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Contents :
Static electricity and its history
Coulomb's law
Categorizing objects
Current electricity
Electric current intensity
The concept of electrical resistance
The concept of voltage
Ohm law
The concept of electric power
Things related to power
Resistor and its types
Detecting resistance amount from color bands
Reading resistance from numeric codes and Latin letters
The concept of tolerance (error percentage) of resistors
Resistors’ standard amounts
The final problems of the chapter
 Electricity and electronic principle
Static electricity and its history
The origin of human knowledge of electricity can be estimated to be from 600 BC, when
Greek philosopher Thales discovered that, amber can attract light objects by rubbing. And
the name electricity comes from “electron”, the Greek word for amber.

Attracting light objects with amber

Creating static electricity in objects by rubbing was experienced until the end of 18 century
by many scientists including “Otto von Guericke”. In those experiments, they realized that:
some of the objects have the Property of attracting or repelling other objects by rubbing. In
other words, they can apply force to each other. Existence of the force is because of the
existence of «Electrical load» in objects. That’s why it’s called «Electric force».

Coulomb's law:
The reason of force existence between 2 loaded objects can be justified like this: there is an
»Electric field «around each loaded object and even though it can’t be seen by the eyes, it’s
real. For the first time a French physicist, “Coulomb” could experimentally measure the force
between loaded objects in 1785. He also got a relation for the force amount which is:
Force between 2 loaded particles depends on load amount of each one, distance between 2
loads and also environment material that the 2 loaded particle are in.
Electrical load unit is called Coulomb and it is equivalent to electrical load of 6.24 * 1018
electron.

-1.6*10-19 An electron is approximately equals to Coulomb.

The negative sign next to the number (-1.6) doesn't have any effect on its amount and it’s
only to show the negative load of electron.

Categorizing objects:
Objects in nature are electrically divided into three categories:
A: Insulator or non-conductor: The objects in which there are no free electrons. Glass, Mica,
Rubber and Wood are among them. Electricity in those objects are static and they stay
(static) at one point.

Glass
 Mica

B: Conductor: The objects that have a large number of free electrons, such as copper, silver
and aluminum. The generated electricity is uniformly distributed over the metal surface due
to the ability of the electrical load to move in the metal.

Aluminum bars

Copper cables
C: Semiconductor: The objects that are electrically between conductors and insulators. In
other words, they are the elements that have 4 electrons in their outer shell of atom. Like
silicon and germanium:

Molecular structure of silicon

Germanium Transistor

Current electricity: In 1799, Italian physicist Alessandro Volta was able to generate
electricity by his own voltaic pile and send a continuous current in the wires. He called this
electricity "current electricity".

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Electric current intensity: The amount of electrical load changes in time unit is called
electric current.

If the movement of electrons is uniformly in a steady direction in the wire, the current is
called D.C and its amount is calculated with the formula below :

t: Time in terms of second

q: Amount of electrical load in terms of Coulomb
I: Electric current in terms of Ampere
The number of electrons that pass from a point of circuit determines the amount of current
flow from the circuit. The higher the number of the electrons, the more the “current flow”.

Amperage definition: An ampere is electric current of wire and one Coulomb electrical
load (6.24*1018 electron) flows from its specific section surface in one second.
Electric current is represented by the Latin letter I (the first letter of Intensity) and its unit is
indicated by A ampere. The smaller amperage units are: One thousandth of ampere=1mA
and One millionth of amp=1μA.
m= milli
μ=micro

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 Resistance
The concept of Electrical resistance
The electrical resistance is a factor that prevents the flow of electric current. The resistor is
represented by the Latin letter R (the first letter of Resistance) and its unit is in terms of ohm
with the Latin letter Ω.
Larger ohm units:
One thousand ohm= one Kilo Ohm= 1KΩ
One million ohm= one Mega Ohm= 1MΩ

Voltage
The concept of voltage
The potential difference between two points of circuit is the amount of energy that electrical
load consumes to move from one point to another.

v: Voltage in terms of volt

w: Energy in terms of Joule
q: Electrical load in terms of Coulomb
Definition of Volt: one volt is the potential difference of two points of circuit. When one
Coulomb electrical load (6.24*1018 electron) consumes one joule energy while moving from
those two points, it would be one volt. Voltage is represented by Latin letter V (first letter of
voltage) and its unit is indicated in terms of V volt.

