in a great deal of hand-mouth and uncontrolled fecal
activities and have very underdeveloped and susceptible immune systems (Tyoalumun,
Abubaker, Christopher, 2016, para. 5). Contraction of an intestinal parasitic infection can occur
from eating undercooked meat from a contaminated animal, drinking contaminated water,
consuming contaminated soil, coming into contact with contaminated feces, and simply having
poor sanitation and hygiene (What Are Intestinal Worms, n.d., para. 3) “Records show that a
global estimate of 162 million under-five years old children are documented to be stunted, 99
million underweight and 51 million wasted” (Tyoalumun, Abubaker, Christopher, 2016, para. 5).
The contraction of an intestinal parasitic infection is an extremely dangerous and critical,
pressing issue, for being host to an intestinal worm “can depress appetite and food intake,
compete for micronutrients,” and can result in “blood loss resulting in the loss of iron, diarrhea,
vomiting, dehydration, weight loss and growth retardation, fever, school attendance, physical
activity and cognitive performance of school age children” (Tyoalumun, Abubaker, Christopher,
2016, para. 5), and can “weaken the body’s immunological response to other infections”
(Deworming to increase school attendance, n.d., para. 2). Infected children often “become too
sick to attend school or too tired to concentrate in class” (Deworming to increase school
attendance, 2017, para. 2).
Due to the substantial impact that intestinal parasitic infections have on school-aged
children and their school attendance and physical and cognitive ability, resources must be
provided within schools to combat this problem. Deworming is a convenient, inexpensive, and
effective strategy for increasing student attendance in schools and boosting the overall health,
wellbeing, and productivity of a country, subsequently helping lift nations out of poverty. In
developing countries, where the average income is relatively low and many barriers in addition
to high costs exist in dissuading or preventing people from going to see a doctor to test and
diagnose them, it makes the most sense to allow institutions like public schools to periodically
administer oral deworming drugs to all attendees (Deworming to increase school attendance,
n.d., para. 2). The World Health Organization has made strong recommendations for preventive
chemotherapy, or deworming, which is the “periodic large-scale administration of anthelminthic
medicines to populations at risk” (Deworming in children, 2018, n.p.).
Intestinal parasitic infections are extremely preventable and easily treatable, requiring a
mere one or two tablets a year that causes children to expel worms through the nose, mouth, or
through stools (Treating Worms in Children, n.d., n.p.). Additionally, these infections are
incredibly inexpensive to treat. It costs a mere 50 cents to deworm a child, making it one of the
most cost-effective ways to increase school attendance (Kristoff, WuDunn, 2009) and risk no
harm to those without the infection (Deworming to increase school attendance, 2017). A study in
Kenya found that school-based deworming decreased intestinal parasitic infections by 61 percent
and decreased school absenteeism by a quarter (Kremer, Miguel, 2004). Evidence of the
immense benefits of school-based deworming has even launched many campaigns for similar
practices to be implemented in many other developing countries across Africa and Asia
(Deworming to increase school attendance, n.d.).
Conditional Cash Transfers. Conditional Cash Transfers have been proven to be an
immensely effective and beneficial measure to increase school attendance and student health.
Conditional Cash Transfers are when low-income households receive money from the
government as long as the family adheres to certain conditions, such as keeping their children in
school (Null, Cosentino, Sridharan, & Meyer, 2017). In 1997, the federal government of Mexico
launched a “large-scale poverty alleviation program” called PROGRESA (Leroy, Garcia-Guerra,

