Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

Don Severino de las Alas Campus
Indang, Cavite

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Department of Civil Engineering

“DESIGN FOR ELDERLY DRIVERS AND

SIGNAL TIMING”

CENG 106
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND TRAFFIC SAFETY

April 18, 2019

Marylyn A. Cariaso

BSCE 5-1
 DESIGN GUIDES FOR ELDERLY DRIVERS

A. WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANCE OF DRIVING FOR OLDER POPULATIONS?

For an independent, active elderly person, maintaining mobility outside the home is essential. A private vehicle
connects seniors to services, goods, and other activities for which they must have a high level of independence. Motor
vehicles are the main transportation media among senior people in the United States. This travelling trend is becoming
increasingly popular in Europe, as well. The most reliable and convenient media of transportation is driving, especially in
areas with little or no public transportation. In addition, driving can provide physical and social benefits of personal
transportation and mobility for seniors. Conversely, loss of personal mobility, especially for seniors, may lead to depression
and physical and mental illnesses. Driving cessation can also lead to negative economic and psychosocial consequences.
For example, the loss of driving privileges can cause difficulty for former drivers to obtain required services and goods,
such as, doctor’s appointments, groceries, and their frequency of social opportunities with friends and relatives may be
reduced.

People over 65 years of age utilize private vehicles, either as drivers or passengers, for approximately 90% of their
daily errands. Approximately 44% of these errands are for shopping, 27% are for meals, social activities, and recreation,
13% are for school, religious issues, and family, 5% are for medical issues, 4% are related to work, and 7% are as passengers
(Houser, 2005).

B. ENUMERATE AND DISCUSS BRIEFLY FOUR AGE-RELATED DRIVING ISSUES

The act of driving presents many challenges for drivers of all ages. At night, signs and roadway markings are
difficult to see and small lettering on roadway signs may be difficult to read even during the day. Large roadway
intersections with multiple lanes and access roads can be complicated and confusing for any driver, especially for older
drivers. In addition, seniors typically prefer to drive older vehicles, most of which lack advanced safety features found in
modern vehicles. As a result, driver safety is reduced. The following sections provide details regarding age-related driving
issues.

1. Visual Acuity

Contrast sensitivity is defined as the ability to discern brightness differences between adjacent areas.
Declining contrast sensitivity prevents older drivers from noticing faded pavement markings during nighttime
driving. Visual declines are a prominent cause of driving problems for seniors. Elderly drivers often feel a decline
in their capability to clearly distinguish stimuli under various driving conditions, and many seniors experience visual
field narrowing. In addition, senior drivers commonly fail to notice objects in motion.

Visual acuity is defined as “the ability to resolve detail”. The World Health Organization classifies different
categories of visual disability, including low vision and blindness. Low vision is defined as “visual acuity between
20/60 and 20/200 or corresponding visual field loss to less than 20 degrees in the better eye with best possible
correction”. Blindness is defined as “visual acuity of less than 20/400 or corresponding visual field loss to less than
10 degrees in the better eye with the best possible correction” (Steinkuller, 2010).

Visual acuity screenings performed for first-time driver’s license applicants and drivers’ periodically
seeking re-licensure is reasonable. In the U.S., roadway sign design is based on sight distances which assume that
binocular visual acuity for drivers is at least 20/30 (FHWA, 2009). Drivers with less visual acuity experience
difficulty in reading directional road signs at safe distances in order to make common driving decisions such as
changing lanes or exiting (Owsley & McGwin, 2010).

2. Increasing Reaction Time

Another problem faced by senior drivers is a decline in reaction time, defined by the response speed of a
person to an event (Green, 2000). Reaction time is a measure of the processing speed of the central nervous system
of the body (Der & Deary, 2006), (Madden, 2001). According to Der and Deary (2006), reaction time is strongly
associated with age; as age increases, reaction time increases. Older drivers typically respond more slowly to traffic
control devices and changes in traffic or roadway conditions, such as a motor vehicle accident or a detour.

Reaction time consists of several components according to occurrence sequence. The first component is
mental processing time, defined as “the time it takes for the responder to perceive that a signal has occurred and to
decide on a response” (Green, 2000). For example, mental processing time is the time spent by a driver to detect
that the traffic signal directly ahead has become yellow and decide that the brake should be applied. This segment
of time is referred to as perception reaction time (Warshawsky-Livne & Shinar, 2002). The second component of
reaction time is movement time: This requires the performance of certain muscle movements after determining an
appropriate response (Green, 2000). For example, movement time includes the time required to lift the foot off the
accelerator pedal, move it to the brake pedal, and then depress the brake pedal. In general, movement time increases
with more complex movements (Green, 2000). The third component of reaction time is device response time. After
the responder acts, the mechanical devices require certain time to engage (Green, 2000). For example, when the
driver depresses the brake pedal, the car does not stop immediately because the stopping is controlled by gravity
and friction (Green, 2000). Time is required for the devices within the car to overcome those forces and stop the
vehicle.

3. Physical Limitations

Physical changes to senior drivers often contribute to difficulty in head movements to scan right and left
sides at intersections or interchanges or look over their shoulders for lane changes (FHWA, 2003). McKnight stated
that senior drivers often experience difficulty when backing up because elderly drivers encounter physical
limitations in upper body and head motion related to backward driving (McKnight, 2003).

A primary reasons why old age drivers make accidents during lane changes and left turns is because of the
physical limitations in their upper body motion including neck and back pain, which make looking behind before
 reversing extremely difficult, or they may fail to carefully check vehicle blind spots before changing lanes (Bayam,
Liebowitz, & Agresti, 2005).

A decline in hearing is another physical limitation due to increased age. Hearing is essential for safe driving
because it allows drivers to react properly to emergency vehicles such as ambulances or police sirens. Hearing also
allows drivers to respond to honking horns of other drivers when warning of dangers or mistakes. As a result,
seniors’ hearing decline reduces driver safety.