Ohm’s Law
when current intensity I flows from resistor R, the potential difference V will be created in
both sides of the resistor and the amount is obtained by the following formula :

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This law is named after its discoverer Georg Ohm.

Ohm triangle:

The resulting relationships of Ohm's law:

Concept of electric power

The work which is done in a time unit is called electric power which is obtained from the
following relation:
P: Electric power in terms of watt
w: Energy in terms of Joule
t: Time in terms of second
Electric power is represented by Latin letter P (first letter of Power) and its unit is indicated
in terms of W watt.
Allowed power, is the maximum power that a device can tolerate. The resulting relationships
of power formula:

As a result, the final formula of power is as follows:

Problem 1: What is resistance of a 100 watt light bulb ?
Problem 2: What happens if we connect a 100 watt with 110 volt light bulb to a 220 volt
power ?
P1=100w
V1=110v
V2=220V
First solution: First, we calculate the resistance of the light bulb:

The bulb burns due to quadrupled (4 times of) power

Second solution: We calculate the allowed current of the bulb:

Bulb burns because current is doubled.

Result: resistors burn, in case power and current intensity raise from the allowed limit
Problem 3: Calculate the resistance of a 1000 watt electric heater compared to a 200 watt
bulb.
V=220v
P1=1000w
P2=200w

Bulb resistance is 5 times of heater resistance.

Result: The higher the power of the consumer devices, the lower their resistance.
Problem 4: how much ampere does a 3300 watt air conditioner use?
P=3300w
V=220v
I=?

Air conditioner uses 15 ampere (the current)

Resistor

Types of resistors in terms of placement on PCB circuits:

A) SMD or SMT
Surface Mount Device (SMD)
Surface Mount Technology (SMT)
They are placed on the surface.

B) PTH
Plated Through Hole (PTH)

Placing pin through a hole.

B: types of resistors in terms of usage on circuits

1. Fixed resistors
2. Adjustable Resistors
3. Variable Resistors
4. Array Resistors
5. Printed Carbon Resistors
 1- Fixed Resistors:
These resistors are divided into 2 types in terms of production (1- Wire wound 2-
Composition)
A) Wire Wound Resistor
Types of wire wound resistors divide into Cement-Clay-Chinese resistors depending on their
insulation. There is coil inside them. Wires are usually made of alloys (nickel-copper) /
(nickel-chromium) / (nickel-chromium-aluminum)
Wire wound resistors have lower ohm and higher power compared to composition ones and
their size (Wire wound resistors) is also bigger.

B) Composition
Composition Resistors include
1- Carbon composition Resistors
2- Carbon film Resistor
3- Metal film Resistor
4- Metal oxide film Resistor
Carbon composition Resistors: carbonic compositions (mixture of carbon powder) is formed
(formwork) as dough with resin and resistant materials, and cooked in a furnace and covered
with insulator. These resistors are small in size with high resistance but low tolerance, from
one fourth watts to two watts.
Carbon film Resistor: This type of resistor is made of sedimentation of a thin layer of carbon
on a ceramic bar, and groves will be created on the resistor for increasing its amount, then
the set is covered with insulator.

Metal film Resistor: This type of resistor is made on glass material bar and a thin layer of
gold, platinum and silver (metals) is covered on it and then grooves will be created on the
layer. The disadvantages of these resistors are expensiveness and power limitation (1 watt).
Metal oxide film resistor: This type of resistor is somehow like the metal film resistor with a
difference that, tin and antimony metal oxides are used instead of metal cover.

Adjustable resistors: (knobs)

These resistors are used in radio, Television and audio devices as adjustable resistors
(manually) in order to turn up and down volume or adjust brightness which are usually
carbonic and wire types are used in high power.
Types of these resistors are :
Potentiometer: A potentiometer is used to change the voltage
Rheostat: it is used to change the resistance

Trimmer: Instead of a moving handle, it has a groove which should be adjusted with a
screwdriver.

The way these resistors work is that they have two fixed and one variable pins. The
resistance amount between the two fixed pins (2 side pins), which in fact determines the
potentiometer’s amount, is a fixed amount. While the resistance between the pin in the
middle and either of the side pins can be changed by a revolving axis (knob handle).
 Variable Resistors (Varistor)

These types of resistors change without mechanical actions and they change under factors
such as voltage, heat, light and magnetism, and are divided on the same basis.

Symbolic circuit of Varistor

A) Voltage Dependent Resistor (VDR)

This type of resistor’s resistance changes depending on the amount of applied voltage and it
is used to keep the voltage fixed in a point of circuit and its resistance decreases when
voltage increases.

