Forest Ecology and Management 258 (2009) 1174–1180

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Forest Ecology and Management

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Effects of early re-spacing on the physical and mechanical properties of Sitka

spruce structural timber
John Moore a,*, Alexis Achim b,1, Andrew Lyon a,2, Shaun Mochan b, Barry Gardiner b
a
Centre for Timber Engineering, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, EH10 5DT, United Kingdom
b
Forest Research, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9SY, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The effects of early re-spacing on the physical and mechanical properties of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis
Received 26 March 2009 [Bong.] Carr.) structural-dimensioned timber were studied using material from a fully replicated 57-
Received in revised form 3 June 2009 year-old trial located in Northern Ireland, which had been thinned at age 11 years. Basic density,
Accepted 4 June 2009
distortion (spring, twist and bow), modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) in
bending of structural timber from four different re-spacing treatments (1.83 m  3.66 m, 3.66
Keywords: m  3.66 m, 3.66 m  5.49 m and 5.49 m  5.49 m) were compared with those of timber from a control
Wood properties
(1.83 m  1.83 m). Re-spacing intensity had a significant effect on both modulus of elasticity (p = 0.006)
Pre-commercial thinning
and modulus of rupture (p = 0.009), but not on basic density (p = 0.379) or distortion (p > 0.200). Timber
Sitka spruce
Sawn timber from the two widest re-spacing treatments failed to meet the requirements for the C14 strength class,
while timber from the control met the requirements for the C16 strength class. Both MOE and MOR were
significantly and negatively associated with knot size and frequency, which in turn increased with re-
spacing intensity. Overall, re-spacing intensity only explained approximately 10% of the total amount of
variation in both MOE and MOR, with most of the variation due to inter- and intra-tree differences within
a treatment. Based on these results, re-spacing of Sitka spruce to a residual stand density of less than 900
trees/ha (3.33 m  3.33 m) is not recommended if the goal of management is to produce C16 structural
timber.
ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction establishment; re-spacing (pre-commercial thinning) of normally

The amount of growing space available to an individual tree
affects the size, shape and structure of its stem as well as its
branching characteristics (Smith et al., 1997). Widely spaced trees
are able to maintain higher individual growth rates for longer
periods of time than closely spaced trees, but they will be more
tapered and have larger branches which remain alive further down
the stem (Evert, 1971). Control of tree spacing is therefore one of
the main methods by which a silviculturist can influence timber
quality within forest stands. Spacing influences a number of
characteristics including: knot size, the size of the juvenile wood
zone, and wood density (Hamilton and Christie, 1974; Macdonald
and Hubert, 2002). Forest managers can control tree spacing
through any or all of the following: initial spacing at stand
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 0 131 455 2208; fax: +44 0 131 455 2239.
E-mail address: j.moore@napier.ac.uk (J. Moore).
1
Present address: Faculté de foresterie et géomatique, Université Laval, Québec,
G1 V 0A6, Canada.
2
Present address: Forest Products Commission, Rivervale, Western Australia,
6103, Australia.
stocked stands, which is generally performed before canopy
closure occurs (Rollinson, 1988); and thinning of older stands.
Over the past 80 years there have been considerable changes to
the silvicultural management of Sitka spruce stands in the United
Kingdom. In the first substantial period of afforestation that
occurred between 1920 and 1940, stands were established at an
initial spacing of between 1.0 and 1.5 m. At least one thinning was
usually carried out before felling (Mason, 1993). During the period
between 1960 and 1980, initial spacing distances had increased to
2.4 m (and in some cases up to 2.7 m) in order to reduce
establishment costs and because of the risk of wind damage
following thinning (Wardle, 1967). Thinning of plantations
declined due to the low value of the thinned trees and the
increasing pressure to make a financial surplus on the thinning
operation (Rollinson, 1985). Attempts to improve the economics of
thinning through mechanisation (i.e., systematic thinning) or by
delaying it to allow the trees to reach a greater size, often resulted
in an increased risk of wind damage. Therefore, in those areas
where the risk of wind damage was high, thinning was generally
not practised and stands were managed under a so-called no-thin
regime. While such regimes may have reduced the risk of wind
damage, there was no opportunity to improve the average wood

