The Impact of Rote Learning on the

Beginning Instrumentalist
Bibliography and Research
July 31, 2017

By Megan Tompkins

Table of Contents:

Introduction 1

Annotated Bibliography

Books 2

Dissertation 10

Newspaper 12

Periodical 13

Video 17
 Tompkins 1

The Impact of Rote Learning on the Beginning Instrumentalist

Rote learning is one of the most basic and instinctual forms of learning. Children from all

over the world learn their native language by listening to their surroundings and imitating the

sounds they hear with their own voice. For decades, music educators have used this technique in

order to teach their students the foundations of their respective instruments. By allowing the

students to use their audiation skills, they are able to spend more time on proper position and

musicality rather than deciphering the hieroglyphics on the page.

Teaching pure rote is often overlooked in many public school systems. This is a list of

information meant for the instrumental teacher that wants to integrate rote learning into their

classroom, the parent who is interested in learning more about the theories that their children are

being taught, and the student who wishes to broaden their horizon.

Some of the theories discussed in this bibliography include three of the most influential

music researchers in the rote learning community, Shinichi Suzuki, Zoltán Kodály, and Edwin

Gordon, as well as a few select others. The three names listed above have dedicated their careers

to the study of rote learning. This bibliography contains articles, books, dissertations, and videos

that have been printed within the past 100 years. The reason for a broad date range is that the

sources contain information from the first instrumentalists who used rote learning in their

pedagogical procedures. The scope of instruments for this bibliography include all band and

orchestra instruments. The resources in the bibliography can be made especially useful for

elementary instrumental music teachers who are debating the use of rote learning in their lesson

plans.
 Tompkins 2

Annotated Bibliography

Book:
Aldi-Snow, L. (2014). Your musical voyage. Schenectady, NY: Snow Music Press
This method book was written by a music teacher for music teachers who use the Gordon
learning theory within their general music programs. Its purpose is for those same teachers who
seek to incorporate the same approach in their beginning instrumental music programs. The book
uses rote learning as its main teaching strategy, and does not incorporate traditional written
notation until page 17. This method book is a great example of rote teaching in the beginning
instrumental classroom because the method has been written for both band and orchestra and
features easy enough songs to engage the learner, but challenge them as well.

Allen, M. (2003). A pedagogical model for beginning string class instruction: Revisited. In D.

Littrell (Ed.), Teaching music through performance in orchestra (Vol. 2, pp. 3-13).

Chicago, IL: GIA.

Michael Allen discusses the importance of the teaching beginning students in a three tier process;
left hand, right hand, and music reading. The three tiers discuss the importance of separating
everything out and then slowly introduce them to each other using rote learning and modeling.
When the teacher is a good model, the students should have very little problem transitioning
between the three skills and once they have a very strong foundation, combining the three skills
should also come easier to the student. Although the book does mention traditional notation, it
makes frequent references to the use of audiation as a teaching tool. This is most profitable to the
research because it focuses on the beginning student and their connection to rote learning.

Beach, N., Evans, J., & Spruce, G. (2011). Making music in the primary school. Abingdon,

Oxon: Routledge.

The book informs the reader that beginning instrumental instruction has been done by ear since
the turn of the century. In most cases, music education has been done in a large group setting and
when beginning instrumentalists start the recorder, it is the most effective way to have them sing
and then play. The book also explored the idea that students should not only rely on copying
music found on a staff but should be allowed to explore it through verbal and aural limitations
(pp. 7-8). Beach, Evans, and Spruce all explore the idea of instrumental development and how it
connects to the voice. This process lines up with both Suzuki’s idea of using the “Mother’s
Tongue” and Gordon’s approach to singing and then playing.

Barrett, C. M. (1995). The magic of matsumoto: The Suzuki method of education. Palm Springs,

CA: ETC.
 Tompkins 3

Barrett tells all in a first person point of view of the Suzuki training program. She writes both of
being a parent of two year old students as well as her transformation into becoming a Suzuki
teacher. It is interestingly written as a journal entry. It speaks of the fundamentals of rote learning
and at its core, the reasoning behind why the trainings work at such young ages. The book does
go into how the approach is replicated into a standard american classroom as well as private
instruction at an older age.

Colwell, R. J., & Goolsby, T. (1992) The teaching of instrumental music (2nd ed.). Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Colwell & Goolsby approach rote learning as a negative aspect in their book about instrumental
music. They touch upon rote learning only as a way to help intrinsically motivate students
through popular music. They state that beginning students will become discouraged quicker
when taught popular music through rote learning because they will not be able to emulate the
sounds they hear on the radio. They also reference modeling throughout the book and mention
how beneficial it is for the teacher to model the desired skill and have the students play that skill
back. They do emphasize that the teacher must be highly proficient in the instrument they are
modeling on in order for the student to correctly respond. The chapters are helpful to the reader
because it focuses on rote learning as a means to motivate students as well as show them correct
technical skills. The reader would find chapter 4, 6 and 7 to be the best resources in relation to
the topic at hand.