Garcia, Dominguez, Rivera, Neufeld, 2008, para. 3), but changed its name to Oportunidades in
2002 (Mexico’s Oportunidades Program, n.d., p. 1). Through the Oportunidades program,
families receive a monthly cash transfer as long as children maintain a regular attendance at
school, receive immunizations, receive growth monitoring for the children aged 0 to 5, attend
regular health care visits and more (Leroy, Garcia-Guerra, Garcia, Dominguez, River, &
Neufeld, 2008). Those involved in the program that are aged 15 and older are also required to
attend monthly meetings regarding educational topics such as health, hygiene, and nutrition
(Leroy, Garcia-Guerra, Garcia, Dominguez, River, & Neufeld, 2008). Failure to keep up with the
requirements put forth by the Oportunidades program results in disenrollment from the program
(Leroy, Garcia-Guerra, Garcia, Dominguez, River, & Neufeld, 2008), which encourages families
to continue sending their children to school and keeping them healthy. Scholarships are also
offered to students in the program conditional upon adherence to the requirements of the
program, with girls and those in higher grade levels receiving more scholarship money (Leroy,
Garcia-Guerra, Garcia, Dominguez, River, & Neufeld, 2008), as girls are typically less likely to
attend school and dropping out at higher grade levels is common. Another important facet of the
program is that the cash transfers are given directly to the female heads of households, as a
means to encourage the empowerment of women as well as a result of the belief that women can
generally be trusted to utilize the money more effectively and efficiently to address the needs of
the family (Leroy, Garcia-Guerra, Garcia, Dominguez, River, & Neufeld, 2008). The program
combines both health and educational requirements, as the program was built upon the
foundational philosophy that health and education are the primary and most important
contributors to poverty alleviation and a country’s development, and that good health increases
educational opportunity and attainment (Leroy, Garcia-Guerra, Garcia, Dominguez, River, &
Neufeld, 2008).
Mexico’s Oportunidades program has become a model of incredible effectivity and
success for other developing countries at promoting individual and country development and
increasing school attendance, and has since been replicated in countries throughout Latin
America, Asia, and the Middle East (Null, Cosentino, Sridharan, & Meyer, 2017). Conditional
Cash Transfers provide an incentive to families to perform actions and receive information that is
extremely beneficial to households and ultimately to the greater community. Conditional Cash
Transfers are also an effective solution to the issue of child labor, as they provide a win-win
situation for impoverished families who previously would have had to send their children to
work instead of or in addition to sending them to school to receive an education. These families,
now being paid to send their children to school, do not have to worry about the loss of income
that sending their children to school might cost them, and can allow their children to receive an
education that will provide that child with greater opportunities to lift themselves and their
families out of poverty.
Providing transportation. Because schools are often just much too far away for students
to walk to, students often simply just don’t go to school. Developing countries often don’t have
transportation for their students to use to get to school, so students are stuck walking, and the
distance is just too much of a deterrence. Girls suffer the effects of this issue much more (Null,
Cosentino, Sridharan, & Meyer, 2017). Girls are much less likely to walk greater distances and
are at a much higher risk of being abducted while on their way to school (Null, Cosentino,
Sridharan, & Meyer, 2017). This is why it is so important that governments or organizations
provide transportation to their students to and from school. Research has found that providing
transportation increases the rate of children in school as well as decreases the gender gap in
schools (Null, Cosentino, Sridharan, & Meyer, 2017). The state of Bihar, India, found that
providing bicycles to girls who enrolled in grade nine reduced the gender gap by 40 percent
(Null, Cosentino, Sridharan, & Meyer, 2017)
Learning.
The issue. 617 million youth across the world lack basic literacy and numeracy skills and
even more are behind their target proficiency level for their grade and age (Quality Education,
n.d.), a waste of about $129 billion a year (UN News, 2014). Seema Bansal, who heads social
impact and development practice at the Boston Consulting Group’s office in India, stated in a
TED Talk that by the time kids in India are 11 years old, they have “fallen so far behind in their
education that they have no hope to recover” (Bansal, 2016). A study on the “global learning
crisis” published in the Journal of Economic Perspectives gave light to the pervasiveness of the
problem by explaining that four out of five students in Mozambique and Nigeria could not read
basic English and Portuguese words after more than three years of taking the languages at school
(Bold, Filmer, Martin, Molina, Stacy, Rockmore, Svensson, Wane, 2017). Only 25 percent of
fourth-grade students in India were found to be capable of completing basic second-grade work
(Bold, Filmer, Martin, Molina, Stacy, Rockmore, Svensson, Wane, 2017). The same study found
that approximately half the students in Uganda could not place numbers between 0 and 999 in
order after three years of taking math (Bold, Filmer, Martin, Molina, Stacy, Rockmore,
Svensson, Wane, 2017). Filmer (2014) found that a mere 25 percent of students in Ghana and
South Africa who participated in the 2011 Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) met the proficiency criteria. Because students are learning so little, many
students see school as a waste of time, therefore dropping out and contributing to the global
dropout crisis (Mirchandani, Muralidharan, 2015).
Education in developed countries, particularly in the Western world, has begun making
its move towards a more creativity-based, group-based, and project-based curriculum in order to
improve learning outcomes in students. Developing countries linger behind by continuing to rely
on old and inefficient methods of teaching that center around rote memorization (Bansal, 2016).
Seema Bansal, who heads social impact and development practice at the Boston Consulting
Group’s office in India, explained in a Ted Talk about the failing education system in India that
India, like many other developing countries, has focused so heavily in the past number of years
on providing access to education by constructing school buildings and providing various
incentives for families to send their children to school that countries have neglected to place any
focus on improving the learning outcomes of students (Bansal, 2016). While improving access to
education is indisputably a crucial first step for developing countries, many countries have
stopped there and are failing to make any strives toward actually improving the learning
outcomes of their students.
Education does not do much good to a population if those attending are not learning and
thus gaining anything. While higher levels of education are associated with an increase in job
wages, higher reading levels are associated with significantly higher wages than simply an
ineffective education grants (UNESCO, 2014). A study focused on improving secondary
education in developing countries concluded that “the cognitive skills of a country’s students are
a key predictor of GDP growth” (Null, Cosentino, Sridharan, & Meyer, 2017, p. 2). In India,
many families opt to not send their children to public schools and instead pay a great deal of
money to send their children to expensive private schools, simply because they know how
ineffective the public schools are (Bansal, 2016). However, this is a luxury that many do not
have, as they do not have the money to afford sending their children to a private school. This
further reinforces and increases the gap between social and economic classes, as those who are
impoverished and underprivileged will not have the opportunities to receive an education that
grant them the surplus of benefits an effective education is meant to, and will entrap them in the
same cycle of poverty while those with money and privilege will continue to thrive and move up
the social and economic ladder.
Solutions.
Smaller class sizes. As a result of the United Nations’ 2015 development goal to provide
Universal Primary Education, attendance in schools and thus the Pupil to Teacher Ratio have
increased dramatically over the past number of years, thus making it so “teachers in the system
had to deal with over-crowded classrooms, more teaching periods, and more non-teaching
activities among other emerging requirements, associated with the expansion” (Evans, Yuan,
2018, p. 7). This does not even take into account the fact that “teachers have to manage classes
of 74 pupils on average” (Evans, Yuan, 2018, p. 7). Classes of such sizes, particularly at younger
ages, is in no way productive and beneficial for students’ learning. Larger class sizes mean that
teachers cannot give as much time and attention to individual students and attend to each of their
needs and meet individuals at the undoubtedly varying levels each student is at. There is a large
body of literature that supports the assertion that smaller class size increase student learning and
performance, such as Angrist and Lavy’s (1999) rigorous evaluation of the proposition in Israel.
However, these conclusions are somewhat dubious in developing countries, in part because little
rigorous research on the matter has been conducted in developing countries and in part because
those that have been conducted have mostly found that the effect the decrease had was often
small relative to other solutions (Jepsen, 2015). Therefore, while the solution ought to be given
careful consideration, other solutions ought to be taken into consideration in addition to
decreasing class sizes, as other solutions can be just as, if not more effective in bringing forth the
desired results, and they can often be at a much lower cost.
Tracking and ability-grouping. It is not always practical or possible for schools in
developing countries to reduce their class sizes as might be ideal, however, schools can instead
employ a method known as “tracking,” which groups students by their ability level in classes
(Null, Cosentino, Sridharan, & Meyer, 2017). Research on this method in developed countries is
extensive and is utilized widely throughout the developed world, but little focus has been given
to employing this method in developing countries--which could greatly stand to reap the
potential benefits of this system. Tracking allows teachers to plan instruction and assignments
differently for each individual class, making it more catered to each group of students’ needs
(Duflo, Esther, Dupas, & Kremer, 2011). Duflo, Esther, Dupas, and Kremer (2011) found that
tracking in the public schools of Kenya had a significant positive effect on student performance.
Those implementing tracking in the public schools of developing countries must be wary
of some of the issues that have arose with tracking in developed nations, and must take
precautions to not make the same mistakes. Classes that consist of students on “lower tracks”
have been ridiculed for not giving students a proper and serious education, for essentially
wasting students’ time, and for sticking students in boxes that don’t allow them to believe they
have the same chances at a future that students on “higher tracks” have (Campo, 2017).
Furthermore, tracking can cause issues with inequity and discrimination against minority
students (Lavrijsen & Nicaise, 2015). Studies have found that employing tracking later in
students’ academic career helps eliminate inequity in student background (Lavrijsen & Nicaise,
2015). Schools in developing countries need to take precautions against committing these same
blunders by providing students in all tracks an equitable education that grants all students equal