4. Cognitive Functions

Cognitive ability is “the ability to acquire, store, and apply knowledge, including short-term and long-term
memory as well as performing mental operations” (Bayam, Liebowitz, & Agresti, 2005). Older drivers often have
difficulty cognitively sorting the huge amount of roadway information incurred while driving. This difficulty is
especially dangerous when encountering critical zones on roadways, such as navigating a temporary traffic control
zone because of a detour (FHWA, 2003). Cognitive ability declines as age increases (Bayam, Liebowitz, & Agresti,
2005), and cognitive functions and visual attention measures have been shown to be accurate accident frequency
predictors for senior drivers (Daigneault, Joly, & Frigon, 2002).

The ability of senior drivers to share attention while driving also declines with age. Certain driving
situations can be especially challenging, such as making left turns at intersections in which drivers must split their
attention between oncoming traffic and pedestrian traffic on either side of the vehicle (Bayam, Liebowitz, & Agresti,
2005). Other situations requiring shared attention involve interaction with traffic control devices such as red-light
traffic signals or stop signs (Bayam, Liebowitz, & Agresti, 2005).

In addition to senior drivers’ deficiency in attention-sharing, impaired judgment regarding traffic gaps may
result into indecisive passing traffic at intersections (Bayam, Liebowitz, & Agresti, 2005). Senior drivers often have
difficulty judging the location of approaching traffic relative to their ability to accelerate into gaps (McKnight,
2003). Older drivers often resolve the conflict created by their inability to handle the situation they faced while
driving by slowing down or stopping, which can cause additional dangers (Bayam, Liebowitz, & Agresti, 2005).
Most traffic accidents occur when senior drivers operate their vehicles at a slower speed than the flow of traffic
(Bayam, Liebowitz, & Agresti, 2005).

C. WHAT ARE THE VISIBILITY IMPROVEMENT METHODS FOR OVERHEAD SIGNS FOR ELDERLY
DRIVERS?

Guide signs should be clear and visible to drivers to allow a proper response time. High visibility and legibility are
essential attributes for guide signs. Legibility is defined as “the readability of a particular writing style, or font” (Amparano
& Morena, 2006). Many required standards regarding signs are mentioned and explained in the MUTCD. The visibility of
overhead guide sign could be increased either by using retroreflective sheeting materials or adding light sources to illuminate
the sign.
1. Retroreflective Sheeting Materials

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specifies the requirements of sheeting materials
used in manufacturing retroreflective guide signs. ASTM D4956-11a standard describes types of retroreflective
sheeting materials that can be used on traffic signs, including eleven types of retroreflective sheeting and their
various applications (ASTM, 2011). These eleven types are categorized into three categories of sign sheeting:
Engineering Grade, Diamond Grade, and High Intensity.

Retroreflective sheeting materials are commonly used on U.S. highways by some DOTs (Bullough,
Skinner, & O'Rourke, 2008). According to national surveys, the most used retroreflective sheeting material for
overhead guide sign legends in the U.S. is Diamond Grade (type IX, followed by type XI), and High Intensity (types
III and IV) is the most common retroreflective sheeting material used for guide sign backgrounds (Obeidat, Rys,
Russell, & Gund, 2014a). An important advantage of retroreflective sheeting is that they do not rely on electrical
power, their concept is based on retroreflection in which illuminance from oncoming vehicle headlamps reflected
back toward the vehicle.

The use of retroreflective sheeting materials makes the signs more visible, especially in high visual “noise”
areas (Amparano & Morena, 2006). Results of a project conducted at the University of South Dakota showed that
the required time by older age drivers to detect signs in complex backgrounds can be decreased excessively by using
super-high-intensity sheeting material (Amparano & Morena, 2006).

2. Illumination

Roadway lighting is a public amenity that participates in providing a safer environment for roadway users.
Safety, security and traffic flow operations could be increases by efficient road lighting (Medina, Avrenli, &
Benekohal, 2013). Roadway conditions and geometry are easily recognized when a proper roadway lighting is
existed.

A light source is a device that converts electrical power into visible light. Light sources associated with
little short-wavelength light are less effective for vision than light sources that produce greater short-wavelength
(blue), even if the measured light level is similar, because of the human eye’s shifted response to light at some
nighttime light levels, this is true for certain locations in the field of view and for certain light levels (Bullough,
2012a). Wavelength is defined as the distance between two consecutive points of the same wave. Light sources
used for road lighting purposes include incandescent lamps, electric discharge lamps, induction lighting and Light
Emitting Diode (LED).

In incandescent lamps, an electric current pass through a wire, causing it to heat to a certain level which
allows the wire to glow and emit light (Lopez, 2003). Two types of incandescent lamps are available: common
incandescent and tungsten halogen (Lopez, 2003). Both types are low in cost but have low efficacy (lumen per
watt).
 Electric discharge light sources produce light through by passing an electric current through a gas or vapour
(Lopez, 2003). Five types of electric discharge light sources are commonly used: Fluorescent, Induction
Fluorescent, Mercury Vapor (MV), High Pressure Sodium (HPS), Low Pressure Sodium (LPS), and Metal Halide
(MH) (Lopez, 2003). For MV light sources, phosphor-coated and clear light are existing. MV light sources also
contain a phosphor-coated light source used primarily in sign lighting applications (Lopez, 2003). Light is produced
in HPS light sources by an arc in a ceramic tube that contains sodium and additional elements (Lopez, 2003). Light
in LPS light sources is produced by an arc in a long tubular glass bulb that contains sodium only (Lopez, 2003).
The MH light source is similar to the mercury light source, but, in addition to mercury, MH contains various metal
halides which provide excellent color rendering resulting in a white light (Lopez, 2003). Induction lighting is a
modern fluorescent lamp that relies on radio frequencies to stimulate lamp material to produce light, (Bullough,
2012b). LEDs are “semiconductors that emit light when electrical current runs through them” (Avrenli, Benekohal,
& Medina, 2012).