0378-1127/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.06.009
 J. Moore et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 258 (2009) 1174–1180
quality of trees within a stand by selecting those trees with
superior form. In addition, the decline in radial growth compared
with those similar-aged stands that had been thinned often
resulted in a relatively large number of small-sized trees which
also contained an increased proportion of juvenile wood (Brazier
and Mobbs, 1993).
Re-spacing (or pre-commercial thinning) has been suggested as
a way of increasing mean tree size and possibly improving stand
stability on sites where conventional commercial thinning cannot
be carried out (Rollinson, 1988). However, there are concerns that
both severe re-spacing and wide initial spacing of stands can have
detrimental effects on the mechanical properties of structural
timber. The effect of initial spacing on the mechanical properties of
Sitka spruce grown in the UK was studied by Brazier and Mobbs
(1993) who sampled trees from two trials located in Wales in
which the spacing ranged from 0.9 m  0.9 m to 2.4 m  2.4 m
spacing. Further trees were sampled from six sites in England,
Scotland and Northern Ireland in which spacing ranged from
1.4 m  1.4 m to 3.9 m  3.9 m. The authors found that the mean
minimum reaction force for timber, as measured by a machine
strength grader, decreased with increasing initial spacing. Based on
this result, Brazier and Mobbs (1993) recommended that the
maximum initial planting spacing for UK-grown Sitka spruce
should not exceed 2 m  2 m (2500 trees/ha) if commercially
acceptable yields of timber achieving the SC3 grade (broadly
equivalent to the C16 strength class in EN338 (CEN, 2003a)) were
to be obtained. In the UK and Europe, C16 is regarded as the basic
structural grade for softwood construction. For a population of
timber to achieve the requirements for this strength class it must
have a characteristic (fifth percentile) bending strength of at least
16 N/mm2 and a mean bending stiffness of at least 8 kN/mm2 (CEN,
2003a).
The study by Brazier and Mobbs (1993) has had a considerable
influence on UK forestry practices. However, as noted by
Macdonald and Hubert (2002), there were some limitations in
the availability of material for testing in the experiment. At most,
only one replicate of each spacing was present at each site. In
addition, at only two out of the eight sites did the range of initial
spacing treatments at the site span the 2.0 m threshold. Finally, the
eight sites contained trees of different ages that ranged from 28
years to 57 years, with some of the widest spacing treatments
occurring in the youngest stands. Because of these issues, the
effects of spacing, age and site might have been confounded.
Furthermore, this study only measured the reaction force in a
strength grader and did not calculate the actual modulus of
elasticity (MOE) or the modulus of rupture (MOR) of the timber.
In the study reported here the effects of spacing on the physical
and mechanical properties of structural timber were investigated
using material obtained from a replicated early re-spacing trial
which contained a wide range of spacing treatments growing at a
single location and in one age-class of trees. This permitted the
conclusions reached by Brazier and Mobbs (1993) to be revisited.
The study also aimed to determine whether any observed
differences in timber mechanical properties in the different re-
spacing treatments were due to differences in branch diameter and
hence knot size.
2. Methods and materials
2.1. Experimental site
The study was conducted in an early re-spacing trial located on
the Baronscourt Estate in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland (Lat.
548410 N, Long. 78260 W, 140 m elevation). The stand has a yield
class of 20, which corresponds to a maximum mean annual
increment of 20 m3/ha/yr (Savill and Sandels, 1983). The stand
1175
containing the trial was planted in 1949 at an initial spacing of
1.83 m  1.83 m (2990 trees/ha). In 1960, the re-spacing trial was
installed across a uniform 4 ha area within the original stand (Jack,
1971). Five re-spacing treatments were allocated to plots of
approximately 0.15 ha in size in a 5  5 Latin square design. This
was achieved by systematically removing alternate rows and
alternate trees within rows as required. The five re-spacing
treatments were nominally 1.83 m  1.83 m, 1.83 m  3.66 m,
3.66 m  3.66 m, 3.66 m  5.49 m and 5.49 m  5.49 m, and the
corresponding measured stand densities were 2858 trees/ha,
1452 trees/ha, 725 trees/ha, 477 trees/ha and 320 trees/ha,
respectively.
At the centre of each treatment plot, an assessment plot was
established. This initially consisted of 49 trees, but was subse-
quently lowered to 25 (the inner 5  5 trees) in order to reduce
measurement costs (Kilpatrick et al., 1981). The trial was measured
on seven occasions between 1960 and 1979. Measurements up
until 1969 were presented in Jack (1971), while all measurements
made between 1960 and 1979 were presented in Kilpatrick et al.
(1981). Since this time the stand was periodically re-measured up
until and including 2004. In 2004 when the stand was 55 years old,
the total standing volume in the different re-spacing treatments
ranged from 737 m3/ha up to 979 m3/ha, while mortality ranged
from 3% to 60% (Table 1).
2.2. Sampling
In 2006, when the stand was 57 years old, three trees were
selected in each plot to be processed into sawn timber. These trees
were selected from the inner 25 trees in each plot on the basis of
tree dominance with respect to diameter; one dominant, one co-
dominant and one sub-dominant tree were selected from each
plot. Only 24 plots were used as one plot had high levels of wind
damage, which meant that the effective growing space available to
the trees within it was no longer representative of the prescribed
re-spacing treatment. Overall, a total of 72 trees were sampled; 12
trees from the 3.66 m  5.49 m treatment and 15 trees from the
other four treatments. Prior to felling, the diameter at breast height
of each tree was measured. After each tree was felled, the heights
to the lowest live branch and the lowest live whorl were measured.
Over-bark diameter was measured at 1-m intervals along the stem
and the diameter, insertion angle and orientation of each branch in
every fourth growth unit were measured on one tree from each
plot. These data were collected primarily to validate the branching
model of Achim et al. (2006), but were used here to calculate
branch index, which was defined as the mean diameter of the six
largest branches on a tree.
Felled trees were then processed into 3.7-m long saw logs
which had limits for sweep, branch size and small end diameter
governed by the Forestry Commission’s specifications for ‘‘green’’
sawlogs (Forestry Commission, 1993). Up to three logs were cut
from each tree, with the butt end of the first, second and third logs
located at nominal distances of 1.5 m, 9.4 m and 17.3 m,
respectively from the base of the stem. Where poor stem form
and/or excessive branch size prevented a green quality sawlog
from being taken from these nominal locations up the stem, an
attempt was made to cut it from higher up the stem. If this was not
possible, then only two logs, or in some cases one log, were cut
from the tree. Overall, 205 logs were cut and each log was
identified with a unique paint colour and stamp combination. The
diameter over-bark at the large and small ends of the log was
measured, and these together with the length were used to
calculate log volume through Smalian’s formula (Avery and
Burkhart, 2001). In addition, the juvenile core (assumed to
correspond to the inner 15 growth rings) was marked. The
dynamic modulus of elasticity (Ed [kN/mm2]) was calculated for
1176 J. Moore et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 258 (2009) 1174–1180