opportunities to succeed and is simply based around moving at a pace that is right for the
students of that group and giving them the individual help and attention they need to succeed, not
around believing in the superiority and potential of one group over another. This is not only
morally right, but what developing countries truly need to prosper developmentally, as they need
to utilize every possible resource they have in their aid and not overlook any group of people.
Categorizing people comes with its dangers, but if schools are taught to view this method as a
way of helping students who are simply different, and not better or worse, then the
implementation of this practice could have tremendous benefits on both individual students and
their overall communities.
Technology. The use of technology in schools holds innumerable opportunities and
benefits for students and staff alike. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) offer
teacher training and support, educational content, distance learning, digital literacy and skills
development, research activities, communication opportunities and so much more (World Bank,
2018). The correct usage of technology allows students to learn at their own pace (World Bank,
2018) and have individually customized lessons and activities (Null, Cosentino, Sridharan,
Meyer, 2017), both of which provide immense benefits to the student and their potential for
improved learning and performance outcomes, as they would not be receiving the same level of
individualized attention and pacing as with a more standard classroom experience. However,
technology should not replace teachers in the classroom, but instead enhance the learning
experience by providing certain opportunities that would not otherwise be available with only a
teacher (World Bank, 2018).
A study in India conducted on low-income middle school students to test the effects of an
after-school, technology-led instructional program on student learning and performance was
found to have extremely significant positive effects on student performance on math and Hindi
tests (Muralidharan, Singh, & Ganimian, 2018). Not only has technology been proven to boost
learning and performance outcomes in students, but technology-related skills are essential
commodities in the modern labor market and increasingly-digitized world, making the
implementation of technology an excellent idea for schools in developing countries.
Violence.
Violence and conflict exist in developing countries as both a barrier to education and as a
result of poor, non-inclusive and culturally-insensitive education. The number of children
enrolled in secondary school is approximately 30 percent lower in conflict-affected countries
than in non-conflict-affected countries, and disproportionately affects girls in these countries
(The Hidden Crisis, 2011). The conflicts in Afghanistan and Mozambique have been found to
have decreased the average student’s years of schooling by over five years (The Hidden Crisis,
2011).
iolence and conflict are one of the main issues that keep children
Violence as a barrier. V
out of school (Brookings Institution, 2011). UNICEF Chief of Education Josephine Bourne
stated in a press release that education is most critical in times of war (UNICEF, 2017), however,
conflict is one of the primary causes of out-of-school children, having driven over 27 million
children out of school in conflict-ridden areas (Education Uprooted, 2017). These areas, despite
only holding 20 percent of the world’s primary-aged children, hold 50 percent of the world’s
out-of-school children (Fixing the Broken Promise of Education for All, 2015). UNESCO (2011)
points out that it is conflict-ridden nations that are the ones that so consistently appear at the
bottom of the list of nations that are progressing in education and thus overall development. The
immediate, visible effects of violence and conflict in developing countries are often given a great
deal of attention, but its consequences go much deeper and are not given the same necessary
attention; particularly in regards to education, as violence destroys not just school infrastructure,
but also “the hopes and ambitions of a whole generation of children” (The Hidden Crisis, 2011,
p. 131).
Furthermore, violence and conflict and their effect on educational opportunities
disproportionately affect already-marginalized and oppressed groups. Those in poverty are much
more likely to be affected by violent crime and conflict and thus much more likely to lose an
average of several years of schooling as a result (The Hidden Crisis, 2011). Girls are also at a
significant disadvantage, with impoverished girls in conflict-ridden areas receiving the lowest
levels of education of all (The Hidden Crisis, 2011), and are 2.5 times more likely to drop out of
school as a result of conflict than boys (UNICEF, 2017). Marginalized ethnic and racial groups
in developing countries are also significantly negatively impacted by violence and conflict and
have been found to have lost several years of education as a result as well (The Hidden Crisis,
2011).
Violence as a result. Education plays a complex but critical role in the catalystation of
violence versus peacebuilding. The Global Partnership for Education (2017) cites education as
“central to peacebuilding” and explains that when education is “equitably available, of good
quality, relevant and conflict sensitive, education can help promote peace and provide safe
environments.” It is also warned, however, that when education does not meet this criteria, and
“is characterized with exclusion and inequity,” that it has the potential to exacerbate conflict
(Global Partnership for Education, 2017, para. 6).
Distribution and violence. Education is recognized throughout the world as a valued
commodity, which is why in countries where there are severe conflicts between groups, the
denial of education is often used as a weapon of war in order to “advance the interests of one
group at the expense of others” (Bush, Saltarelli, 2000, p. 9). When certain groups are excluded
from educational opportunities, for one reason or another, members of these groups will begin to
feel a deep sense of injustice that often manifests itself into anger and violence (The Hidden
Crisis, 2011).
Curricula. What is being taught and how it is being taught also plays a significant role in
the promotion of peace versus violence. Schools have the opportunity to “foster attitudes based
on mutual respect, shared interests and common values,” which thus aids in “underpin[ing]
social cohesion in culturally diverse societies” (The Hidden Crisis, 2011). However, when
schools are “unresponsive to the social, cultural and linguistic concerns of indigenous people or
ethnic minorities,” schools are “likely to be seen not as centres of expanded opportunity, but as
vehicles for domination,” thus worsening tensions and fostering more violence, hatred, and
exacerbating people’s differences (The Hidden Crisis, 2011). There is evidence towards a
positive association between ethnic diversity within a country and the amount of violence within
that country, as evidenced by the violent ethnic conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq,
Rwanda, and Sri Lanka (The Hidden Crisis, 2011). In these countries, it is more critical than ever
that schools focus on tending to these conflicts by providing sensitive and comprehensive
curricula.
In many countries that were historically colonized, not only have the countries been
stunted developmentally and riddled with internal conflict as a result, but are continuously
having conflict being exacerbated even after decolonization through eurocentric and
culturally-insensitive curriculums that fail to give native peoples the proper attention and
sensitivity to their culture and history (Bush, Saltarelli, 2000). Colonialism stripped many
nations of their cultural identity and postcolonialism has furthered this distance by erasing
peoples’ rich histories from school curricula (Woolman, 2001).
“The curriculum and education services should be designed in such a way that they are
culturally and economically relevant to local contexts, with a special focus on minorities,
nomadic and other mobile communities, while at the same time developing alternative education
opportunities for marginalized and at-risk adolescents and youth” (The Role of Education in
Promoting Peace, 2017, para. 12)
The history curricula in many developing countries can become a source conflict among
groups. Wars and conflict often take a prominent position in history, leading to the population’s
acceptance of violence as a legitimate expression of power and as a solution to issues (The Two
Faces of Education in Ethnic Conflict, 2000). The focus on violence and war also fails to foster a
culture of peace, empathy, and tolerance, which is critical to the development potential of a
country.
Scholars have determined that there are three phases that draw people into violent
extremism: the alienation phase, the radicalization phase, and the violence phase (UNDP 2016).
This is an important concept to understand and take into consideration when looking at education
as a possible trigger for conflict and violence, as education can both advertently and
inadvertently act as an exclusionary and discriminatory measure that sets off the subsequent
chain of phases, ultimately leading to violent conflict.
How it can be combated.
Inclusion of arts programs in schools. Arts programs in the schools of developing
countries are often put on the backburner to core subjects, even in countries where arts programs
are a required portion of the curriculum.
The third goal presented at the Second World Conference on Arts Education in 2010 was
to “apply arts education principles and practices to resolving the social and cultural challenges
facing today’s world” (UNESCO, 2010, p. 8). Art is a great way to foster empathy and peace,
and schools are oftentimes the best environment for students to receive empathy development
opportunities, as they may not have good role models to learn from at home or may simply not
have adequate opportunities to learn about and exercise empathy (Krznaric, 2008).
In 2018, Edwar Calderón, a Colombian academic at the University of Edinburgh, came
up with the idea to create an artistic workshop in one of Colombia’s most impoverished, most
marginalized, and most conflict-ridden regions with the hope of preventing youth from joining
gangs and participating in violence by creating a fun and creative environment in which people
of different backgrounds and from rival groups could get to know each other and work together
(Grattan, 2018). The program was incredibly successful (Grattan, 2018), and serves as an
excellent illustration of just how impactful arts programs can be. One young participant in the
program explained that the dance group he and his friends had joined through the program was
the only source of recreation they had, as they did not have any nearby community centers,
sports fields, or anywhere to carry out any sort of recreational activities, and that having a
recreational outlet was keeping many youth like him and his friends off the streets and keeping
them from engaging in violent crime (Grattan, 2018).
Educating women. There has been a proven correlation between the education and
empowerment levels of women and the amount of violence and terrorism that occurs
domestically within a country, as well as transnationally. Strongly patriarchal societies generally
have high levels of violence. Some security experts have brought light to the fact that countries
in which terrorists are most prevalent are those in which women are most marginalized and
oppressed (Kristof & WuDunn, 2009).
Barriers to girls’ education.
omen are a vital and underutilized resource for boosting the social, political,
The issue. W
and economic development of countries. Lawrence Summers, the former Chief Economist of the
World Bank, stated that investing in girls’ education is one of the highest-return investments in
the developing world (Kristoff, WuDunn, 2009). Girls are often worse affected by issues such as
violence that affect all children, however, girls also face a unique set of barriers that prevent
them from regularly attending school.