Obeidat and Rys (2015) studied five light sources that are used for illuminating overhead guide sign. The
studied light sources were the 62-watt LED, the 85-watt induction, the 250-watt MH, the 250 watt HPS, and the
250 watt MV. Several criteria were considered in comparison including light distribution of each light source,
annual cost, and if the light source can be legally used in U.S. They recommended using the 85-watt induction light
source to DOTs.

D. WHAT ARE THE SOLUTIONS FOR IMPROVING ROADS TO ENHANCE POPULATION’S SAFETY?

Navigating U.S. roadways is somehow confusing and challenging for drivers of different ages when driving routes
are not clearly understood or easily marked, especially when the driver is unfamiliar with the area (Amparano & Morena,
2006). This problem is extremely enormous for senior drivers, especially those who have physical and cognitive disabilities
(Amparano & Morena, 2006). However, engineering opportunities such as retroreflectivity, sign placement, legibility of
sign lettering and sign size can improve a driver’s capability to detect signs and comprehend their messages. Solutions for
improving roadway navigation and increasing safety are discussed in the following sections.

1. Reducing the Impact of Vision Decline

Based on research conducted by Phillips, Rousseau and Schwartzberg (2006), a number of infrastructure
measures could be utilized to decrease the impacts of vision decline for senior drivers (Phillips, Rousseau, &
Schwartzberg, 2006). One direct step is to increase the size of roadway signs and lettering. If drivers are able to
read sign information from a greater distance, they will have enough time to make navigation decisions, thus
enabling increased focus on safe maneuvers. The Manual on Uniform Traffic control Devices (MUTCD)
recommends minimum sign and font sizes for various types of signs: minimum upper case letter size is 8 in (200
mm) and lower case letter size is 6 in (or 150 mm). These sizes are used for multi-lane streets with speed limits
greater than 40 mph (or 65 km/hour) (FHWA, 2009). To enhance guide sign visibility for nighttime driving, a light
source may be installed or guide sign sheet metal material can be replaced by a bright retroreflective material which
has the effect of enhancing sign visibility at night.
 Several font types including Series A (discontinued), Series B, Series C, Series D, Series E, Series E
(Modified), Series F, and ClearviewHwyTM font can be used on signs. ClearviewHwyTM font (hereafter referred
to as Clearview) was developed by Donald Meeker and Christopher O’hara of Meeker and Associates, Inc.; Martin
Pietrucha, Ph.D., and Philip Garvey of the Pennsylvania Transportation Institute; and James Montalbano of
Terminal Design, Inc., along with research supported by Paul Carlson, Ph.D., and Gene Hawkins, Ph.D., and
research design advice by Susan Chrysler, Ph.D., of the Texas Transportation Institute (Holick, Chrysler, Park, &
Carlson, 2006). Recent studies on guide signs have shown that Clearview’s alphabet legibility facilitates a 16%
improvement in distance recognition by senior drivers and a 12% increase in legibility for all drivers when compared
to the series E (modified) font (Amparano & Morena, 2006).

Clearview font results in faster reading, comprehension, recognition and reaction times for drivers,
especially older age drivers. Many states have used Clearview font as a part of their transportation system such as
Arizona, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Virginia.

Roadway curves represent another major visual challenge. A majority of fatal crashes occur on U.S. rural
roadways, and a wide portion of these crashes occur on horizontal curves (Momeni, Russell, & Rys, 2015). Older
drivers have difficulty detecting sharp curves, especially during nighttime driving. However, many countermeasures
can increase safety on curves. These countermeasures vary from low to high cost. Examples of low cost
countermeasures include centerline, edge line, horizontal alignment signs, advisory speed signs, chevrons and one-
direction large arrow sign, combination of horizontal alignment and advisory speed sign, curve speed sign,
alignment sign, delineators, profile thermoplastic and raised pavement marking, reflective barrier delineation, speed
limit advisory marking, optical speed bar, and rumble strips of all types (Momeni, Russell, & Rys, 2015). Other
medium and high cost countermeasures include flashing beacons, dynamic curve warning system, paved and
widening shoulders, shoulder drop-off elimination, installation or lighting improvement, and skid resistance
pavement surface (Momeni, Russell, & Rys, 2015). Several studies were performed on these countermeasures to
show the benefits of each for safety improvement on curves. All these techniques increase detection of roadways
and improve safety, which is beneficial to all drivers, including older drivers.

2. Improving Roadway Navigation

The use of redundant street name signs could increase the chances of a driver remembering critical
navigation information (Phillips, Rousseau, & Schwartzberg, 2006). Often, when drivers see a road sign, they are
quickly distracted and forget the required intersection (Phillips, Rousseau, & Schwartzberg, 2006). This distraction
initially deletes necessary navigation information from working memory (Phillips, Rousseau, & Schwartzberg,
2006). Because working memory capacity declines with age, these memory lapses are more common for older
drivers. Providing roadway navigation information several times to a driver (using redundant street name signs)
helps limit this issue.

Seniors commonly prefer driving on familiar roadways (Phillips, Rousseau, & Schwartzberg, 2006).
Unfortunately, even familiar areas often change, as in work zones or required detours. Changeable message signs
are an important method for transportation agencies to alert drivers to new road situations. However, appropriate
design of these signs is crucial so that drivers of all ages can easily navigate roadways.