Dillon, J. (2008). Playing beyond the score: Thoughts on teaching expressive musicianship. In D.

Littrell (Ed.), Teaching music through performance in orchestra (Vol. 3, pp. 3-7).

Chicago, IL: GIA.

This chapter focuses on the central idea that students are inherently curious and should be
allowed to experiment with their instruments in order to be more comfortable with them. By
letting these young students to experiment, they will naturally understand the different ways they
can make their instrument sound. Dillon expresses that when those same students have been
taught the notes aurally, they can focus on the more expressive qualities of the music. She
concludes her chapter by discussing that some of the greatest performers express the greatest
only after they have memorized a section, so why not use that same reference when teaching
beginners.

Feldman, E., & Contzius, A. (2011a). An introduction to sound-to-symbol. In instrumental music

education: Teaching with the musical practical in harmony (pp. 3-17). New York, NY:

Routledge.
 Tompkins 4

The authors of the book go into full detail about the three leading theorists in rote learning. The
reader would find this source most helpful in the explanations of each learning theory and
examples of their personal research.The chapter also explains the “Sound-to-Symbol” (p. 12)
concept and the importance of building the musical ear. This connection is valuable to the topic
by explaining the foundations of the rote learning theory.

Feldman, E., & Contzius, A. (2011b). Teaching rhythm and rhythm reading: Audiation, pulse,

pattern, and meter. In instrumental music education: Teaching with the musical practical

in harmony (pp. 18-46). New York, NY: Routledge.

Feldman and Contzius go into detail on how any music teacher can teach rhythmic patterns using
call and response activities. They express that the key to any musician is to feel the beat and use
movement to help solidify it. They make connections to beginning instrumentalists and how it is
important for them to use foot tapping, clapping, and swaying when performing with their
instrument. They continuously make connections to Kodaly and Takadimi systems and how
speaking the syllables and then performing them connect to their inner musical ear.

Feldman, E., & Contzius, A. (2011c). Tonality, melody, and singing. In instrumental music

education: Teaching with the musical practical in harmony (pp. 47-52). New York, NY:

Routledge.

This chapter focuses on the importance of teaching the instrumental student about the idea of a
tonal center. The authors discuss that it is dire to teach this from the beginning stages so that
students can have a good foundation on their tonal awareness (p.47). They also express that this
is best completed by using solfege in the rehearsal room. By having students learn their melodies
using solfege, they have a solid base and can emulate the sounds they sang on their instrument.

Flohr, J. & Trollinger, W. (2010). Approaches in music learning theory. In S. Touborg, & R.

Carlin (Ed.). Music in elementary education (pp. 138-150). Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson.

Chapter 11 is most beneficial to the reader because of its importance in explaining the many
different theoretical approaches to rote learning and how the research behind them. Beside the
traditional three rote theorists, the following are included in the chapter: Montessori, Orff, and
Dalcroze. The chapter gives very detailed chart of each theorist and the breakdown of the
theories (pp.139-140). Both Flohr and Trollinger use multiple charts and pictures to help show
students participating in the activities.
 Tompkins 5

Gillespie, R. (2008). Checkpoints for self-evaluation: Creating a self-help program to become the

best string teacher you can be. In D. Littrell (Ed.), Teaching music through performance

in orchestra (Vol. 3, pp. 39-50). Chicago, IL: GIA.

Gillespie discusses the use of rote to note in his chapter for string teachers. He states that
students are most expressive when they are taught a skill and then are introduced to its actual
notation (p. 41). He also expresses the idea that proximity and modeling go in had with rote
learning because they can help reinforce good practice methods and playing techniques. Most
students respond best by close teacher proximity, so when combined, the student will respond
positively and correctly when a good model is present. This connects to the ideas expressed in
the bibliography because it explores the idea of leadership brought on by proximity and rote
learning, all things that have yet to be introduced in the research.

Gordon, E. E. (1991). Guiding your child’s musical development. Chicago, IL: GIA.

Although this book is only 42 pages in length, Gordon gives very clear and detailed instructions
for parents on how they can train their child’s auditory skill. Even though this book is intended
for very young children, there are many techniques and ideas teachers can use and implement in
their beginner instrumental programs. Such ideas include how to teach audiation using familiar
tunes that students would be able to connect to. He also includes simple rhythmic and melodic
charts the teacher could as teaching supplements.