enstruation is a difficult topic to examine in developing countries, as the

Menstruation. M
topic is often viewed as shameful and is heavily stigmatized, and, somewhat as a result of this,
menstruation has not been looked at a great deal in relation to education and a lack of solid
evidence is available. Girls in developing countries will often simply stay home while
menstruating, (Kristof & WuDunn, 2009). Evidence suggests that girls in developing countries
miss as much as 10 to 20 percent of school days due to menstruation (Poverty Action Lab, 2011)
In Uganda, a study found that only about 10 percent of girls had had access to a sanitary pad at
some point, and that most simply used old rags to manage their periods (Montgomery,
Hennegan, Dolan, Wu, Steinfield, & Scott, 2016).
Marriage. An estimated 650 million girls around the world are child brides and this
number increases by approximately 12 million each year (UNICEF, 2018) Often, families in
poverty feel that they do not have any financially feasible choice except to marry off their
daughters at a young age (Brookings Institution, 2011). For families in poverty, marrying their
daughters off can prove economically beneficial to the families, as not only will they have one
less mouth to feed (Bayisenge, 2010), but the joining of two families through marriage usually
results in a dowry to the girl’s family. However, estimations suggest that ending child marriage
would generate $500 billion in benefits each year (World Bank, 2017).
Pregnancy and STIs. Many girls end up dropping out of school as a result of pregnancy
or the contraction of STIs. Girls often have to make long journeys to school each day, and these
journeys can prove extremely dangerous to these girls, as there have been many reports of rape
while on these journeys (Pearson, 2011).