B) Thermal Resistor (Thermistor)

It is divided into two categories:

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Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
A thermistor with positive thermal coefficient’s resistance amount increases when heat
increases.

The impedance written on these resistors is measured at 25 degrees Celsius.

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
A thermistor with negative thermal coefficient’s resistance amount decreases when heat
increases and is made of various oxides Fe2O3, MnO2, NiO. To neutralize undesirable
changes of the currents and voltages of the elements by heat, it is used as thermostat to
prevent the temperature from rising and to prevent the very high instantaneous current
intensity.
C: Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Resistance amount decreases due to the intensity of light. And its main material is cadmium
sulfide.

D: Magnetic Dependent Resistor (MDR)

The resistance amount of these resistors changes by applying the magnetic field, in a way
that by increasing the field, their ohm amount decreases.
E: There are other variable resistors which their resistance amount changes by humidity, gas

Array or Network resistors

The array resistor actually contains a set of several resistors inside a package, which are
available both in SMD and PTH, and the internal resistance amounts are all equal. In logic
circuits, they are being used to pull up and pull down the inputs and outputs, they are also
used in LED circuits.
In SMD type, pins across from each other make separated resistors and they don’t have
common pin.

In the PTH type, a pin (which is marked) is the common pin, and each of the other pins make
a resistor with the common pin.
 Printed carbon resistors
These resistors are carbon mix type and are printed directly on fiber layers of PCB circuit.
This type of resistor’s tolerance (error percentage) is high (even up to 30%) and it can’t be
replaced.

Detecting resistance amount from color bands

1- Four colors:

First and second bands = Numbers

Third band = coefficient or number of zeros
Fourth band = Tolerance or error percentage
The order of reading resistance amount
Tolerance+-(Coefficient*Numbers)

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2- Five colors:

First, second and third bands= Numbers

Fourth band = coefficient or number of zeros
Fifth band = Tolerance (Error Percentage)
The order of reading resistance amount:
Tolerance+-(Coefficient*Numbers)

3- Body, end and point color: This type is the British standard (B.S) which was used in older
devices

Body and end colors= numbers

Dot color= coefficient or number of zeros
Initial (beginning) color= Tolerance

The order of reading colors

Body- End- Dot
↑ ↑ ↑
Numbers Coefficient
The order of reading resistance amount :
Tolerance+-(Coefficient*Numbers)

tolerance color 4 colors Coefficient color Number color

2%= Red 1= black 1= Brown
5%= Golden 10= brown 2= Red
10%= silver 100= red 3= Orange
1000= orange 4= Yellow
tolerance color 5 color 10000= yellow 5= Green
0.1%= Purple 100000= Green 6= Blue
0.25%= Blue 1000000= Blue 7= Purple
0.5%= Green 0.1= Golden 8= Gray
1%= Brown 0.01= Silver 9= white
2%= Red 0= black

4- Six colors: it's like 5 colors and the sixth color is the characteristic of the thermal
coefficient which its number is expressed in terms of PPM or centigrade degree.

The order of reading resistance amount

Tolerance+-(Coefficient*Numbers)
5PPM= Purple
10PPM= Blue
15PPM= Orange
25PPM= Yellow
50PPM= Red
100PPM= Brown

How to read resistance amount from the numeric and letter codes:
1- clear mode which means no code and password
:Ohm and tolerance and even the allowed power (maximum power) of resistors are written
on them. Such as :
15Ω 10% 2W
15ohm 2 watts resistor with 10% tolerance
330 ohm 10 wat resistor with 5% tolerance

2- 3 digit mode

4700Ω= 4.7 KΩ

3- 4 digit mode

176*104=1760000Ω=1.76MΩ

4- A Latin letter and several digit mode

22Ω
R= Ω= Ohm
K=KΩ= Kilo Ohm
M= MΩ= Mega Ohm
Note: The Latin letter will be considered as decimal if it is placed between the digits or on
the left side of the digits.

5- 2 Latin letters and several digit mode

10KΩ with 5% tolerance (error percent)

0.27Ω with 1% tolerance
3.3MΩ with 10% tolerance
Note: The first Latin letter will be considered as decimal if it is placed between the digits or
on the left side of the digits.