Gordon, E. E. (2001). Jump right in the music curriculum: Reference handbook for using

learning sequence activities (4th ed.). Chicago, IL: GIA.

Throughout the book, Gordon discusses audiation and how to incorporate it into a daily
rehearsal. He breaks his book up into three parts: organization of materials, using those materials,
and teaching patterns in learning sequence activities. Each part is essential for the beginning
teacher and is meant to be a guide to form successful lesson plans using his learning theory. His
main idea that is referenced consistently is that the student can only access their true musical self
once they can comprehend the music in front of them (p. 4).

Gordon, E. E. (2002). Rating scales and their uses for measuring and evaluating achievement

in music performance. Chicago, IL: GIA.

Gordon discusses how he creates his evaluations of students with some focus on the young
musician. Although the majority of his research is meant for all ages, the materials listed in the
book best suit the young instrumentalist because it focuses on analyzing, interpreting, and then
reflecting on a basic level so that the results of the performance evaluations reflect the needs of
the beginning student. Again, he focuses on the importance of audiation and how that is the key
part of any exam. He also makes connections to rote learning and its factors on written notation.
 Tompkins 6

Even though the book is very technical and can be dry, it is clearly written so that any teacher
can assess and implement them into their curriculum.

Hickey, M. (2012). Music outside the lines. New York, NY: Oxford University Press

The author of this book takes a closer look at composition in the classroom. One conclusion
drawn from the chapter is that students work best when their audiational skills are strong. The
author states that it is best strengthened through rote learning. The reader would find this chapter
helpful because it includes activities to be implemented in daily lesson plans. The chapter was
also helpful because it did not just focus on music notation, but rather composition through
imitation and a strong use of creativity.

Holz, E. A., & Jacobi, R. E. (1966). Recruiting a new class. Teaching band instruments to

beginners (pp. 21-30). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Holz discusses the idea that the teacher must demonstrate all instruments aurally. He continues
by stating that students should have an experienced teacher who can create a meaningful and
memorable setup guide. Holz and Jacobi explain that the setup guide, or “script” is what will
make or break the beginning band and orchestra programs (pp.26-27). When students have a
good model they are more likely to replicate the posture and have a higher percentage of success.
They also conclude the chapter by discussing ideas of instant success and that those little
moments are what can keep a student continuing in the program. What is very interesting about
this book is that the title is almost misleading. The book does discuss band techniques, but
references made up scenarios that feature both orchestra and band directors. Although the
chapter is not very long, the reader will be able to view both the band and orchestra side of
modeling and instruction.

Holz, E. A., & Jacobi, R. E. (1966). Basic principles of class instruction in instrumental music.

Teaching band instruments to beginners (pp. 46-50). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall.

Again, Holz and Jacobi discuss the importance of the basic setup. They also mention the idea
that “experience precedes theory” (p. 47). They continue to describe that even though the theory
of music is important to the performance of music, teachers must allow students to become
familiar with their instrument. The best means for this process is through the use of rote teaching.
When a teacher speaks a rhythm or even a melody, the student is allowing themselves to
replicate the noce using the skills they have at hand, which is to play until they get it right. This
chapter helps the reader understand the connections between brass instruments and the voice. It
also discusses the creation of the embouchure and how the only correct way to teach such a skill
is through rote teaching and learning.
 Tompkins 7

Kendall, J. D. (1966). Talent, education and suzuki; What the american music educator should

know about shinichi suzuki. Washington D.C., MD: Music Educators National

Conference.

Kendall explains the (at the time) revolutionary idea that is the Suzuki approach. This is a great
reference to show how influential this theory was when it was first introduced. It also shares light
on the similarities and differences of Japanese and American beginning instrumental students. It
also expresses the importance of learning everything from ear while also teaching the parent
alongside the student. Based off of the feeling expressed in Kendal’s book, the reader can gain a
very detail insight on the importance of Suzuki’s teachers and how they sparked a huge interest
in string teachers across the nation.

Kendall, J. D. (1973). The Suzuki Violin Method in American Music Education (3 ed). Reston,

VA: Music Educators National Conference.

Kendall again writes on how influential the Suzuki program is on the American educator. He
goes into much more detail the steps in which Suzuki takes to teach his students. He explains
each approach in regards to violin and then cello. He incorporates misconceptions brought about
by the skeptical American teacher and aims to resolve them. Most of these concerns lie around
the idea that students are not supposed to read music until after they have mastered the art of the
performance, and Kendall is quick to defend that theory. This book is insightful to the reader by
showcasing the fears many American teachers had back in the ‘60’s about this new pedagogical
approach.