One smart-modern solution to improve safety for older people on roadways is to implement autonomous
vehicles’ “self-driving cars” service. Google has begun building a fleet of electric power vehicles to be used for
experimentation in California (Markoff, 2014). According to Markoff (2014), these vehicles were based on a
principle of completely removing driver responsibility from the vehicle; no steering wheel, gas pedal, brake pedal,
or gear shift is necessary. The only element available in the vehicle is a red “e-stop” button that can be used by the
passenger in emergency stops and a separate start button. These vehicles are requested via a smart phone application.
The speed limit of these vehicles is limited to 25 mph, though, these vehicles are designed for urban and suburban
areas, not on highways. One potential use for these vehicles is driverless taxi cabs.

Based on Markoff (2014), Google’s autonomous vehicle had sensors that can detect approximately 600 ft
in all directions. This vehicle had a rear-view mirror according to California code. A foam-like material will be used
in the construction of the front of the vehicle in case the vehicle’s computer fails and the vehicle hits a pedestrian.
Google’s vehicle differs from vehicles introduced by Mercedes, BMW, and Volvo because those vehicles were able
to travel within limited circumstances without a driver but they did not completely eliminate the driver as in
Google’s vehicle.

Comparing to the other modes of transportation, autonomous vehicles are better in terms of time, safety,
convenience, and peace of mind (Burns, Jordan, & Scarborough, 2013). Based on Burns, Jordan and Scarborough
(2013), initial estimates of the new autonomous vehicles are $4 per customer per day, or $2 per customer per trip
(Burns, Jordan, & Scarborough, 2013). The fleet system of autonomous vehicles can be an alternative transportation
media, competing with taxicabs and public transportation. Yellow taxicab fare in Manhattan, New York is
approximately $5 per mile, while initial estimates of the fleet fare of a shared, driverless vehicle are approximately
$0.50 per mile. In addition, the autonomous shared, driverless vehicle service is more convenient and less expensive
than the bus or subway, resulting in the reduction of empty miles and labor costs and increased energy efficiency.
 SIGNAL TIMING

A. BASIC TIMING ELEMENTS

This discussion will cover the basic parameters that define the phase timing in Table 1 of the Wapiti Microsystems W4IKS
program. These are:

1. Pedestrian Timing

Pedestrian timing parameters consider Section 4E, Pedestrian Control Features, of the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices for Streets and Highways (MUTCD), 2009 Edition. Deviation from guidance statements in the
MUTCD or this guidance document may be justified by unique local conditions. Rationale for such deviations should
be carefully documented on the timing sheets or other records of signal timing activity. The pedestrian phase consists
of two parts: the WALK interval and the pedestrian clearance time. The pedestrian clearance time consists of the
pedestrian change interval, commonly referred to as flashing don’t walk (FDW), and a buffer interval. Figure 1 is taken
from MUTCD Figure 4E-2 and illustrates these components of pedestrian timing.

FIGURE 1

2. Initial Timing

Minimum Green (Min Green), Maximum Initial (Max Initial), and Add per Actuation (Add per Act) determine the
initial green time that a phase will be given each time it comes up. Min Green is the guaranteed green time for a phase
and can only be shortened by railroad preemption. For phases with volume density detection, it is possible to adjust the
initial green time to accommodate variations in the number of vehicles that are in the queue in front of the detector
when the phase turns green. When a phase is red, each actuation of a call detector accumulates at the rate of Add per
Act until the total time given in Max Initial is reached.

3. Gap Timing

Gap timing determines how the detectors will be used to extend the green interval of a phase between the initial
time and the Maximum Green (Max Green) time. Gap timing serves to:
• reduce the number of vehicles being caught in the dilemma zone when a phase turns yellow

• minimize the total delay for vehicles traveling through the intersection.

To the extent feasible, ODOT signal timers favor the safety element of dilemma zone protection while keeping
in mind that an inefficiently timed signal can also have safety implications.

Gap timing does not apply to the coordinated phase(s) during the operation of a coordination plan. This is
necessary for a constant cycle length to be maintained. For the uncoordinated phases (usually side street and mainline
left turn phases), the phase force-off for the coordination plan in effect, or the Max Green, whichever comes first, sets
the upper limit that a green interval can be extended by the gap timing.

The gap timing parameters are used to vary the extension time as a phase proceeds through its green interval.
Initially when the phase turns green the gap is set to Passage. The gap is reduced from Passage to the Minimum Gap
(Min Gap) by using the Time Before Reduction (TBR) and Time to Reduce (TTR) as described below. (See Figure 3:
Relationship Between Gap Timing Parameters.)

4. Vehicle Change Intervals

This section is intended to establish guidelines for signal timing staff who are responsible for setting change and
clearance intervals. This guidance is presented in an effort to promote consistent, safe, and efficient timing practices
statewide while allowing for judgment to be exercised based on the characteristics of individual intersections. This
section serves as an implementation guide for the policy as included in Addendum No. 1 of the Traffic Signal Policy
and Guidelines (ODOT, 2006). The length of the yellow change interval is typically related to the speed of approaching
vehicles, driver reaction times, and roadway geometry. These factors relate to vehicle dynamics before a motorist
reaches the stop bar and how quickly a motorist can stop. Oregon law allows a driver to proceed through an intersection
if they are unable to stop safely for the yellow. Because drivers do, under some conditions, lawfully enter intersections
near the end of the yellow, they may need additional time to pass through an intersection before a conflicting movement
receives a green indication. This clearance of the intersection should be accomplished through the use of a red clearance
interval. A good way to think about change intervals is that the yellow change interval relates to vehicle dynamics
before the stop bar and the red clearance interval relates to vehicle dynamics after the stop bar. Appropriate times for
the yellow change and red clearance intervals should initially be based on values derived from the following guidelines
and the intersection geometry. Observation of the operating signal may necessitate adjustments to the initially derived
values. If reductions to either the yellow change or red clearance appear necessary, the change should be made gradually
over a period of months to allow drivers to adjust to the shorter times.