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 first letter: resistance Range second letter: tolerance
Ohm Ω =R 0.1% =B
Kilo Ohm KΩ =K 0.25% =C
Mega Ohm MΩ =M 0.5% =D
٪1 = F
٪2 = G
٪3 = H
٪5 = J
٪10 =K
٪20 =M

Concept of the tolerance (error percentage) of resistor:

In the factory production line, making each resistor is associated with error. The accurate the
resistor, the less its error percentage (tolerance). When resistor tolerance is said to be 5%,
its amount will be calculated as follows.
Error percentage+-resistance amount in terms of ohm
For example, a 10KΩ resistor with 10% error is calculated like this
10%+-10000=10KΩ
10%of 10000 is 1000, so the resistor can vary from 9000Ω to 11000Ω
10000-1000=9000Ω
10000+1000=11000Ω
Standard amounts of resistors
Several base numbers have been selected as standard from one tens of resistance (eg, 0 to
10 ohm) for example, in standard E6, six base numbers (1- 1.5- 2.2- 3.3-4.7-6.8) are the
existing resistances of the standard. Letter E is taken from beginning of the word European.
You can see the full chart of standards below :
 6.80 4.70 3.30 2.20 1.50 1.00 E6
8.20 6.80 5.60 4.70 3.90 3.30 2.70 2.20 1.80 1.50 1.20 1.00 E12
3.00 2.70 2.40 2.20 2.00 1.80 1.60 1.50 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 E24
9.10 8.20 7.50 6.80 6.20 5.60 5.10 4.70 4.30 3.90 3.60 3.30
1.69 1.62 1.54 1.47 1.40 1.33 1.27 1.21 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00 E48
3.01 2.87 2.74 2.61 2.49 2.37 2.26 2.15 2.05 1.96 1.87 1.78
5.36 5.11 4.87 4.64 4.42 4.22 4.02 3.83 3.65 3.48 3.32 3.16
9.53 9.09 8.66 8.25 7.87 7.50 7.15 6.81 6.49 6.19 5.90 5.62
1.30 1.27 1.24 1.21 1.18 1.15 1.13 1.10 1.07 1.05 1.02 1.00 E96
1.74 1.69 1.65 1.62 1.58 1.54 1.50 1.47 1.43 1.40 1.37 1.33
2.32 2.26 2.21 2.15 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.96 1.91 1.87 1.82 1.78
3.09 3.01 2.94 2.87 2.80 2.74 2.67 2.61 2.55 2.49 2.43 2.37
4.12 4.02 3.92 3.83 3.74 3.65 3.57 3.48 3.40 3.32 3.24 3.16
5.49 5.36 5.23 5.11 4.99 4.87 4.75 4.64 4.53 4.42 4.32 4.22
7.32 7.15 6.98 6.81 6.65 6.49 6.34 6.19 6.04 5.90 5.76 5.62
9.76 9.53 9.31 9.09 8.87 8.66 8.45 8.25 8.06 7.87 7.68 7.50
1.14 1.13 1.11 1.10 1.09 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.02 1.01 1.00 E192
1.32 1.30 1.29 1.27 1.26 1.24 1.23 1.21 1.20 1.18 1.17 1.15
1.52 1.50 1.49 1.47 1.45 1.43 1.42 1.40 1.38 1.37 1.35 1.33
1.76 1.74 1.72 1.69 1.67 1.65 1.64 1.62 1.60 1.58 1.56 1.54
2.03 2.00 1.98 1.96 1.93 1.91 1.89 1.87 1.84 1.82 1.80 1.78
2.34 2.32 2.29 2.26 2.23 2.21 2.18 2.15 2.13 2.10 2.08 2.05
2.71 2.67 2.64 2.61 2.58 2.55 2.52 2.49 2.46 2.43 2.40 2.37
3.12 3.09 3.05 3.01 2.98 2.94 2.91 2.87 2.84 2.80 2.77 2.74
3.61 3.57 3.52 3.48 3.44 3.40 3.36 3.32 3.28 3.24 3.20 3.16
4.17 4.12 4.07 4.02 3.97 3.92 3.88 3.83 3.79 3.74 3.70 3.65
4.81 4.75 4.70 4.64 4.59 4.53 4.48 4.42 4.37 4.32 4.27 4.22
5.56 5.49 5.42 5.36 5.30 5.23 5.17 5.11 5.05 4.99 4.93 4.87
6.42 6.34 6.26 6.19 6.12 6.04 5.97 5.90 5.83 5.76 5.69 5.62
7.41 7.32 7.23 7.15 7.06 6.98 6.90 6.81 6.73 6.65 6.57 6.49
8.56 8.45 8.35 8.25 8.16 8.06 7.96 7.87 7.77 7.68 7.59 7.50
9.88 9.76 9.65 9.53 9.42 9.31 9.20 9.09 8.98 8.87 8.76 8.66

The final problems of the chapter:

-if 100 mA current flows through a 2.2 Kilo ohm resistor, what would the voltage at both
sides be?