Table 1
Stand-level characteristics for each re-spacing treatment and characteristics of the sample of 72 trees selected for destructive measurement.

Attribute Re-spacing treatment (m)

1.83  1.83 1.83  3.66 3.66  3.66 3.66  5.49 5.49  5.49

Stand
Stand density (trees/ha) 1134 922 581 435 310
Mortality (%) 60 37 20 9 3
DBH (mm) 291 335 413 465 512
Height (m) 32.8 34.5 34.9 36.2 35.8
H/DBH 113 103 85 78 70
Volume (m3/ha) 859 923 979 880 737

Sample
Live crown length (m) 9.0 (1.8) 10.2 (1.7) 10.2 (2.5) 14.1 (1.7) 14.8 (2.2)
Individual tree volume (m3) 1.34 (0.41) 1.85 (0.50) 2.27 (1.00) 3.60 (0.58) 3.93 (1.40)
Branch indexa (mm) 39 (3) 41 (3) 38 (3) 53 (3) 56 (7)
Individual log volume (m3) 0.22 (0.08) 0.26 (0.10) 0.31 (0.15) 0.50 (0.17) 0.55 (0.26)
Log Ed (kN/mm2) 14.17 (1.46) 12.62 (1.43) 12.22 (1.58) 11.39 (1.27) 10.93 (1.20)
Number of boards cut 145 238 273 426 624
C16 pass rate (%) 100.00 99.58 99.27 95.54 95.03

Where appropriate, the standard deviations of the characteristics of the sampled trees are shown in parentheses. The number of structural boards cut from these trees and the
pass rate from the x-ray grading machine are also given.
a
Average diameter of the six largest branches per tree. Values are based on measurements made on one tree per plot.