5. Maximum Greens

Maximum Green (Max Green) is the maximum time a green phase can be extended after an opposing call is present
when the signal is operating in the fully actuated (“free”) mode. Maximum Green 2(Max2) replaces Max Green if it is
activated by a time clock control event or a command box sequence. Maximum green times for fully actuated signals
 can be looked at from several points of view: • The Max Green for each phase is set to a value that assures that the phase
will gap out in most cycles. Gapping out is, in general, the preferred way for a phase green to terminate because it
assures the last vehicle has cleared the dilemma zone. Experience, a general knowledge of traffic characteristics at the
intersection, and refinement by observation allows this practice. This practice is entirely appropriate, especially if it is
necessary to time a signal without having current traffic volumes or there is not enough time for detailed analysis. •
Analysis based on traffic volumes can be used to determine values that will allow a high percentage of phases to gap
out without allowing extreme inefficiency. Volume data can be retrieved from signal controllers. The volume data will
be most useful if the signal is not operating at or very near to capacity and is not operating far below capacity (i.e. a v/c
ratio in the range of 0.6-0.9). • A program such as Synchro® can be used to optimize cycle length and splits for a fully
actuated signal. Optimization is based solely on the least total delay for the signal operation. Protection of the dilemma
zone or driver expectancy regarding the length of the green interval is not considered. This approach should only be
considered when a signal is operating at or very near to capacity during peak periods since it becomes difficult to protect
the dilemma zone as the busy phases will tend to always “max out”. Max 2 or a page change would usually be considered
in order to restore protection of dilemma zones during non-peak periods. • Bicyclists and pedestrians have shorter
tolerances for delay than motorists. Excessively long max green times (and the corresponding long cycle lengths and
long delays) degrade the level of service for bicyclists and pedestrians.

B. QUEUING THEORY

Greenshield’s model was developed to aid our understanding of uninterrupted flow. Unfortunately, Greenshield’s
model is unable to cope with the added complexities that are generated under interrupted flow conditions. Interrupted flow
requires an understanding of Queuing Theory, which is an entirely separate model of traffic flow.

Queuing Theory can be used to analyze the flow of traffic on the approach to and through an intersection controlled
by a traffic signal. This is accomplished by analyzing the cumulative passage of vehicles as a function of time. The queuing
diagram for interrupted flow shows the flow on one intersection approach. Traffic is stopped from time t1 to t2 during the
red signal interval. At the start of the green interval (t2), traffic begins to leave the intersection at the saturation flow rate
(qG), and continues until the queue is exhausted. Thereafter, the departure rate D(t), equals the arrival rate, A(t), until t3,
which is the beginning of the next red signal. At this point, the process starts over.
 Queuing Diagram for Interrupted Flow

C. DESIGN PROCESS OUTLINE

The signal timing process has eight distinct steps that can be tailored depending on whether the effort is a slight
adjustment of the timing or is an area-wide or corridor retiming effort. The signal timing process steps were introduced in
Chapter 2. Refer to Chapter 2 to ensure that the relevant policies and objectives are defined and incorporated in the scope
of the project (the first step in the process). The steps include:

1. Project Scoping;

• Review Policies, Determine Objectives, and Identify Problems;

• Confirm Standards and Procedures;
• Identify the study system, corridor, or intersections;
• Divide the System into Sections;
• Select Performance Measures;
• Identify the Number of Timing Plans;

2. Data Collection;

3. Model Development;

o Data Input;

o Analysis;

o Draft Timing Plans;

4. Field Implementation and Fine Tuning;

 5. Evaluation of Timing;

o Performance Measurement;

o Policy Confirmation; and

o Reporting.

The decisions and calculations made in these steps should be based on field data or first-hand observations of traffic
operations at the subject intersection.

D. INTERGREEN TIME

The intergreen period of a phase consists of both the yellow (amber) indication and the all-red indication (if
applicable. This phase is governed by three separate concepts: stopping distance, intersection clearance time, and pedestrian
crossing time, if there are no pedestrian signals.

The yellow signal indication serves as a warning to drivers that another phase will soon be receiving the right-of-
way. The intergreen interval, therefore, should be long enough to allow cars that are greater than the stopping distance away
from the stop-bar to brake easily to a stop. The intergreen interval should also allow vehicles that are already beyond the
point-of-no-return to continue through the intersection safely.

This issue is called the "dilemma zone" concept. If the intergreen time is too short, only those vehicles that are close
to the intersection will be able to continue through the intersection safely. In addition, only vehicles that are reasonably
distant will have adequate time to react to the signal and stop. Those who are in between will be caught in the "dilemma
zone," and won’t have enough time to stop or safely cross the intersection. Figure 2 shows this situation graphically.

The only responsible thing to do, it seems, is to eliminate the

FIGURE 2
the intersection without accelerating or speeding.
dilemma zone. This would allow any vehicle, regardless of its location, to
be able to safely stop or, alternatively, safely proceed during the intergreen
period. This is done by making sure that any vehicle closer to the
intersection than its minimum braking distance can safely proceed through

First, we calculate the minimum safe stopping distance. The equation for this distance is given below and a more
detailed discussion of this distance can be found in the geometric design portion of this website.

Minimum Safe Stopping Distance:

𝑆𝐷 = 1.47 ∗ 𝑉𝑜 ∗ 𝑡𝑟 + (1.47 ∗ 𝑉𝑜)2/(30 ∗ [𝑓 ± 𝐺])

Where:
𝑆𝐷 = Min. safe stopping dist. (ft)
 𝑉𝑜 = Initial velocity (mph)
𝑡𝑟 = Perception/Reaction time (sec)
𝑓 = Coefficient of friction
𝐺 = Grade, as a percentage

Next, we calculate the time required for a vehicle to travel the minimum safe stopping distance and to clear the
intersection. This is simple kinematics as well.