Not only does pregnancy and the contraction of STIs lead girls to drop out of school after
they have happened, but act as a deterrence from coming to school at all. In Haiti, 27 percent of
girls under 18 years old who had reported being offered money for sex said that schools were the
most common place for the solicitation (World Bank, 2017). Furthermore, a lack of proper
resources at school prevents girls from attending school. According to the Water Project (2018),
if schools do not have proper toilets, girls tend to drop out of school once they reach puberty.
Low self-esteem. A major survey conducted in Tanzania and Zimbabwe found that after
poverty-related issues, low academic self-esteem was the most reported reason among girls for
dropping out of school (Lake, 2016). Curricula in developing countries are often not targeted at
girls, particularly girls in poverty, and many girls will often thus feel a sense of inadequacy and
exclusion that contributes to their low levels of academic self-esteem, which in turn leads to
lower academic performance, and ultimately often leads to them dropping out (Lake, 2016).
Solutions.
roper and comprehensive sexual education is key to promoting the

Sex Education. P
sexual health of young girls and eliminating unwanted or excessive pregnancies that encourage
poverty on the individual and national level.
omen in developing countries are often oppressed in

Teaching Women’s Rights. W
numerous and severe ways. The Afghan Institute of Learning, an Afghan Non-governmental
Organization that focuses primarily on empowering women through education, provides women
with opportunities to take “literacy courses and skills courses and stand up to abuse directed
against them or others.” (Afghan Institute of Learning, n.d.). Without appropriate schooling,
women most often do not have the knowledge and skills to stand up for themselves if being
oppressed (Kristoff, WuDunn, 2009), but educational institutions can provide women with the
necessary knowledge and skills to stand up against injustice and subsequently stop the systemic
oppression of women in many countries. For example, a common issue in Islamic countries is
that men use the Koran to justify treating women inequitably, but with an education, women in
Islamic countries have been taught passages from the Koran that they would most likely not have
otherwise heard of, and can point these passages out to their husbands or relatives that call for
the respectful treatment of women (Kristoff, WuDunn, 2009).
irls in schools need extra support because of the extra major barriers and
Support. G
difficulties they go through not only to get to school, but in their everyday lives as females in
developing countries that often marginalize and oppress females.
Learner Guides are a concept invented by the Campaign for Female Education (Camfed),
and are alumnae from schools that volunteer to return and act as a mentor to young girls in the
school in order to help them handle obstacles they might face and to keep them from dropping
out of school (Campaign for Female Education, n.d). This program, as of 2016, was
implemented in 5,300 schools and reached 4 million children (Lake, 2016). The program
provides essential support and opportunities that students would otherwise not typically be
receiving in school or at all. At the very least, the basic concept behind the Camfed Learner
Guides program ought to be implemented in the schools of developing countries throughout the
world, as emotional and general life support are vital to children, particularly impoverished
children who face incredible and various obstacles every day, and will lessen the likelihood of
these children dropping out of school.

Teachers. In 2006, a study conducted in Bangladesh, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Peru,
and Uganda found that an average of 44 percent of teachers were absent at any given time from
their classes across the studied countries, leaving many students without any teacher to teach
them (Bold, Filmer, Martin, Molina, Stacy, Rockmore, Svensson, & Wane, 2017). “In
low-income countries, substitutes rarely replace absent teachers, and so students simply mill
around, go home or join another class, often of a different grade,” and approximately 12 percent
of the observed times in the more rural areas of developing countries, schools were “closed
entirely as a result of provider absence” (Chaudhury, Hammer, Kremer, Muralidharan and
Rogers, 2006, p. 6). Teachers of higher status and more experience, and thus those that are more
qualified to teach and more likely to have better effects on their students, were significantly more
likely to be absent on any given day (Chaudhury, Hammer, Kremer, Muralidharan and Rogers,
2006). Teacher absenteeism undeniably significantly reduces the amount of instruction time that
students receive, and to make matters worse, the amount of instruction time that students in
developing countries receive is already abysmally low. The 2006 study found that “only 45
percent of teachers assigned to a school are engaged in teaching activity at any given point in
time,” and even those “teaching activities” were defined loosely and often included nothing more
than keeping a general control over the class (Chaudhury, Hammer, Kremer, Muralidharan &
Rogers, 2006).
For the teachers that are teaching, however, some other problems have been found to be
present. The first step for teachers to effectively encourage student learning is for teachers to be
knowledgeable about the subjects they are teaching. However, evidence has found that this isn’t
the case A study of teachers in Sub-Saharan Africa found that when teachers were told to grade
tests of the content they were supposed to be teaching, only 7 percent of teachers were able to
mark at least 80 percent of the test correctly (Bold, Filmer, Martin, Molina, Stacy, Rockmore,
Svensson, & Wane, 2017).
Solutions.
Scheduling. “ Fewer than 30 percent of schools in the sample had more teachers than
classes, and the school schedule is therefore typically designed so that teachers and students have
breaks at the same time, rather than with teachers having certain periods off to prepare, as in
most schools in developed countries” (Chaudhury, Hammer, Kremer, Muralidharan and Rogers,
2006, p. 6). A schedule structure in which teachers have certain periods off, similar to those of
many developing countries, ought thus to be implemented in developing countries in order to
actually provide teachers with the necessary time to prepare for classes.
Improving school conditions. I n thinking that perhaps school conditions had an effect on
teacher absenteeism, a study in India found that the availability of a toilet, covered classrooms,
non-dirt floors, electricity, and a school library was associated with a 10 percent decrease in
teacher absenteeism (Chaudhury, Hammer, Kremer, Muralidharan & Rogers, 2006).
Less responsibilities. Aside from the issue of teacher absenteeism, limited staff and
resources in the public schools of developing countries paves way for a myriad of other problems
for the teachers that actually do show up. One of the primary issues teachers face in their work
environments is that they are tasked with so many responsibilities that they simply do not have
the time to carry out their basic teaching duties (Bansal, 2016). “Some argue that teacher absence
is high in South Asia because governments pull teachers out of school to carry out duties such as
voter registration, election oversight and public health campaigns” (Chaudhury, Hammer,
Kremer, Muralidharan and Rogers, 2006, p. 11).
Pay. While on average, teachers in developing countries earn more relative to teachers in
developed countries (Sandefur, 2018), teachers in many developing countries, such as in rural
areas of Colombia (Warner, 2018) and in parts of Africa (Mungai, 2015), get paid very little or
even not at all. Many African teachers earn two to four dollars a day and have to support an
average of five dependants (Mungai, 2015). Lack of sufficient pay also results in teachers not
being able to afford decent and adequate amounts of food for themselves, creating hungry,
unmotivated, and irritable teachers. Over one third of teachers in Ghana, Sierra Leone, and
Zambia who participated in a survey stated that teachers in their respective schools didn’t get
enough to eat on any given day (Mungai, 2015). Sufficient pay not only provides a necessary
incentive for teachers to show up and actually teach, but also provides them with means to
support their own basic needs that will ultimately impact their motivation to show up and teach
as best as they can. For many of these teachers, an increase in wages may serve as at least part of
an effective solution to increasing teacher motivation and performance.
However, for many other teachers across the developing world, many research studies
have found that increased wages for teachers do not have the impact that would be expected on
teacher absenteeism rates, teacher pedagogy, or student performance. Researchers in Indonesia
conducted a study that doubled existing teachers’ salaries to evaluate their effect on teacher
performance, and the raise was found to have no effect (Ree, Muralidharan, Pradhan, & Rogers,
2015). Based on this evidence, some researchers have sought out other ways to increase
teacher motivation.
vidence suggests that the hiring of teachers on short-term