Kjelland, J. (2003). Building musicianship in the orchestra rehearsal. In D. Littrell (Ed.),

Teaching Music through performance in orchestra (Vol. 2, pp. 69-79). Chicago, IL:

GIA.

The theory that musicianship is best demonstrated through aural training is brought up multiple
times in Kjelland’s chapter. He considers the idea that beginning students tend to feel
musicianship best rather than read and understand through notation. This is best explained
through his rhythm warm-up examples (pp. 73-79). The examples show the reader how to
incorporate musical aspects into the warm-up routine. He writes this chapter with the public
school teacher in mind since these examples feature different instrumentations. What is most
notable is that these warm-ups are written as rote learned examples and are physically written so
that the teacher can read them and explain them to the students. This ties into the idea that
students are impacted tremendously through the use of rote teaching with emphasis on
musicianship.
 Tompkins 8

Kuhn, W. (1970). Instrumental music, principles and methods of instruction (2 ed). Boston:

Allyn and Bacon.

This book discusses the many struggles found in a typical public school instrumental classroom.
Some of those struggles include selecting repertoire, planning rehearsals, and general
maintenance in the elementary and secondary school. Kuhn examines the idea that aural training,
and method books are supplemental methods and should not be the primary teaching method.
Since this project is focusing on the beginning instrumentalist rather than a specific age range,
this book was helpful because it discusses beginners of all ages. The reader would find that the
book discusses modeling and rote teaching in a much more shallow means and looks at it from a
different viewpoint than the rest of the books mentioned in this bibliography. Although the whole
book discusses the beginning instrumental student throughout the book, the reader would find
chapters 2, 3, and 5 most beneficial because they reference rote learning specificity and how it
relates to the learner.

Martens, F. H. (1919a). How to study. In J. Sutherland & P. Barozzi (Eds.), Violin mastery talks

with master violinists and teachers (Vol. 2, pp. 219-227). Rutherford, NJ:

Frederick A. Stokes Company. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org

In this interview, the late Toscha Seidel explains to Martens that the importance of rote learning
and basic scale technique should be stressed on a beginning student. He explains that the
beginning student should not focus on the performance but rather their own personal
development and imitating the masters around them. Seidel also references that his own
professor would demonstrate a skill or phrase and then ask a young Seidel to copy it until he had
a full understanding on the topic at hand. He also states that in order to become a master at
anything, one must fully understand it from all points, the first being at audiation and imitation.
Seidel ends his section of the chapter by stating that although the student must have be dedicated
and focused, good violin playing is not complete without a master teacher to direct them.

Martens, F. H. (1919b). Hubay and auer: Technic: Hints to the student. In J. Sutherland & P.

Barozzi (Eds.), Violin mastery talks with master violinists and teachers (Vol. 2, pp.

25-37). Rutherford, NJ: Frederick A. Stokes Company. Retrieved from

http://www.gutenberg.org

Throughout the chapter, Marten draws connections between Eddy Browns education from both
Jenö Hubay, and Leopold Auer. For the connection to rote learning, this chapter was most
beneficial to focus on Jeno Hubay since he was responsible for Eddy Brown’s beginning violin
education. Hubay was relentless with the building of the technical skills using rote learning.
Some of the main skill points he would build upon in Brown’s first few years were vibrato,
 Tompkins 9

staccato, spiccato, trills, double stops, octaves and tenths. Hubay felt that by strengthening the
aural skills and imitation, Brown would have a much easier time relaying these skills to a written
piece. What is interesting to note is that throughout the chapter, Brown and his previous teachers
feel that tone is the driving factor for a musician and that this skill is best to be worked on in the
beginning of the musical career.

Martens, F. H. (1919c). The most important factor in the development in an artist. In J.

Sutherland & P. Barozzi (Eds.), Violin mastery talks with master violinists and teachers

(Vol. 2, pp. 240- 246). Rutherford, NJ: Frederick A. Stokes Company. Retrieved from

http://www.gutenberg.org

Martens interview with the notorious Albert Spalding (d. 1953), was an enlightening resource. In
the chapter, Spaling discusses the idea that the student violinist will become great not drilling
technical exercises that are printed, but instead by listening to their surroundings. He states that
the most important aspect of performing is the “development of a perception of beauty” (p.246).
He continues by explaining that the process is done by attending concerts and listening to
recordings. Spalding also comments multiple times about the importance of reinforcing good
habits is at first done by sight and then feeling. He concludes his idealism with the idea that the
best use of rote learning is by focusing on nationalistic music. It not only acts as a connection to
familiar tunes, but also instills pride into the young student. The majority of the article focuses
on the connection of the role of the student to the professional musician. His main point of the
article is that by engulfing oneself into the music, it is then that the student is able to connect a
fun activity with a technical skill through a aural interpretation of nationalistic tunes.