Intersection Clearance Time:

(𝑆𝐷 + 𝐿 + 𝑊)
𝑇 =
(1.47 ∗ 𝑉𝑜)

Where:
𝑇 = Intersection clearance time (sec)
𝑉𝑜 = Initial velocity (mph)
𝐿 = Length of the vehicle (ft)
𝑆𝐷 = Min. safe stopping dist. (ft)
𝑊 = Width of the intersection (ft)

Now that you’ve determined the first two elements of the intergreen period length—stopping distance and
intersection clearance time—you need to consider the pedestrians. The intergreen time for intersections that have signalized
pedestrian movements is the same as the intersection clearance time.

If you have an intersection where the pedestrian movements are not regulated by a separate pedestrian signal, you
need to protect these movements by providing enough intergreen time for a pedestrian to cross the intersection. In other
words, if a pedestrian begins to cross the street just as the signal turns yellow for the vehicular traffic, he/she must be able
to cross the street safely before the next phase of the cycle begins. The formula for this calculation is shown below.

Pedestrian Crossing Time:

𝑃𝐶𝑇 = 𝑊⁄𝑉

Where:
𝑃𝐶𝑇 = Pedestrian crossing time (sec)
𝑊 = Width of the intersection (feet)
𝑉 = Velocity of the pedestrian (usually 4 ft/sec)

Once you have considered the safety of both the vehicular traffic and the pedestrian traffic for the given phase, you
can choose the intergreen time. The intergreen time is equal to whichever is larger, the pedestrian crossing time or the
intersection clearance time.
 As you know, the intergreen period is composed of the yellow interval and the all-red interval. The allocation of
the intergreen time to these separate intervals is a question that is answered best by referring you to your local codes. In
some areas, the yellow time has been standardized for several speeds. This would make the all-red time the difference
between the standard yellow time and the intergreen time. One other option is to allocate all of the intergreen period as
calculated to the yellow interval. You could then tack on an all-red period as a little extra safety. This, however, might
increase delay at your intersection.

E. PEDESTRIAN CROSSING TIME, MINIMUM GREEN INTERVAL

The pedestrian crossing time serves as a constraint on the green time allocated to each phase of a cycle. Pedestrians
can safely cross an intersection as long as there are not any conflicting movements occurring at the same time. (Permitted
left and right turns are common exceptions to this rule.) This allows pedestrians to cross the intersection in both the green
interval and the intergreen interval. Thus, the sum of the green interval and the intergreen interval lengths, for each phase,
must be large enough to accommodate the pedestrian movements that occur during that phase.

At this point, two separate conditions arise. If you have an intersection in which the pedestrian movements are not
assisted by a pedestrian signal, you need to make sure that the green interval that you provide for vehicles will service the
pedestrians as well. In this case, the minimum green interval length is somewhere between 4 and 7 seconds. You already
took care of the pedestrian crossing time considerations when you calculated the intergreen period length. (See the module
on the intergreen period.)

If, on the other hand, you plan to provide a pedestrian signal, you need to calculate the pedestrian crossing time as
described below. This will not only give you the information you need to program the pedestrian signal, but it will also
allow you to find the minimum green interval for your vehicular movements as well.

We only need a few assumptions to calculate the pedestrian crossing time.

Assumptions:

• The WALK signal will be illuminated for approximately 7 seconds.

• A pedestrian will begin to cross the street just as the DON'T WALK signal begins to flash.

• Pedestrians walk at an average pace of 4 feet/second.

• The WALK interval must be completely encompassed by the green interval of the accompanying vehicle
movements.

Calculations:

The total time required for the pedestrian movements (T) is the sum of the WALK allowance (Z) and the time
required for a person to traverse the crosswalk (R).
 (𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡)
𝑅 = 4 ft
( )
sec

𝑇 = 𝑍 + 𝑅

The pedestrian crossing time governs the minimum green time for the accompanying phase in the following way. If the time
it takes the pedestrian to traverse the crosswalk (R) is greater than the intergreen time(I), the remainder of the time (Z+R-I)
must be provided by the green interval. Therefore, the minimum green interval length (gmin) for each phase can be
calculated using the equation below.

𝑔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝐼) or 𝑔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍 + 𝑅 – 𝐼

If the above equation results in a minimum green interval that is less than the WALK time (Z), the minimum green
interval length is equal to the WALK time (Z).

𝑔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍

You now have the minimum length of the green interval for the vehicular movements, as governed by the pedestrian
movements. The WALK interval for the pedestrians is whatever you assumed, and they DON'T WALK flashes for the
remainder of the green and intergreen intervals.

Many design manuals suggest that the distance the pedestrian is assumed to travel can be reduced to the distance
between the curb and the center of the farthest lane. On another note, if the vehicular traffic requires an extended green
period, feel free to let the pedestrians partake of the extra time as well.

F. SATURATION FLOW RATE AND CAPACITY

• Saturation Flow Rate

Saturation Flow Rate can be defined with the following scenario: Assume that an intersection’s approach signal
was to stay green for an entire hour, and the traffic was as dense as could reasonably be expected. The number of
vehicles that would pass through the intersection during that hour is the saturation flow rate.

Obviously, certain aspects of the traffic and the roadway will affect the saturation flow rate of your approach. If
your approach has very narrow lanes, traffic will naturally provide longer gaps between vehicles, which will reduce
your saturation flow rate. If you have large numbers of turning movements, or large numbers of trucks and busses, your
saturation flow rate will be reduced. Put another way, the saturation flow rate (s) for a lane group is the maximum
number of vehicles from that lane group that can pass through the intersection during one hour of continuous green
under the prevailing traffic and roadway conditions. The saturation flow rate is normally given in terms of straight-
through passenger cars per hour of green. Most design manuals and textbooks provide tables that give common values
for trucks and turning movements in terms of passenger car units (pcu).
 Determining the saturation flow rate can be a somewhat complicated matter. The saturation flow rate depends on
roadway and traffic conditions, which can vary substantially from one region to another. It’s possible that someone in
the area has already completed a measurement of the saturation flow rate for an approach similar to yours. If not, you'll
need to measure it in the field. One other possibility, which is used quite frequently, is to assume an ideal value for the
saturation flow rate and adjust it for the prevailing conditions using adjustment factors. A saturation flow rate of 1900
vehicles/hour/lane, which corresponds to a saturation headway of about 1.9 seconds, is a fairly common nominal value.
Design manuals usually provide adjustment factors that take parameters such as lane-width, pedestrian traffic, and
traffic composition into account.

