HOLISTIC SCIENCE

A Tapestry of Essays
by
Robin Wilding

7 The Sources of Order

Cooperation and coherence are anathema to western scientists.

Mae-Wan Ho

Is there a natural order in our world or do we construct order so as to make sense of what we
know?
Two hundred years ago plants and animals were given traditional country names which
sometimes were suggested by their appearance or nature or even where likely to be found.
The names varied according to regions and of course language. Even experts would differ and
argue about the proper name for a certain butterfly or wild flower. Order was brought to this
confusion by Carl von Linne who in the middle of the 18th century set out some principles for
a uniform system for naming organisms. It was based on categorising an organism into a
genus by general characteristics and then a species by specific characteristics. So we belong to
the genus Homo and have the specific features of the species sapiens. This process which
von Linne invented, has been expanded by biologists and the work has continued, trying to
tidy up the creatures or plants that don’t fit very well into the groups which have been
devised to include them . The first big groups are the kingdoms followed by phyla, class,
order, family genus and species. This process, taxonomy, of putting an organism into the
appropriate groups is usually based on evolutionary and structural similarity. Taxonomy
highlights similarities and differences between organisms and helps to suggests evolutionary
pathways. There is no doubt that it is extremely useful but the order which taxonomy has
brought to the study of organisms does not reflect an intrinsic order in nature. It is an entirely
man made construction of useful groupings. Often enough a re-think of previous

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classification gives an organism a new name or places it into a different group. Classification
disputes occur in all sciences. Recently Pluto was demoted from being classified as a planet.
To return to our question, is there any order in nature which we can safely claim not been
generated by the observer?

D’Arcy Thompson, writing in the early part of the last century was fascinated by the unity to
be found in the diversity of organisms. He speculated about whether any of this unity could
be due to an intrinsic order. Firstly, he reminds us that there are physical and chemical
constraints on the size of living forms. For example, trees can not reach any height but are
limited by the properties of wood to about 300 feet high. The properties of bone limit the size
of really large mammals. The properties of muscles dictate that a dog may carry another on its
back but a horse may not carry another horse. The surface tension of water supports light
skimming flies but not mice. The body mass of mice is just large enough to allow them to
retain their body heat; smaller creatures, like newts could never retain their body heat if they
were warm blooded. This is because small bodies have a much larger surface area in
proportion to their body mass than larger bodies. Thompson felt it would be safe to assume,
without invoking the hand of Providence, that the laws of physics imposed constraints on
the function and structure of living organisms. At the time he was writing it was essential, just
as it is now, for any scientist to avoid the allegation that he or she was suggesting the hidden
hand of God was guiding the natural world. However the hand of authority has not
disappeared. We look for causes expecting to find that order is the result of a linear chain of
command. As we shall see, order may arise without a command structure.

Mathematical Patterns
As Thompson felt it was safe to apply the laws of physics to nature he also felt safe to
look for mathematical order. For example the spirals found in snails are all logarithmic. That
is, as the snail shell grows in size its shape remains similar. Thompson’s ideas have since been
taken up by many other mathematicians and biologists. Ian Stewart in his book “Life’s Other
Secret” presents a comprehensive review of the mathematical order to be found in living
organisms. Like Thompson he notes the elegance of the logarithmic ratio between the growth

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of organic spirals and the angle through which the spiral turns. If a spiral is constructed from a
succession of rectangles whose sides are in the ratio of the golden mean, the spiral is
logarithmic and very similar to the shell of the Nautilas and the spiral pattern of seeds in a
sun flower. The golden mean rectangle, which the Ancient Greeks used in building, is a
rectangle on which a square may be made on the shorter side, leaving a rectangle with the
same proportions as the original. This ratio is about 5:8 or more exactly 0.618. This is exactly
the ratio of the numbers in a Fibonacci series. This series is made quite simply by adding the
previous two numbers in the series, so for example ... 3, 5 , 8 , 13, 21, 34.. and so on. The
ratio of each number to the next higher number is always 0.618, for example 3/5 ,5/ 8, 8/13,
...etc. If the circumference of a circle is divided in the same ratio, and a pie cut on the shorter
section, its central angle will be 137.5 degrees. Brian Goodwin tells us that leaves arrange
themselves around the stem in basically two ways. Either they are paired and situated
opposite each other or in a spiral arrangements. The spiral arrangements of leaves around the
stem (spiral phyllotaxis) follows a regular interval of 137.5 degrees between each leaf. This
is a very specific angle and is repeated again and again in plants. Ian Stewart reminds us that
Fibonacci numbers are found in numbers of flour petals. Lilies have 3 petals, buttercups have
5, delphiniums 8, marigolds 13, asters 21 and most daisies have 34,55 or 89.