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V=R.I
R= 2.2 KΩ=2200Ω
I=100mA= 0.1A
V=R.I= 2200*0.1=220
V=220V voltage of both sides of the resistor
-If voltage of both sides of a 1 Kilo ohm resistor is 12 volt, calculate its current.

-Voltage of both sides of a resistor is 3.3 volt and its current is 30 mA. What is the amount of
resistance?

-A 100 ohm resistor that can tolerate current of 0.3 amps is required in an electric circuit.
The following resistors are available for choosing ?
(100Ω-10w) and (100Ω-7.5w) and (100Ω-5w) which one should be chosen?

(100Ω-10w) resistor is better, because allowed wattage limit needs to be more than power
9. Two other resistors will burn on the circuit.
-Calculate the allowed voltage of a 100 ohm resistor, if its allowed power is 2 watts?
-A flashlight LED with 300 MW power requires 50 mA to be able to turn ON. what is the
LED's volt amount?

Evaluate your knowledge by answering the questions bellow:

-What do you think is the difference between a 100 ohm ¼ watt resistor and a 100 ohm ½
watt resistor? Is it possible to place ¼ watt resistor in a circuit in which a ½ watt resistor is
required? What about in reverse?

-Calculate the amounts of E12 series resistors from 1 ohm to 100 ohm?
-Calculate the amounts of resistors that are specified with following colors?

First color Second color Third color Fourth color

Brown Black Brown Golden
Brown Black Black Silver
Brown Black Red Red
Red Purple Red Golden

First color Second color Third color Fourth color Fifth color
Yellow Purple Black Red Red
Orange White Brown Golden Green
Brown Gray Green Orange Brown
Green Blue Black Yellow Blue

-According to the tolerance of each resistor of previous problem, specify the maximum and
minimum ranges of each one?
1M5G=
1K8J=
1R2F=
4R7K=
68MM=
2K2B=
470RH=
560KD=
56KK=
6R8C=
47MN=
RJ390=

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CAPACITOR

Capacitor is probably the second most commonly used component in electronic circuits. A capacitor is a
device that can temporarily store an electric charge. Capacitors come in several different varieties, the two
most common being ceramic disk and electrolytic. The amount of capacitance of a given capacitor is
measured in Farads designated by the symbol F.

DIODE

A diode is a device that lets current flow in only one direction. A diode has two terminals, called the
anode and the cathode. Current will flow through the diode only when positive voltage is applied to the
anode and negative voltage to the cathode. If these voltages are reversed, current will not flow.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a special type of diode that emits light when current passes through it. It
is usually used as an indicator.

TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It
is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals commonly called Base,
Emitter, and Collector used for connection to an external circuit.

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ANTENNA

An antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency (RF) fields into alternating current or vice versa.
There are both receiving and transmission antennas for sending or receiving radio transmissions.
Antennas play an important role in the operation of all radio equipment. They are used in wireless local
area networks, mobile telephony and satellite communication.

MICROPHONE

A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical
signal.
LOUDSPEAKER

A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer which converts an electrical audio signal into a

corresponding sound.

RELAY SWITCH

Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or electronically. Relays control one
electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another circuit. There is an open contact when the
relay is not energized.
TRANSFORMER

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through
electromagnetic induction. It can also be said to be an electrical device that steps-up an steps-down
electrical current.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier is a type of full wave rectifier which uses four or more diodes to efficiently convert AC
to DC.
FUSE

A fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to provide over current protection in a circuit. It's an
essential component that must be present in both Electrical and Electronic appliances.

BATTERY

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided
to power electrical devices.

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INDUCTOR

An inductor, also called a coil, choke or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores
electrical energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it.

SWITCH

A switch is an electronic component or device that can switch an electrical circuit, interrupting the current
or diverting it from one conductor to another.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

An integrated circuit is a special component that contains an entire electronic circuit, complete with
transistors, diodes, and other elements, all photographically etched onto a tiny piece of silicon.

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