• Capacity

Capacity is an adjustment of the saturation flow rate that takes the real signal timing into account, since most
signals are not allowed to permit the continuous movement of one phase for an hour. If your approach has 30 minutes
of green per hour, you could deduce that the actual capacity of your approach is about half of the saturation flow rate.
The capacity, therefore, is the maximum hourly flow of vehicles that can be discharged through the intersection from
the lane group in question under the prevailing traffic, roadway, and signalization conditions. The formula for
calculating capacity (c) is given below.

𝑐 = (𝑔/𝐶) · 𝑠

Where:
𝑐 = capacity (pcu/hour)
𝑔 = Effective green time for the phase in question (sec)
𝐶 = Cycle length (sec)
𝑠 = Saturation flow rate (pcu/hour)

Capacity can be calculated on several levels, depending on the amount of information you want to obtain.
You could calculate the capacity for each individual lane, or you could lump the lanes together and find the capacity
of an entire approach. You need to decide what makes sense for your situation.

Capacity can be used as a reference to gauge the current operation of the intersection. For example, let us
assume that you know the current flow rate for a lane group and you also know the capacity of that lane group. If
the current flow rate is 10% of the capacity, you would be inclined to think that too much green time has been
allocated to that particular lane group. You'll see other uses for capacity as you explore the remaining signal timing
design concepts.

G. PEAK HOUR VOLUME, PEAK HOUR FACTOR, DESIGN FLOW RATE

• Peak Hour Volume

 The peak hour volume is the volume of traffic that uses the approach, lane, or lane group in question during the
hour of the day that observes the highest traffic volumes for that intersection. For example, rush hour might be the peak
hour for certain interstate acceleration ramps. The peak hour volume would be the volume of passenger car units that used
the ramps during rush hour. Notice the conversion to passenger car units. The peak hour volume is normally given in terms
of passenger car units, since changing turning all vehicles into passenger car units makes these volume calculations more
representative of what is actually going on.

The peak hour flow rate is also given in passenger car units/hour. Sometimes these two terms are used
interchangeably because they are identical numerically.

• Peak Hour Factor

The peak hour factor (PHF) is derived from the peak hour volume. It is simply the ratio of the peak hour volume to
four times the peak fifteen-minute volume. For example, during the peak hour, there will probably be a fifteen-minute period
in which the traffic volume is more dense than during the remainder of the hour. That is the peak fifteen minutes, and the
volume of traffic that uses the approach, lane, or lane group during those fifteen minutes is the peak fifteen-minute
volume. The peak hour factor is given below.

Peak Hour Factor:

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑃𝐻𝐹 =
(4 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)

• Design Flow Rate

The design flow rate or the actual flow rate, for an approach, lane, or lane group is the peak hour volume (flow rate)
for that entity divided by the peak hour factor. A simpler way to arrive at the design flow rate is to multiply the peak fifteen-
minute volume by 4. However, you derive the figure, most calculations, such as those that measure the current use of
intersection capacity, require the actual flow rate (design flow rate).

H. CRITICAL MOVEMENT OF LANE

While each phase of a cycle can service several movements or lanes, some of these lanes will inevitably require
more time than others to discharge their queue. For example, the right-turn movement of an approach may service two cars
while the straight-through movement is required to service 30 cars. The net effect is that the right-turn movement will be
finished long before the straight-through movement. What might seem to be an added complexity is really an opening for
simplicity. If each phase is long enough to discharge the vehicles in the most demanding lane or movement, then all of the
vehicles in the movements or lanes with lower time requirements will be discharged as well. This allows the engineer to
focus on one movement per phase instead of all the movements in each phase.

The movement or lane for a given phase that requires the most green time is known as the critical movement or
critical lane. The critical movement or lane for each phase can be determined using flow ratios. The flow ratio is the design
(or actual) flow rate divided by the saturation flow rate. The movement or lane with the highest flow ratio is the critical
movement or critical lane. You will see how this concept is applied in the cycle length and green split discussions.

I. CYCLE LENGTH DETERMINATION

Once you know the total cycle length, you can subtract the length of the amber and all-red periods from the total
cycle length and end up with the total time available for green signal indications. Efficiency dictates that the cycle length
should be long enough to serve all of the critical movements, but no longer. If the cycle is too short, there will be so many
phase changes during an hour that the time lost due to these changes will be high compared to the usable green time. But if
the cycle is too long, delays will be lengthened, as vehicles wait for their turn to discharge through the intersection. Figure
1 provides a graphical portrayal of this phenomenon.

FIGURE 3. Cycle Length versus Delay

Several methods for solving this optimization problem have already been developed, but Webster’s equation is the
most prevalent. Webster's equation, which minimizes intersection delay, gives the optimum cycle length as a function of
the lost times and the critical flow ratios. Many design manuals use Webster's equation as the basis for their design and only
make minor adjustments to suit their purposes. Webster's equation is shown below.