each log from stress wave velocity (V [m/s]) and bulk density
(r [kg/m3]) using the following equation (Pellerin and Ross, 2002):
E d ¼ rV 2
Stress wave velocity was measured in each log using the HM-
200 tool (Fibre-gen, New Zealand) and the bulk density of each log
was assumed to be 1000 kg/m3.
Logs were processed into structural timber with cross-sectional
dimensions of 100 mm  47 mm using cutting patterns that
maximised the yield of this size of timber. A total of 1706 pieces
of timber were cut and each piece was labelled with a unique
identification code before being kiln dried. Following drying, all
pieces of timber were graded using a Golden-Eye X-ray grader
(Microtec, Italy) with a C16/reject setting. Pieces of timber that did
not pass the grader were noted. A sub-sample consisting of 406
pieces of timber was selected for further mechanical testing.
Where possible, two pieces of timber were selected from each log,
with one piece selected from outside the juvenile core and the
other from within it. All timber in this sub-sample was stored in a
controlled environment at 21C and 65% relative humidity until it
attained constant mass.
2.3. Material testing
A subset of 20 pieces of timber from each re-spacing treatment
(100 pieces in total) was randomly selected for assessment of knots
and distortion. Each piece of timber was photographed on all four
longitudinal faces and the size and location of all knots greater than
5 mm in diameter determined using image analysis software
(Qwin, Leica Microsystems, Germany). A 3-dimensional profile of
each piece of timber was obtained using the Freiberg Improved
Timber Scanner (Seeling and Merforth, 2000). From these profiles,
the maximum amount of spring, twist and bow over a 2 m interval
within each piece of timber was calculated in accordance with
EN1310 (CEN, 1997) using a software program written specifically
for this task.
The dynamic MOE of each piece of timber was calculated
using Eq. (1). Stress wave velocity measurements were made on
each piece of timber using an HM-200 instrument (Fibre-gen,
New Zealand) and bulk density was determined from the mass
and dimensions of each specimen. Four-point bending tests
were conducted on each piece of timber using a Zwick Z050
testing machine (Zwick Roell, Germany). This was done
according to the procedures described in EN 408 (CEN,
2003b). Global modulus of elasticity (MOEG) and modulus of
rupture were calculated from the data obtained during these
(1) tests using the equations given in EN 408 (CEN, 2003b).
Following testing, a 40 mm thick sub-sample spanning the full
cross-section of the specimen was cut. These samples were
weighed immediately and their volume determined from
dimensional measurements. Samples were then dried in an
oven at 103C for 72 h and moisture content calculated from
gravimetric measurements in accordance with EN 13183-1
(CEN, 2002). Basic density (i.e., mass of oven-dried wood per
unit green volume) was calculated from measurements of
sample mass and volume using the procedures described in
Simpson (1993). MOEG was adjusted to a 12% moisture content
basis using the procedure described in EN384 (CEN, 1995).
2.4. Data analysis
Data were analysed using the open source statistical package R
(www.r-project.org). Linear regression was used to investigate the
relationships between modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity
and density, and to compare values of dynamic modulus of
elasticity to those obtained from static bending tests. A linear
mixed-effects model (Pinhero and Bates, 2000) was used to
compare specific gravity, MOEG and MOR between treatments. A
nested structure was assumed for the random effects of log, tree,
plot and block in accordance with the experimental design. The
following model was fitted to data from the measurements on the
structural timber:
yi jklmno ¼ m þ ri þ g j þ t k þ Pl þ T mðlÞ þ LnðlmÞ þ eoðlmnÞ
where yijklmno is the measurement of basic density, MOEG, MOR or
distortion on an individual specimen, m is the overall mean, ri is
the fixed effect of the ith row (i = 1,2,.,5), gj is the fixed effect of the
jth column (j = 1,2,.,5), tk is the fixed effect of the kth re-spacing
treatment (k = 1,2,. . .,5), Pl is the random effect of the lth plot (N(0,
s 2P )), Tm(l) is the random effect of the mth tree within the lth plot
(N(0, s 2T )), Ln(lm) is the random effect of the nth log within the mth
tree(N(0, s 2L ), and eo(lmn) is the random effect of the oth piece of
timber from the nth log (N(0, s 2e ). Differences between re-spacing
treatments were examined using F tests, and all tests were made at
alpha = 0.05 level of significance. In particular, treatments were
compared with the control using contrasts. The assumptions of
linear models, particularly those relating to homogeneity of
 J. Moore et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 258 (2009) 1174–1180 1177

Table 2
Selected properties of sawn timber cut from trees sampled in each re-spacing treatment.