Order at a Cellular Level

Goodwin explains that this association of nature with numbers is not mystical nor is it
coincidental. The shape of a growing cell or a growing mass of cells is not stable. It is said to
be in an excitable state, where it is easily influenced by its chemical and physical
environment. The environmental field of the newly forming cells may be polarised in one or
more directions. The concentration of nutrients, chemicals which stimulate growth, amount
of light, or even gravity make one side of the field different from the other. The response of
cells in these so called morphogenic fields goes a long way to explain how forms such as
leaves and limbs arise. .
Goodwin has demonstrated that individual cell shape may be influenced by the elasticity
of the cell membrane. If the elasticity decreases at one part of the membrane, the cell bulges
out at that site. Local increases in calcium ion concentrations around the tip of a growing

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algae were found to be responsible for regular bulges in the cell wall. These bulges later
became leaf-like spiral whorls, characteristic of the mature plant and quite regularly arranged.
The first problem to understand is, why was there a pattern in the concentration of the
calcium ions, which produced a regular pattern of bulges? The patterns appear to be due to
the dynamics of diffusion of calcium in the environment of the cell.

Chemical Patterns
Chemical reactions are usually considered to be about interactions between atoms and
molecules with the emergence of new molecules. However certain chemicals also interact at a
much larger scale to form patterns which are quite visible. A mixture of certain chemicals was
found by Beloussov and his student Zhabotinsky, to form regular patterns in the shape of a
target, and more complicated spiral patterns. These chemical patterns seemed little more than
oddities until it was noticed that they are similar to those made by some living organisms.
In the previous chapter we met that intriguing mixture of individual and group,
Dictyostelium discoideum, the slime mold. The pattern which slime mould organisms make
on their way to form a slug, is very similar to the targets and whorls which emerge from the
mixture of diffusing chemicals.
To summarise so far. Patterns in the diffusion of calcium ions creates a concentration
gradient which influences cell membrane elasticity; locally produced cell messengers,
diffuse through the slim mould’s environment creating concentration gradient which
influences gene expression in the surrounding cells.
The concentration gradients in a morphogenic fields, as we have noted are not random.
There appears to be some spacial order which is related to the order of some mathematical
patterns like the Fibonacci series. The shapes cell masses can assume is therefore not infinite
but appears to be confined to a few main options. Goodwin uses the term generic to indicate
that in a morphology family, for example limbs or leaves, there are a few generic forms, each
of which may allow for further variations.

Fractals in Nature
The shapes of natural structures, leaves, mountains, coastlines and vascular trees are

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difficult to describe in geometrical terms, like circles, squares and pyramids. For example,
natural lines, like a coastline or a cell border are always uneven and highly detailed when
magnified. It is difficult to measure the length of a coastline or cell border with a straight ruler
whether it is one kilometre or one micron long. But there is, sometimes, a degree of texture
or roughness to the line which seems to repeat itself, over a range of magnification. For
example if you look at the pattern of inlets on the Norwegian coastline it is similar, whether
you look at distant view from a high flying aircraft or the detail on a chart showing the
smallest inlets. This is called scale similarity and it can be described in mathematical terms
known as a fractal dimension . This means that the outline is something more than a line (one
dimension) but less than a surface (two dimensions) . If the fractal dimension of a coastline
was 1.2 it would indicate it was nearly linear, like the Namibian coastline which runs up the
west side of Southern Africa. On the other hand the Norwegian coastline might be 1.8, as it is
so broken up with estuaries and inlets that the outline is almost like a two dimensional plane.
We may recognise self similarity in other structures such as the branching of trees, rivers,
arteries and lungs. So if we look at a diagram of the branches of a tree we may not know
whether we are looking very close up or quite far away. The first few branches from the trunk
have the same pattern as the branches of tiny twigs. This suggests there is some pattern
controlling the way the tree has grown and that this pattern will be common for all the trees of
the same type.
A simple computer program can be written
which draws trees. The shape of the tree can
be altered, for example from an oak to a
poplar shape, by changing just one variable,
its fractal dimension. Note that the pattern of
branching is similar, however closely you
look at the tree. The appearance of any branching system which is self similar may be
described in a single numerical value, its fractal dimension. These patterns are not random but
probably related to some structural or functional advantage the pattern confers.
The branching pattern of a river, lungs or arteries are constrained by the capacity of the
system to carry water, air or blood without slowing the flow down or causing turbulence. So