Short-term teaching contracts. E
contracts that are subject to renewal by the community is an effective strategy for keeping
motivated and successful teachers. In Kenya, an Extra Teacher program was established, in
which The Extra Teacher program teachers were 12 percent more likely to be found teaching
when randomly observed, and were 28 percent more likely to be actually present in class than
civil-service teachers, which are teachers that are hired by the government and paid with
taxpayer money (Duflo, Dupas, & Kremer, 2014). Approximately one third of civil-service
teachers in Kenya were hired as a result of nepotism and were less qualified than other
candidates (Duflo, Dupas, & Kremer, 2014). Additionally, contract teachers who performed well
and had positive student outcomes were more likely to be hired as civil-servant teachers, thus
renewing and creating a better cycle in which the teachers who are hired are actually qualified
and motivated, and would subsequently boost the entire educational system and attainment of its
students (Duflo, Dupas, & Kremer, 2014).
Outdated and Inconsistent Curricula. The Africa America Institute (2015) cited
outdated curricula and pedagogy as an increasingly major concern regarding education in Africa,
stating that schools are subsequently not preparing students to successfully transition into the
workforce like they should be. Many African schools hold only a few books that are outdated
and from the United States and Europe (Livingston, 2016).
The core curriculum of many schools in developing countries tends to also further
marginalize already-marginalized groups, such as girls and those in poverty, because the
curricula are often irrelevant to these groups as they are aimed at wealthier, urban children
(Lake, 2016).
Creating more relevant curriculums could also potentially help alleviate the drop-out
issue in many developing countries, as students would feel that the education they were receiving
was actually worthwhile and leading them towards something.
Considerations
Cultural Considerations.
Westernization and its rejection.
Boko Haram, an Islamic terrorist group from Nigeria, serves as an effective illustration of
the potential dangers of promoting western-style education in non-western countries. The name
Boko Haram literally derives its name from the meaning “western education is a sin.” The group
gained global attention in 2014 when they abducted 276 Chibok schoolgirls for receiving a
secular, western-style education, which Boko Haram said was corrupting Muslim values (Signe,
2018).
Western nations like the United States place value on a secular education that strays away
from endorsing any one religion. Many western nations as a whole are culturally moving away
from strong religious ties and religion and culture are becoming less intertwined. However, this
is not the case in many developing countries today, and this is an important consideration when
discussing education reform in these countries. For example, as aforementioned when discussing
the empowerment of women through education, the Afghan Institute of Learning teaches women
in Afghanistan the Koran and points them to passages that they can use to combat those who use
the Koran as an excuse to act violently and oppressively, thus serving as an excellent model of
how religion and culture do not have to be sacrificed for an effective education and the
empowerment of women (Afghan Institute of Learning, n.d.).