Property Re-spacing treatment (m)

1.83  1.83 1.83  3.66 3.66  3.66 3.66  5.49 5.49  5.49

Number of boards tested 70 86 89 70 91

Mean basic density (kg/m3) 335 (11.0) 337ns (10.9) 335ns (10.9) 321ns (11.1) 322ns (10.9)
Mean densitya (kg/m3) 375 (12.3) 378ns (12.2) 376ns (12.2) 360ns (12.4) 361ns (12.2)
Mean MOEG (kN/mm2) 8.98 (0.44) 8.17ns (0.43) 7.76* (0.43) 7.14** (0.44) 7.20** (0.43)
Mean MOR (N/mm2) 36.0 (2.4) 34.3ns (2.3) 31.6ns (2.3) 27.1** (2.4) 27.9** (2.3)
Bending strengthb (N/mm2) 21.01 18.90 15.16 11.22 13.08
EN338 strength class C16 C16 C14 – –
Mean knot area (mm2) 10 156 (1154) 11 969ns (1133) 15 587*** (1139) 15 096** (1149) 14 823*** (1133)
Mean knot size (mm) 19 (1) 21ns (1) 23*** (1) 25** (1) 26*** (1)
Maximum knot size (mm) 61 66 80 83 78

Standard errors are shown in parentheses and the significance of comparisons between different re-spacing treatments and the control for different properties is indicated.
a
Bulk density at 12% moisture content.
b
Characteristic bending strength (fm,k) calculated according to EN384.

variances, were tested and where appropriate transformations
were made.
The characteristic values of modulus of elasticity, modulus of
rupture and density for each of the five different re-spacing
treatments were calculated using the procedures described in
EN384 (CEN, 1995). The characteristic values for both modulus of
elasticity and density were equal to the mean values obtained from
measurements on the timber from each re-spacing treatment. The
characteristic value for bending strength was calculated from the
5th percentile of MOR values obtained for each re-spacing
treatment. In accordance with EN384 (CEN, 1995) these values
were multiplied by 0.83 on the basis that only a single sample
containing approximately 80 pieces of timber was taken from each
re-spacing treatment (i.e., ks = 0.83). Because the timber had been
machine strength graded, the 5th percentile values were also
multiplied by 1.12 to reflect the lower variability of machine
graded timber (i.e., kv = 1.12). Based on these characteristic values,
timber was assigned to a strength class based on the requirements
given in EN338 (CEN, 2003a). Provided that the characteristic
values of bending strength and density for a particular strength
class were met, the characteristic value for bending stiffness only
needed to exceed 95% of the required value for that strength class.
The differences in these characteristic values and the resulting
strength grade between re-spacing treatments were compared.
3. Results
3.1. Grade outturn
Overall, there was a 96.9% pass rate when the 1706 pieces of
timber were machine strength graded to C16 using the X-ray
grader. However, the percentage of sawn timber graded as C16 in
the sawmill decreased from 100.00% in the control to 95.03% in the
widest re-spacing treatment (Table 1).
3.2. Physical and mechanical wood properties
For the sample of 406 pieces of timber selected for further
testing, basic density ranged from 230 kg/m3 up to 440 kg/m3, with
a mean of 330 kg/m3. Values for MOEG ranged from 4.1 kN/mm2 up
to 13.7 kN/mm2, with a mean of 7.8 kN/mm2. MOEG was only
moderately related to basic density (R2 = 0.31), but was strongly
related to Ed determined from measurements of stress wave
velocity and bulk density (R2 = 0.84). Values of bending strength
(MOR) ranged from 5.4 N/mm2 up to 62.8 N/mm2 and were
moderately associated with MOEG (R2 = 0.59). The mean value of
MOR was 31.3 N/mm2 and the 5th percentile value was 16.5
N/mm2. Based on the characteristic values of density (adjusted to
a 12% moisture content basis), MOEG and MOR, the overall sample
of timber met the requirements for the C16 strength class.
There was no difference in the basic density of timber between
re-spacing treatments (F4,11 = 1.163; p = 0.379), however there
were significant differences in both MOEG (F4,11 = 6.517; p = 0.006)
and MOR (F4,11 = 5.88; p = 0.009) between treatments (Table 2).
The mean value of MOEG for timber from all re-spacing treatments
except 1.83  3.66 m was significantly lower than in the control. In
the widest re-spacing treatment, the mean value of MOEG for sawn
timber was 1.78 kN/mm2 lower than in the control. There was a
strong relationship between the mean value of MOEG and the mean
value of Ed measured on logs from each re-spacing treatment
(R2 = 0.97). Only timber from the widest two re-spacing treatments
had significantly different values of MOR than timber from the
control.
Characteristic values of bending strength (fm,k) for each re-
spacing treatment ranged from 11.22 N/mm2 to 21.01 N/mm2
(Table 2). By combining information on bulk density (at 12%
moisture content), characteristic strength and MOEG, it was found
that only timber from the control and the 1.83  3.66 m re-spacing
treatment met the requirements for the C16 strength class
(Table 2). Timber from the two widest re-spacing treatments
failed to meet the minimum requirements for even the C14
strength class. In order to determine the maximum re-spacing
intensity that could be employed and still produce timber meeting
the requirements for the C16 strength class, MOEG and fm,k were
plotted against stand density (Fig. 1). From this it can be seen that
at a stand density of approximately 900 trees/ha, the characteristic
bending strength (fm,k) is near the lower limit for the C16 strength
class. At this stand density, the mean value of MOEG is above the
required value of 7.6 kN/mm2 (95% of 8 kN/mm2). Below this stand
density, the timber is unable to meet the requirements for the C16
strength class due to insufficient bending strength, while at stand
densities below 700 trees/ha, both bending strength and stiffness
become limiting factors.
3.3. Variation in wood properties
The majority (56.7%) of the variation in MOEG of sawn timber
was due to variation within a log, while a further 31.6% was due to
inter-tree differences within a treatment (Table 3). Although the
effect of re-spacing was significant, it only accounted for 11.7% of
the total variation in MOEG of sawn timber. Similar results were
obtained for MOR. Most of the variation in the basic density of
timber was attributed to inter-tree differences within a re-spacing
treatment (41.9%) and within a log (39.9%), although a greater
proportion (18.1%) of the variation in this property was due to
differences between logs within a tree. A negligible proportion of
1178 J. Moore et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 258 (2009) 1174–1180