1.5𝐿 + 5
𝐶𝑂 =
1 − 𝑆(𝑉/𝑠)

Where:
𝐶𝑜 = Optimum cycle length (sec)
𝐿 = Sum of the lost time for all phases, usually taken as the sum of the intergreen periods (sec)
𝑉/𝑠 = Ratio of the design flow rate to the saturation flow rate for the critical approach or lane in each phase

After you have calculated the optimum cycle length, you should increase it to the nearest multiple of 5. For example,
if you calculate a cycle length of 62 seconds, bump it up to 65 seconds. Once you have done this, you are ready to go. If
you know the intergreen times for all of the phases, you can then calculate the total available green time and allocate it to
the various phases based on their critical movements. (See the module entitled green split determination.)
J. GREEN SPLIT CALCULATIONS

Once you have the total cycle length, you can determine the length of time that is available for green signal
indications by subtracting the intergreen periods from the total cycle length. But the result is useless unless you know how
to allocate it to all of the phases of the cycle.

As explained in the module about critical movement analysis, the critical movements or lanes are used to
distribute the available green time among all of the phases. The flow ratio for a movement or lane is the actual (design)
flow rate, for that entity, divided by the saturation flow rate. The critical flow ratio, which is the one that is important for
this calculation, is the flow ratio for the critical movement or lane.

Green time is allocated using a ratio equation. Each phase is given a portion of the available green time that is consistent
with the ratio of its critical flow ratio to the sum of all the critical flow ratios. This calculation is simple to do and hard to
say, which makes it refreshingly different from most of the other calculations we encounter in engineering.

The proportion of the available green time that should be allocated to phase "i" can be found using the following
equation:

(𝑉/𝑠)𝑖
𝑔𝑖 =
𝑆(𝑉/𝑠) ∗ 𝐺𝑇

Where:
𝑔𝑖 = The length of the green interval for phase "i" (sec)
(𝑉/𝑠)𝑖 = The critical flow ratio for phase "i"
𝐺𝑇 = The available green time for the cycle (sec)

You now have the length of the green interval for each phase of your cycle. At this point, you might want to look
at the timing adjustments module.

K. TIMING ADJUSTMENTS

Once you have calculated the lengths of the minimum green intervals, green intervals, and intergreen intervals, as
well as the design flow rates and capacities for each of your phases; it is time to ask yourself whether or not your results
actually work.

The first and most obvious check involves the green intervals. Check the length of the green interval for each
phase. If it is not greater than the length of the phase's minimum green interval, you need to bump up the cycle length and
add green time to that phase until the green interval is equal to or greater than the minimum.

The second check involves capacity. If the capacity of a particular phase is below the design flow rate for that
phase, you should back-calculate the effective green time that would allow the phase to run at the design flow rate. Once
again, simply increasing the cycle length and allocating more time to the green interval of the troubled phase will solve
the problem.

Webster noted that the cycle length can vary between 0.75Co and 1.5Co without adding much delay, so don't
worry too much about adding a second or two to the nominal cycle length.

L. COMPUTING DELAYS AND LOS

One way to check an existing or planned signal timing scheme is to calculate the delay experienced by those who
are using, or who will use, the intersection. The delay experienced by the average vehicle can be directly related to a level
of service (LOS). The LOS categories, which are listed below, contain information about the progression of traffic under
the delay conditions that they represent. This allows you, as a designer or evaluator, to visualize and understand the traffic
flow conditions surrounding an intersection, even though the intersection might still be on the drawing board.

The first step in the LOS analysis is to calculate the average delay per vehicle for various portions of the intersection.
You might be interested in the LOS of an entire approach, or alternatively, you might be interested in the LOS of each
individual lane. The equation for the average vehicle delay is given below.

Average Stopped Delay Per Vehicle:

𝑔
[0.38𝐶 ∗ 2(1 − ⁄𝑐)] 2(𝑋 − 1) + (16𝑥⁄𝑐)
𝑑= 𝑔 + 173 ∗ 2𝑥 [(𝑋 − 1) + ]
[1 − ( ⁄𝑐)(𝑥)] 2

Where:
𝑑 = Average stopped delay per vehicle for the lane or lane group of interest (sec)
𝐶 = cycle length (sec)
𝑔⁄
𝑐 = green ratio for the lane or lane group
𝑔 = The effective green time for the lane or lane group (sec)
𝑥 = V/c ratio for the lane group
𝑉 = The actual or design flow rate for the lane or lane group (pcu/hour)
𝑐 = Capacity of the lane group (pcu/hour)

This equation predicts the average stopped delay per vehicle by assuming a random arrival pattern for approaching
vehicles. The first term of the equation accounts for uniform delay, or the delay that occurs if arrival demand in the lane
group is uniformly distributed over time. The second term of the equation accounts for the incremental delay of random
arrivals over uniform arrivals, and for the additional delay due to cycle failures.

As was mentioned before, the level of service for signalized intersections is defined in terms of average stopped
delay per vehicle. This delay is directly related to the driver's level of discomfort, frustration, fuel consumption, and loss of
travel time. The following paragraphs describe the various LOS categories.
Level of Service A - Operations with low delay, or delays of less than 5.0 seconds per vehicle. This LOS is reached
when most of the oncoming vehicles enter the signal during the green phase, and the driving conditions are ideal in
all other respects as well.

Level of Service B - Operations with delays between 5.1 and 15.0 seconds per vehicle. This LOS implies good
progression, with some vehicles arriving during the red phase.

Level of Service C - Operations with delays between 15.1 and 25.0 seconds per vehicle. This LOS witnesses longer
cycle lengths and fair progression.

Level of Service D - Operations with delays between 25.1 and 40.0 seconds per vehicle. At this LOS, congestion
is noticeable and longer delays may result from a combination of unfavorable progression, long cycle lengths, and
high V/c ratios.

Level of Service E - Operations with delay between 40.1 and 60.0 seconds per vehicle. This LOS is considered
unacceptable by most drivers. This occurs under over-saturated intersection conditions (V/c ratios over 1.0), and
can also be attributed to long cycle lengths and poor progression.

As you can see by now, the LOS illuminates the qualitative aspects of signal operation.
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