Political Considerations
Often, the considerations of education in developing countries are entirely
restricted and limited by the government and the political dynamics and policies of the country in
question. However, some studies conducted on the political climate and policies of developing
countries have led to certain conclusions about what sorts of political factors lead to
improvements in education.
Compulsory education laws. In 1989, the UN General Assembly created the Convention
on the Rights of the Child, which called upon every country’s government to help ensure that
every child had access to education by reducing the various barriers to attending and staying in
school, specifically by eliminating fees and enacting compulsory education laws, amongst other
barriers (Heymann, Sprague, & Savage, 2015). While 194 governments ratified the treaty, 10
percent of those countries still do not have free and compulsory education, and 25 percent still
require fees for secondary school (Heymann, Sprague, & Savage, 2015). While governments
often attribute school fees to the low income of the country and the lack of funding for schools,
the messages that governments send to the general population has a large impact as well.
Heymann, Sprague and Savage (2015) explain that though the “fees are affected by country
income,” they are ultimately “driven by political will” and that countries from all levels of
development and income levels have managed to eliminate school fees.
Representation. Representation in government has been found to carry a statistically
significant, positive impact on attendance and performance of those being represented. For
example, in India, a study focused on exploring how cultural norms can improve educational
outcomes found that requiring a quota for the number of females in the rural West Bengal
government was enough to decrease the gender gaps in school enrollment by 6 percent and the
gender performance gap performance by 4 percent (Beaman, Duflo, Pande, & Topalova, 2012).
Similarly, a separate 2013 study of the 16 largest states in India discovered that a 10 percent
increase in the number of women in local politics resulted in nearly a 6 percent in the primary
school completion rates of girls (Burchi, 2013). This method operates similarly when in regards
to minorities and marginalized groups. Developing countries like India, Malaysia, Rwanda,
South Africa, and Iraq have implemented quotas and other such forms of positive discrimination
in their governments to uplift minorities and generally oppressed or disadvantaged groups (Khan,
2015). These policies have helped empower many disadvantaged groups (Khan, 2015), and can
do a great deal to close the educational gaps between groups, as has been proven. This
understanding of the effect that having women in government has on the gender gap in
schools--not even considering the myriad of other positive effects women in government have--is
crucial when developing policy positions for the governments of developing countries. Creating
quotas that ensure increased proportional representation of various groups within a country is
fundamental to any country that wishes to maximize its success, and would be a positive step
forward for the governments of developing countries towards development.
Funding.
One of the principle barriers to improving education in all these developing countries
through the strategies that have been laid out in this paper is a lack of funding. Most developing
countries simply do not have the funds to attend to all these needs and solve all their problems.
Foreign Aid. Foreign aid is one way that developing countries rely on to fund
development efforts such as education. As seen through the extensive research and evidence, one
of the most effective means of combating poverty is by promoting quality education, which is
why aid programs need to make education a centerpiece of their initiatives.
UNESCO (2011) stated that education is the “forgotten sector within an under-resourced
humanitarian aid system” (The Hidden Crisis, 2011, p. 201). Many aid agencies spend all of their
money on immediate crises instead of any long term investments to improve situations such as
through education (UNICEF, 2017). Paul Spiegel, a former senior official at the UN High
Commissioner for Refugees stated that the humanitarian aid system is “broken,” due to the
“Band-Aid approach” that aid agencies still use in an era where it is no longer effective to simply
patch up a problem in the short term (Gharib, 2017). While at least some financial focus should
be placed on short-term relief, aid agencies are currently spending way too much on these
short-term solutions and not enough on the long-term ones.
In 2010, UNICEF’s humanitarian aid requests amounted to US $1.2 billion, of which
only 18% was for education (UNICEF, 2010f). UNHCR’s 2009 Global Appeal requested
US$2.3 billion to finance its activities. Education accounted for only around 3% of UNHCR
funds made available for major programme countries and situations (UNHCR, 2010f). P 205
UNESCO (2010) estimates that as of the spending seen up until 2010, it would take an
additional $16 billion to reach even some of the Education for All goals. Meanwhile, the global
aid spending on basic education in 2008 was only $4.7 billion, while worldwide military
expenditure was $1.5 trillion (UNESCO, 2010).
In 2014, USAID, the Peace Corps, and the Millenium Challenge Corporation accounted
he United States currently

for 92 percent of international educational aid (Tarnoff, 2016) T
spends approximately 33 percent of all its foreign aid investment on military and security-related
matters, including helping allies purchase weapons and other military equipment, training
foreign militaries, counterterrorism efforts, and more (McBride, 2018). Many disapprove of this
amount of spending on militaristic pursuits. Dr. Sakeena Yacoobi, for example, who is the
founder of the Afghan Institute of Learning, states her firm belief that more foreign aid must be
sent towards education in developing countries as opposed to militaristic investment (Kristoff,
WuDunn, 2009).
Economists state that every dollar that is invested in education yields up to a 12 percent
return (Barro & Lee, 2010). “ increases in cognitive skills are strongly correlated with increases
in wages in several developing countries (Hanushek and Woessmann 2008)”
“Aid programmes need to prioritize poverty reduction – not national security goals.
Development assistance has the potential to act as a powerful force for peace and reconstruction,
and to support the recovery of education systems. Realizing that potential will require a far
stronger focus on ‘forgotten conflicts’ and a clearer demarcation line between the national
security goals of donors and the poverty reduction imperative that should define aid
programmes” (The Hidden Crisis, 2011, p. 132).
Because of the critical purpose that education serves and the extreme lack of funding that
is feeding into several of the aforementioned issues within the public education systems of
developing countries, it is imperative that organizations like the United Nations set aside more
money to contribute to aiding the educational sectors of developing countries.
Many aid agencies claim success by focusing their results on the number of individuals
affected instead of on more concrete evidence of success (Riddell & Nino-Zarazua, 2015).
Corruption. One of the primary issues within the funding realm is corruption.
Transparency International, a global nonprofit organization that combats corruption, defines
corruption as the “abuse of entrusted power for private gain” (Transparency International, 2010,
p. 3). In many developing countries, corruption among government officials and other
individuals in power is a major issue, for the funding One of the primary issues with foreign
aid, many have argued, is that so much of the money is often stolen by corrupt government
officials (Powell, 2008).
The degree of accountability in teachers is proportional to the degree of accountability in
public officials (Konte, 2017). Konte (2017) in a study of 33 African countries on the quality of
local governance in Africa and its effect on education resources, found that corrupt behaviour by
local government officials increased the likelihood that schools would lack resources such as
textbooks, teaching materials, and adequate facilities, and would have overcrowded classrooms,
a low quality of teaching, and high levels of teacher absenteeism, all regardless of the amount of
government spending on education.
A study of seven countries in Africa revealed that 44 percent of surveyed parents had
been forced to pay illegal fees for schooling for their children that was legally meant to be free
(Antonowicz, Lesné, Stassen, & Wood, 2010).
Higher levels of corruption have been found to yield lower rates of educational
indicators, such as literacy rate, student-teacher ratios, and enrollment rates across all grade
levels (Kaffenberger, 2012).
Many governments that charge some sort of fees in association with education claim that
the fees are necessary due to the country’s low income, however, approximately half of the
countries that require fees spend less than 4 percent of their GDP on education, which is well
below the global average (Heymann, Sprague, Savage, 2015).
Combating corruption is an important part of ensuring increased funding for schools in
developing countries. Mauro (1996) found that increased spending on education was associated
with lower levels of corruption. Transparency International (2018), in order to combat the
tremendous issue of corruption in the education sectors of developing countries, calls upon
governments to create policies that are “clear and easy to understand” regarding the management
of finance and guidelines on new schools and exam fees and processes, to publish a detailed
account of all budget information in order to monitor how resources are being allocated, to
conduct “regular and external audits” and school inspections, to provide “consistent penalties for
abuses,” not to appoint any teacher without accurate proof of their qualifications and their
experience, to publish and make sure all exam regulations are widely known, and to monitor
grading (Transparency International, 2018, para. 1 & 2).