Fig. 1. Relationship between stand density and both modulus of rupture and
modulus of elasticity. The solid and dashed horizontal lines indicate the
characteristic values of bending strength and stiffness, respectively, that the
necessary for the C16 strength class.

Table 3
Proportion of total variation in basic density, MOEG and MOR attributed to each
stratum within the experiment.

Stratum Proportion of total variation attributed to each Fig. 2. Comparison of basic density, global modulus of elasticity and modulus of
stratum(%) rupture in bending between timber cut from the juvenile (JW) and mature wood
(MW) zones. Data are from all treatments combined.
Basic density MOEG MOR

Plot (re-spacing) <0.1 11.7 10.2

Tree 41.9 31.6
Log 18.1 <0.1
Board 39.9 57.7
Total 100.0 100.0
the variation in basic density (<0.1%) was due to differences
between re-spacing treatments.
Values of MOEG, MOR and basic density of timber cut from
entirely within the first fifteen annual rings from the pith (juvenile
wood zone) were lower than those for timber cut from outside this
zone (Fig. 2). In particular, the mean value of MOEG for timber from
the juvenile wood zone was 1.76 kN/mm2 lower than for timber
cut from the mature wood zone. Likewise, the 5th percentile value
of MOR was 2.1 N/mm2 greater for timber cut from outside the
juvenile wood zone. In the case of the widest re-spacing treatment,
if timber cut from the juvenile wood zone was segregated out, then
the remaining timber had characteristic values of strength, MOEG
and density sufficient to meet the requirements of the C16 strength
class.
The degree of distortion also differed between timber cut from
the juvenile core and that cut from outside this region (Fig. 3).
Mean values of twist measured over a 2 m length on timber cut
from inside and outside the juvenile wood zone were 8.5 mm and
5.6 mm, respectively. However, there was no evidence of any
differences in twist, spring or bow between re-spacing treatments
(p = 0.798, p = 0.256 and p = 0.446, respectively).
3.4. Knot size and frequency
Total knot area on all four faces of a piece of timber ranged from
3110 mm2 to 30,220 mm2 and differed significantly between re-
spacing treatments (F4,11 = 10.17; p = 0.001). Timber from the
three widest re-spacing treatments had total knot areas signifi-
24.5 cantly different from timber cut from the control (Table 2).
6.1 Significant differences in mean and maximum knot size were also
59.2 observed between re-spacing treatments (p < 0.001 and p = 0.001,
100.0
respectively). Again, timber from the three widest re-spacing
treatments had significantly greater mean and maximum knot
sizes than timber cut from the control (Table 2). After accounting
for basic wood density, knot size and knot content had significant
impacts on both bending strength and modulus of elasticity of
individual pieces of timber (Table 4). In particular, total knot area
in combination with basic density accounted for 39 and 47 per cent
of the variation in MOR and MOEG, respectively. Basic density alone
only accounted for 25% and 31% of the variation in MOR and MOEG,
respectively.
4. Discussion
The decrease in timber mechanical properties with increasing
re-spacing intensity observed in this study was consistent with
results from other studies that have investigated the impacts of
pre-commercial thinning (e.g., Pape, 1999; Zhang et al., 2006) as
well as with the earlier findings of Brazier and Mobbs (1993) that
assessed the effects of initial spacing on timber properties from un-
thinned stands. The results from the present study indicate that
with increasing re-spacing intensity, bending strength limits the
strength class according to EN 338 that timber can achieve before
bending stiffness does. At a stand density of approximately
900 trees/ha, the characteristic value of bending strength falls
below the value required for the C16 grade, while the value of
wood stiffness is sufficient until stand density falls below
approximately 700 trees/ha. However, these results only apply
to the particular set of stand conditions present in this study. The
maximum re-spacing intensity that can be employed at a given
site with the resulting stand still yielding C16 grade timber will
depend on site productivity, choice of initial spacing and the timing
 J. Moore et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 258 (2009) 1174–1180 1179

Fig. 3. Comparison of the magnitude of spring, twist and bow of structural timber