Martens, F. H. (1919d). The perfect string ensemble. In J. Sutherland & P. Barozzi (Eds.), Violin

mastery talks with master violinists and teachers (Vol. 2, pp. 110-126). Rutherford, NJ:

Frederick A. Stokes Company. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org

This chapter showcases the late Franz Kneisel’s viewpoints on the importance of basic string
technique. Kneisel states that all musicians should focus their time to listening to their music
well before attempting to perform it so that they understand its full value. He also shares his
opinion on the importance of focusing on the body of the instrument and emphasizes the feeling
of the instrument. He explains that by rote learning, the student is able to meet demands
physically as well as musically. He concludes his chapter by speaking to the reader about the use
of the human body and why it is important to do the technical work while the child is young and
their bones are still pliable enough for such things as proper playing technique. This chapter is
beneficial because it focuses on the foundations of the performance. Rather than focusing so
much on the actual teachings of rote, Kneisel explains how rote is essential in understanding the
art of the performance.
 Tompkins 10

Martens, F. H. (1919e). The tools of violin mastery. In J. Sutherland & P. Barozzi (Eds.), Violin

mastery talks with master violinists and teachers (Vol. 2, pp. 1-13). Rutherford, NJ:

Frederick A. Stokes Company. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org

The late Eugéne Ysaye expresses in his interview with Martens that the beginning violin player
must first start with singing. He continues on to explain that by having a student sing first, then
play it back, it helps with the development of the musician's brain. Although this technique is not
pure rote learning, Ysaye references singing as being the ultimate connection between the voice
and the violin. He states that singing is what makes the music human and pure rather than
mechanic and bland, and if a performer can imitate the voice, that is the biggest accomplishment.
The rest of the chapter discusses the importance of building from a strong foundation and how
making connections to the past are essential in the understanding of a full piece of music.

Millican, J. S. (2012). From rote to note: Reading music. Starting out right beginning band

pedagogy (pp.111-128). Plymouth, UK: Scarecrow Press.

Millican’s ideas on the rote-to-note learning is very insightful and clear. He makes multiple
connections between learning music to learning any other language. It is important for the
student to understand and control the sounds coming from within their own instrument. It is only
after the student has a basic understanding that the teacher can introduce written notation.
Millican also expresses the importance of written notation. The reader would find this chapter
most beneficial in discovering the why as well as the how in creating a curriculum with
rote-to-note learning.

Dissertations:
Bebe, D. M. (2009). A logical and comprehensive sequence of skills for teaching children the

cello (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses

database. (UMI No. 3358222)

Bebe discloses to the reader the idea that although the Suzuki method is a very logical approach
for beginning violinists, the pieces found within the books are not pedagogically accurate for
beginning cello players. His research in the dissertation as focuses on several other method
books and the fact that most of them are also emulated after the violin version, rather than being
created as a pure cello method. The method presented in the dissertation focuses on the basis of
rote learning for the first few lessons and focusing on the students feel of the instrument rather
than focusing on making music strictly from musical notation. This dissertation connects to the
idea of rote learning because he focuses on the importance of rote learning in the fundamental
understanding of the cello. It is also important because just as the method book's main focus is
the violin, many of the other articles listed in this bibliography focus on the violin or a general
 Tompkins 11

instrumentation. This is one of the few resources that was written as the only intent being on the
beginning cello student.

Kendall, M. J. (1986). The effects of visual interventions on the development of aural and

instrumental performance skills in beginning fifth-grade instrumental students: A

comparison of two instructional approaches (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 8612553)

As stated in Kendall’s Purpose (p.2), he aims to address the challenge of when it is appropriate to
approach note reading with the beginning instrumentalist. He discusses throughout his
dissertation the importance of rote learning on such young children and how it is both beneficial
and a crutch. If used too long and too often, Kendall explains that the student can be too reliant
on the aural aspect of playing that their literacy skills remain weak and in turn will take longer to
build up. The dissertation is favorable to the researcher because it focuses on the implication of
both visual and aural skills on the beginning instrumentalist.

Moorhead, M. N. (2005). The suzuki method: A comparative analysis of the perceptual /cognitive

listening development in third grade students trained in the suzuki, traditional, and

modified suzuki music methods (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest

Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3167512)

In Moorhead’s dissertation of the Suzuki Method, he focuses on how the method is used both in
the traditional and modified sense (p. 3). He discusses the fact that the traditional method is done
in private lessons and focuses on the importance of parental involvement, whereas the modified
method occurs in public school group lessons and although lacks in parental involvement during
the lesson, encourages it at home. Throughout his research, he makes constant references to the
use of the mother tongue and how important it is for these beginning students to hear what it is
that they are expected to perform. This conclusion is most important to the bibliography because
it makes the constant connections to rote learning and how it can be implemented in both the
private and public school setting.