Conclusion
Education is widely accepted as and proven to be one of the most effective means of
promoting a country’s overall political, economic, and social development. However,
unfortunately, education in developing countries--the countries that could stand to benefit the
most from increased development opportunities through education--face many unique challenges
that keep education from being as effective as it could be in catalyzing development. In order for
issues with poverty, inequity, oppression, and many other similar problems to be eradicated,
quality education must be available to all, and all of the challenges that are keeping this from
being a reality need to be addressed from various approaches. In order to promote social,
political, and economic development, developing countries ought to invest further in providing
students with resources such as free and nutritious meals, toilets and technology, offer small
scholarships to students who do well and Conditional Cash Transfers to families, encourage
families to send their girls to school, as well as some more minor additional practices that help
make a significant difference in communities.

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Running head: EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 1

Maximizing the Positive Effects of Public Education in Developing Countries

Instructor: Gregory Falls

Global Studies and World Languages Academy at Tallwood High School

December 17, 2018

Quality education is a key component of a country’s development. Unfortunately, across

Sustainable Development Goals, as quality education is a fundamental necessity for achieving

Keywords:​ Education, developing countries, development

social development in developing countries. However, education must be utilized in an effective

manner in order to promote the desired outcomes in developing countries. As hundreds of

this problem by focusing on simply providing access to an educational building or teacher to

Furthermore, millions of students each year drop out of school--approximately 42 percent of

will be limited to focusing on public education in developing countries, particularly in

countries, and will not look at postsecondary or pre-primary education at all.

Amount of Available Research

only those which are hindered by issues

nonetheless be approached from a largely unavoidably western perspective on education and

biases resulting from attending a privileged secondary school.

about providing this (Fleshman, 2010).

industrialization rate, and improvements in living standards (Hezel, 1974). In developing

More modernally, a country’s level of development is thought to be much more than

Gross National Product (Types of Development, n.d.). Political development is an essential

more (Types of Development, n.d.).

that these goals have still not been entirely met.

Proven Effects of Quality Education on Individuals and Developing Countries

population. Mass education of individuals in a country is an accepted commonplace tactic to

decrease by 15 percent, a number which dramatically increases to a 49 percent reduction if all

women in a population had a secondary education.

past the age of 5 (UNESCO, 2010).

75 percent of women in a population had completed at least a lower secondary education

to smoke than those with a tertiary education (UNESCO, 2014).

without quality education often suffer from.

As a result of the aforementioned effects, developed countries in which access to quality

than the life expectancies in developed countries (Inderscience, 2016).

Population.​ ​The rate at which a country’s population is increasing or decreasing is

Higher levels of education, particularly at least a lower secondary school education,

increasinging the overall development of a country over time.

increase of two percentage points (Tarnoff, 2016).

examining development holistically, specifically by determining to what extent individuals have

peers and their government officials, (Kaffenberger, 2012).

emphasizing freedom, individualization and self-expression” (Van Hiel, Van Assche, De

Cremer, Onraet, Bostyn, Haesevoets, & Roets, 2018).

Problems and Solutions

or even sending them in retrograde.

multiple perspectives and be combated with a diverse array of solutions.

​ lack of infrastructure and staff in developing countries means that many

associated with attending secondary school in Tanzania (BBC, 2013).

Because school is so expensive in some regions, families sometimes have to engage in

​ ater is a necessary element to life. Unfortunately, millions of people across the

Health. I​ nhabitants of developing countries often suffer innumerable health issues as a

decreased behavioral development, school enrollment, educational attainment, and cognitive

abilities (Prendergast & Humphrey 2014).

overall development in developing countries.

countries as a result of salt iodization programs (World Health Organization, 2018).

meals in growing, school-aged children cannot be understated. In developing countries,

and thus their access to school and ability to learn.

​ ransparency International (2010), in its overview of corruption

education. (Transparency International, 2010).

require certain fees in other regards need to eliminate these fees.

Deworming. I​ ntestinal parasitic infections are extremely prevalent in developing

The contraction of an intestinal parasitic infection is an extremely dangerous and critical,

attendance, 2017, para. 2).

chemotherapy, or deworming, which is the “periodic large-scale administration of anthelminthic

Keywords: Education, developing countries, development

Population. The rate at which a country’s population is increasing or decreasing is

lack of infrastructure and staff in developing countries means that many

ater is a necessary element to life. Unfortunately, millions of people across the

Health. I nhabitants of developing countries often suffer innumerable health issues as a

ransparency International (2010), in its overview of corruption

Deworming. I ntestinal parasitic infections are extremely prevalent in developing

Conditional Cash Transfers. Conditional Cash Transfers have been proven to be an

Technology. The use of technology in schools holds innumerable opportunities and

Distribution and violence. Education is recognized throughout the world as a valued

Inclusion of arts programs in schools. Arts programs in the schools of developing

enstruation is a difficult topic to examine in developing countries, as the

roper and comprehensive sexual education is key to promoting the

omen in developing countries are often oppressed in

vidence suggests that the hiring of teachers on short-term

Representation. Representation in government has been found to carry a statistically

he United States currently