cut from the juvenile (JW) and mature wood (MW) zones. Data are from all
treatments combined.
of re-spacing. It may also depend on the rotation length, with
stands grown on rotations of 35–45 years (i.e., typical rotation
lengths for commercial Sitka spruce plantations in the UK)
requiring closer spacing in order to produce acceptable yields of
C16 timber than the 57-year-old stand in this study.
Brazier and Mobbs (1993) have previously shown that the
choice of initial spacing affects the size of the juvenile core, with
wider initial spacing leading to a larger juvenile core that contains
wood with low strength and stiffness, and which is also prone to
distortion (Brazier, 1985). Such differences in wood properties,
particularly MOEG, MOR and twist, between juvenile and mature
wood were clearly apparent in the study reported here. Because
the re-spacing treatments in this study were applied 11 years after
the stand was established, differences in the size of the juvenile
core between treatments were expected to be less than would be
the case if the treatments represented differences in initial spacing.
However, Savill and Sandels (1983) measured the radial profile of
wood density in the stand when it was 32 years old and concluded
that the period of juvenile wood formation did not cease until
1969, i.e., 20 years after the stand was planted and nine years after
the re-spacing treatments were applied. The size of juvenile core
was much larger than the innermost 12 rings assumed by Brazier
and Mobbs (1993) and based on the diameter measurements
presented in Kilpatrick et al. (1981) was approximately 130 mm in
diameter in the control (46% of average DBH at time of felling) and
210 mm in the 5.4  5.4 m re-spacing treatment (41% of average
DBH). Therefore, differences in timber properties between re-
spacing treatments appear to be due to the effects of the re-spacing
treatments on both the size of the juvenile core and mature wood
properties.
While wood stiffness and strength are generally related to
density (Zhang, 1997), the latter did not differ between timber cut
from the different re-spacing treatments. This was somewhat
unexpected as several studies (e.g., Brazier, 1970; Savill and
Sandels, 1983; Gardiner and O’Sullivan, 1978) found that the basic
density of Sitka spruce wood decreases with increasing inter-tree
spacing. In particular, Savill and Sandels (1983) found a small but
significant difference in wood density between re-spacing treat-
ments at the Baronscourt experiment when the stand was 32 years
old. Microfibril angle (MfA) is also a major determinant of wood
stiffness (Evans and Ilic, 2001) and differences in MfA between re-
spacing treatments may have given rise to the observed differences
in wood stiffness. Therefore, further research is required to
investigate the effects of re-spacing on both of these properties
in Sitka spruce.
In addition to density and MfA, the number, size and location of
knots also affect the strength and stiffness of timber (e.g., Maun,
1992; Cown et al., 1995; Kliger et al., 1995; Xu, 2002). Results from
this study indicate that some of the reduction in strength and
particularly the reduced stiffness of timber from the wider re-
spacing treatments was due to the increased knot content.
Approximately half the observed variation in the stiffness of
individual pieces of timber could be explained by differences in
basic density and total knot surface area, with the latter differing
significantly between re-spacing treatments. The greater impact of
knots on stiffness than on bending strength was counter to the
findings of Kliger et al. (1995). However, they measured knot area
ratio on a cross-sectional area basis, whereas we measured total
knot area on the surface of the timber. Overall, the general trend of
decreasing strength and stiffness with increased knottiness
indicates that the timing and intensity of a pre-commercial
thinning needs to be such that good control over branch size is
obtained. Maintaining a tighter spacing in the early stage of stand
development will also limit the size of the juvenile core. However,
in countries such as the United Kingdom and Ireland, which have
windy climates, silvicultural regimes often need to balance the
goal of improving wood quality with that of maintaining stand
stability (Savill, 1983; Cameron, 2002).
The large amount of variation in timber properties between
trees within a re-spacing treatment presents an opportunity to sort