Sperti, J. (1970). Adaptation of certain aspects of the suzuki method to the teaching of the

clarinet: An experimental investigation testing the comparative effectiveness of two

different pedagogical methodologies (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest

Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 7124833)

 Tompkins 12

This dissertation was created as a way to inform the reader on the pedagogical connections
between the Suzuki method and beginning carenet students. Sperti explains that the students that
were tested were nine years of age and were from different public school music programs. The
study found that the students who used the suzuki method did poorer than discussed in the
hypothesis. He had originally thought that the students musicality and note reading would
improve but found that at the conclusion of the experiment did the opposite. Students scored
lower in phrasing and were on par in regards to note reading with the control group. This
experiment was helpful to the research regarding rote learning because it shows that not all
instrumentations do well when using rote learning.

Stoltzfus, J. L. (2005). The effects of audiation-based composition on the music achievement of

elementary wind and percussion students (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3169610)

Stolzfus takes a philosophical approach to the development of beginning band students

compositional skills using audiation (p. v). His research follows 4th grade students during their
first year of band class and analyzes both compositional approaches using rote and traditional
music notation. His study concluded that students were much better at performing when using
audiational compositions rather than traditional notation compositions. He references the idea
that student feel most comfortable expressing themselves through sound rather than writing them
down. The research is informative because it focuses on the psychology of student work rather
than the pedagogy of the teachings.

Newspaper Articles:
Elder, J. (1991, January 6). Special report; A learned response. The New York Times. Retrieved

from http://nytimes.com

The author of this article focuses on the idea that teachers must get out of their comfort zone and
step away from rote learning. It discusses the concepts of deeper learning and contextual
knowledge rather than memorization. Elder also mentions the idea that students can not be
passive when it comes to their education and that “thinking is not like breathing” (para. 2). She
continues on in the paragraph to discuss the idea that the act of thinking is a skill that must be
taught and although rote learning can be helpful, it is not deep enough to be an important factor
in the development of knowledge. The main theme of the article is to alert the general public that
rote learning is leading to a generation of lazy learners. It is meant to also be a wake up call to
teachers that rely on memorization. She states that when used as the key ingredient of early
childhood development, it hinders the child’s intellectual growth. This article differs from the
majority of the other sources in this bibliography because it does not praise the use of rote
learning. It is important to the research because it still focuses on the same age range, but just
from a different perspective. Both perspectives are important to the development of a beginning
student because it is not always in the best interest of the student to focus only on rote learning.
Just as the article suggests, it leads to good basics, but unfortunately remains a shallow approach.
 Tompkins 13

Salmans, S. (1987, April 12). Learning by rote: A new appraisal. The New York Times. Retrieved

from http://nytimes.com

Sandra Salmans compares the traditional Japanese style to the modern American style of rote
learning. The article discusses how the Japanese schools drill their students until they are able to
recite all facts and make connections between the facts, while the American students only drill
what is necessary to pass the exam and then erase it from their memory. What is very interesting
is that the American government strives for the implementation of memorization, while
American teachers discuss that rote learning is shallow and not beneficial. There general point of
the article was to inform its readers that rote learning is okay when used properly. It also aims to
address the concerns American teachers have with the teaching style. Finally, this newspaper
clipping was selected for the research because of its relevance to the implication of rote learning
in the everyday classroom. Although it does not focus around music, it does discuss the negative
side of memorization. It differs from most of the sources by offering a compelling argument
against rote teaching and the dangers of shallow comprehension.

Periodicals:
Allsup, R. (2003). Mutual learning and democratic action in instrumental music education.

Journal of Research in Music Education, 51(1), 24-37. doi: 10.2307/3345646

This particular article discusses the importance of rote learning through the use of a garage band.
The study's focus was to see how social interaction was a learning mechanism. It featured a
garage band made up of students who had no prior knowledge of instrumental study and a
traditional band with students who had some form of musical background. Both groups were
asked to use their social skills to perform a piece of music. The article is important to the reader
because of the use of rote learning in an unconventional classroom. Although the study used
traditional instruments, its focus was to see how social interaction was a learning mechanism.
The students who were in the rock group had to rely on each other to learn the music by ear
rather than by traditional music notation.

Brittin, R. (2005). Preservice and experienced teachers' lesson plans for beginning

instrumentalists. Journal of Research in Music Education, 53(1), 26-39. Doi:

10.1177/002242940505300103

Although Brittin focuses on the importance of method book instruction, he found that teachers
who used rote learning as a basic warm up had better results than the teachers who did not. The
teachers who used rote learning were able to go more in-depth into their lessons than the teachers
who again, only followed the method books. This journal is a good resource to both the
beginning band and orchestra teacher because it also makes great connections between rote
learning and material used in a typical method book.
 Tompkins 14

Giordano, G. (2011, January). Taking the write way: as more educators are discovering,

composition--along with its close relatives songwriting and improvisation--helps teach

students music by making them create their own. Teaching Music, 18(4). Retrieved from

https://nafme.org/my-classroom/journals-magazines/

Giordano created this article as a way to show educators of young students that although rote
learning is a safe approach with beginners, it does not have to be the only approach. The journal
compares rote learning to compositional learning. He writes that students must feel the music
before they create it so in turn they are using some aspects of rote learning to emulate the sounds
they want to make. Although it is not traditional rote learning, Giordano makes connections
between the two ideas. He does stress that students should not rely on rote for everything, and
once they have the basics down, they should focus on the notation portion of the music. The
article helps the reader of this bibliography because it shows aspects of rote learning in the
modern classroom. It also draws attention to the idea that rote learning does not always connect
to the deepest intellectual levels, but it is a great tool to use with beginning students and writing
music notation.

Haston, W. (2010). Beginning wind instrument instruction: A comparison of aural and visual

approaches. Contributions to Music Education, 37(2), 9-28. Retrieved from

http://www.omea-ohio.org/v3_resources/v3_resources/cme.html

In the article, Haston discusses the idea that students are most successful when they are taught by
sight, sound, and feel. He continues by showing his methods of research behind the topic and his
findings. Haston states that the results show a connection between all three teaching approaches.
He concludes that the students would show even more growth had more teachers in the study
modeled for their students (para. 38). The purpose of his article is to share the findings from his
research on which teaching strategy is most beneficial for the students. That basic purpose is
most helpful for rote learning research because it gives specific feedback on how rote learning is
a good teaching tool and what other approaches work best alongside it.

Haston, W. (2007). Teacher modeling as an effective teaching strategy. Music Educators Journal,

93(4), 26-30. doi: 10.2307/4127130

Again, Haston focuses on the modeling aspect of teaching. He discusses the important role the
teacher has on the beginning student. He makes connections between basic articulations as well
as note reading skills and the use of a proficient model. Haston does express that it is very
important that the model must be highly proficient in the instrument they are teaching in order
for the student to have the best learning outcome. He also incorporates some helpful strategies
 Tompkins 15

(p.27) as well as some sample lesson plans (p.28). The reader would find those contributions to
the article valuable to the implementation of rote learning into the classroom.

Hellman, D. (2002). The effect of instructor's major/instrument on student melodic imitation

scores and tone quality. Journal of Research in Music Education, 50(1), 51-62. Retrieved

from doi: 10.2307/3345692

Hellman discusses that the best way for a private teacher to model for a student is on their
primary instrument. When the educator is on their major instrument, the student is able to pick
up on musical expressions more quickly than when the educator is on a secondary instrument (p.
52). Hellman focused his research on beginning band students and tested their melodic
expression. He found that the students who took privately from a teacher who modeled on their
primary instrument were able to play the melodic lines tested with more musical skill than those
students whose teacher modeled on a different instrument. The research was done to show
educators that it is important for private instructors teach to their own instrument. This topic was
relevant to rote learning because it makes positive connections between the advancement of a
young child and their model.

Musco, A. M. (2009). Effects of learning melodies by ear on performance skills and student

attitudes. Contributions to Music Education, 36(2), 79-95. Retrieved from

http://www.omea-ohio.org/v3_resources/v3_resources/cme.html

In the article, Musco make connections between students aural and sight reading ability. Students
not only played back melodies by ear, they also participated in aural rhythmic games as well as
transposition of keys without hearing them performed. The students had to rely heavily on their
personal aural skills when completing the required tests in the experiment. The research done in
this journal focuses on showing the classroom teacher how to make those connections between
rote learning and sight reading. This was most helpful to the bibliography because it makes a
unique connection between reading music and hearing music. The results prove that a student
can get better if they hear and then read the music when compared to cold sight reading.

Musco, A. M. (2012). Solfege for instrumentalists: how singing can help students play.