Table 4
Summary information for the relationships to predict MOEG and MOR of sawn timber from basic density (BD), total knot area (TKA), mean knot size (MeanKS) and maximum
knot size (MaxKS).

Property Parameter estimate R2

Intercept SG TKA MeanKS MaxKS

4
MOEG 1.584** 0.024*** 1.312  10 *** 0.47
0.663 0.025*** 0.044*** 0.33
0.786 0.025*** 0.016*** 0.37

MOR 0.025 0.012*** 6.827  104*** 0.39

1.297 0.122*** 0.331*** 0.29
3.503 0.125*** 0.086*** 0.31
1180 J. Moore et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 258 (2009) 1174–1180
logs based on their wood stiffness. A significant proportion of the
logs from the widest re-spacing treatment had a higher dynamic
modulus of elasticity, as assessed using an acoustic-based
instrument, than logs from the control. Tseheye et al. (2000) have
shown that by sorting logs based on their dynamic modulus of
elasticity, it is possible to increase the proportion of timber that
achieves the requirements for structural uses. Therefore, in stands
that have been pre-commercially thinned to a low residual stand
density, it could be possible to identify logs that would yield
structural timber while directing others for processing into non-
structural end products. Furthermore, the contrast in the
mechanical properties and dimensional stability between timber
cut from the innermost 12 annual rings from a log and timber cut
from outside this zone has implications for log cutting patterns and
sawn timber sorting in the sawmill. Because the majority of the
variation in timber mechanical properties is due to these
differences in radial position, the decrease in timber bending
strength and stiffness that occurred in the wider re-spacing
treatments could be reduced if the logs were processed in such a
way that structural timber was not cut from the juvenile wood
zone. While such cutting patterns would reduce the volume
recovery of sawn timber, they would enable timber from wider re-
spacing treatments to meet the requirements for the C16 strength
class. However, if the objective of forest management is to grow
trees that are capable of producing the maximum volume of timber
that meets the requirements for the C16 strength class or better,
then it is important to employ silvicultural practices that restrict
both the size of the juvenile core and branches.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Baronscourt Estate and the Northern
Ireland Forest Service (NIFS) for allowing access to the trial. Noel
Melanaphy from NIFS provided historical data on the trial and
helped with the logistics. Other NIFS staff helped to fell and extract
the trees. Elspeth Macdonald, Paul McLean, David Swinson, Floran
Pierre, Dave Auty and staff from the Agricultural Food and
Bioscience Institute assisted with the field sampling. Balcas
Sawmills processed the logs into timber and Adam Wilson and
Sons Ltd graded this timber. Stefan Lehneke assisted with the
mechanical testing of the timber. Dr Bill Jack, who established the
original experiment, provided background information on the
experiment and suggestions for analysis of the data. Dr Dan Ridley-
Ellis and Elspeth Macdonald provided useful comments on an
earlier version of the manuscript.
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