Teaching Music, 19(5), 26-28. Retrieved from http://www.nafme.org/my-classroom/

journals-magazines/

The article examines rote learning in the classroom with an emphasis on the beginning
instrumentalist. It continues by discussing the importance of sequential learning. Although rote
learning is important in the beginning of instruction the author expresses that it should continue
through notation instruction. The article features pictures of young students leading class through
 Tompkins 16

solfege rather than traditional notation and shows students performing along with the student
conductor. It seems that Musco’s purpose for the periodical is to inform the reader of elementary
student progress through an action that is used most in the general music classroom, solfege. The
article is favorable to the reader because it features a step by step process of the sequential
learning process using solfege/aural learning and the results of its implementation in the
classroom.

Palmer, M. (1976). Relative Effectiveness of Two Approaches to Rhythm Reading for

Fourth-Grade Students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 24(3), 110-118. doi:

10.2307/3345154

The approaches referenced in Palmer’s article are those of Kodaly and Gordon. Palmer states that
her purpose for writing the periodical is to inform the reader about the two theories and how
applicable they are to beginning instrumental students, particularly in 4th grade (p. 110). The
study discusses the use of both theories on rhythm learning and features the musical aptitude
tests presented in both Edwin Gordon’s and Richard Colwell’s individual exam. These exams
measures the student's ability to imitate challenging rhythmic patterns and then read them. The
students who imitated and then read did much better than the students who did not receive the
imitation aspect and instead read the notation cold. The article supports the main idea of this
project that rote learning is most beneficial to the beginning instrumentalist because it allows
them to understand the complexity of the skill first and then builds upon the skill of reading
music notation.

Pierce, M. (1992). The effects of learning procedure, tempo, and performance condition on

transfer of rhythm skills in instrumental music. Journal of Research in Music

Education, 40(4), 295-305. doi: 10.2307/3345837

This article discusses the importance of building the foundations of music before students are
introduced to harder subject areas. The article's intent is to inform the reader about using familiar
patterns that the students has already learned and transforming them into more complex rhythms.
The article advances the main idea of this bibliography because it discusses the use of rote
learning in the teachings of the basic rhythms. According to the article, when the students are
able to feel and aurally hear the rhythms, they have a much better chance at breaking down the
complex rhythms into similar patterns.

Shehan, P. (1987). Effects of rote versus note presentations on rhythm learning and retention.

Journal of Research in Music Education, 35(2), 117-126. doi: 10.2307/3344987

Shehan expresses in her periodical that the beginning student is best supported when aural and
visual learning are implemented together. She came to this conclusion because her study focused
 Tompkins 17

on rhythm decoding by both 2nd and 6th grade students who had never been exposed to a music
program. Her experiment included three trials. The first trial was to teach the students the pattern
using aural or rote training. The second trial used visual notation as the primary teaching tool.
Finally, the last teaching method was to incorporate both training techniques. The research
concluded that the students were able to perform the visual pattern in the least attempts when
compared to the aural pattern. What connects this idea to the main focus of the bibliography and
would be most beneficial to the reader is the fact that the final conclusion of this journal was that
the beginning music student did the best when they were shown a visual aid and taught using
rote learning. Since the student was exposed to both, they were able to learn the rhythm the
fastest and with the least amount of mistakes.

Video:
Kirakira Twinkle. (2016, May 10). “Suzuki method video guidance No.1_1 of 3” [Video file].

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8-YvKE69lPk

This video is very important to the topic because it is a translated recording of Dr. Shinichi
Suzuki explaining his method. The reader will find 6:09 until the end of the video most
beneficial to the research because Dr. Suzuki discusses the relationship between the mother
tongue and musical instruction. He discusses his 40 years of research on the subject as well. He
also discusses the connection between early human development and beginning instrumental
instruction. He also includes an example of his method in action as the final portion of the video
using 5 year olds performing both “Allegro” and “Minuet No. 2” by J. S. Bach. Overall this
video would be a great primary source. It features Suzuki himself discussing his ideas which is
the closest thing the researcher of this bibliography can get to watching Suzuki himself speak in
person about his own method.

Kirakira Twinkle. (2016, May 10). “Suzuki method video guidance No.1_ 3 of 3” [Video file].

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ohgY1O9vQ5s

The next video showcases the very first lesson. The reader will find this recording to be most
beneficial because the lesson is done all by rote learning. It shows the process of how the student
learns the proper playing position, as well as having the student imitate the sounds the teacher
makes on her violin. What is most beneficial is that this video was created of the students and
teachers Suzuki brought to the United States in 1976 for the Music Educators Conference. It is as
close to an actual lesson as the reader can get to a lesson presented by Suzuki himself. The video
was meant to show the American teachers of the time how the method works and the instant
success brought about by it. The video is only 16 minutes and 16 seconds, but it incomposises
the whole Suzuki method in one video.