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the fractal dimension which describes the way the system branches defines the way fluid will
behave flowing through the system.
It is possible that the control of morphology, such as the branching of plants, bronchioles,
neurons or capillaries, is controlled by a fractal dimension determined by just a few genes
which influence the characteristics of the pattern shapes.
The existence of mathematical patterns in nature is unlikely to be of our construction but
seems to exist outside our perception It is not quite as concrete as order but it appears to have
some of its qualities.

Transformations of Related Forms

The outlines of some related living organisms, like crabs may possess some similarity and yet
look quite different. D’Arcy Thompson recognised that often the apparent differences in
form could be explained by the same components being in different proportions. He
superimposed over one species of crab, a grid of lines with horizontal and vertical co-
ordinates much like an ordinance survey map. By mathematically modifying one set of co-
ordinates, say halving the vertical ones, the entire image could be distorted in proportion and
effectively squashed into a different shape which however retained the general features of the
original. By more complex transformation of the co-ordinates he was able to generate
distortions of one crab species which looked remarkably like a quite different species. In the
abridged edition of Thompson’s book the editor John Tyler Bonner, remarks on the ingenuity
of these transformation and their influence in the development of analysis of growth rates of
different structures.
We need to look beyond genes as determinants of form, as they are not directly responsible
for the process which generates generic forms. Goodwin writes "Genes do not control, they
cooperate in producing variations on generic themes". They do this by controlling the
environment which determines which of a few generic options will be formed.

Genetically determined order

Many biologists would accept that the order apparent in structure and functions of living

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organisms are the results of the expression of genes which have survived the selective pressures
of their environment. They would argue that there is no intrinsic order in nature and that what
appears to be ordered, even the structure of genes themselves, was merely the result of random
variations and an almost infinite range of possibilities. The idea of any creative hand, especially
a divine one is rejected by biologists. Arthur (1997) points out that perhaps because of this
aversion to creationists, biologists have emphasised the process of destruction of unsuccessful
genes rather than the “creative” process by which the successful survive. He acknowledges
Goodwin’s view that genes in themselves are not creative; patterns in nature are the result of
the fairly limited range of shapes which are possible in developing cell masses. Arthur wants
to add the crucial role of genes in controlling the environment in which cell masses create form.
He adds that creation, and destruction (natural selection of genes) are not mutually exclusive.
Kaufman asks “What are the sources of the overwhelmingly and beautiful order which graces
the living world?” Kauffman suggests that the order of life is an emergent property of complex
systems and is in fact to be expected. Once there is sufficient complexity order will emerge
without external influence or control. The breeding ground for this idea came from studying
computer models of peptides which are able to act as the catalysts for each other’s reactions.

Emergent order in molecular self organisation

Manfred Eigen coined the term “molecular self organisation” to describe the behaviour of
peptides, the building blocks of more complex compounds. Under certain conditions peptides
may join together to form a larger molecule. Usually this requires a promoter or catalyst to make
the reaction work. Eigen suggests that the catalyst, or enzyme necessary for this reaction may in
fact be the new larger molecule, A soup of active peptides may form self organising cycles in
which each enzymes are formed which catalyses their own formation A computer model which
linked several enzyme cycles proved to be stable, to replicate itself, and able to correct
replication errors. Eigen’s work suggested that the self organisation seen in computer models
might be the same process as occurred as a precursor to life.
The chances of finding peptides which catalyse their own formation is unlikely. The
computer model used by Kaufmann assumes only a one in a million chance of any peptide
being a catalyst. But even without catalytic assistance the molecules do build up and break

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down but at a very slow rate. Eventually however, there are such large numbers of different
molecules of varying shapes and sizes, that a catalyst is formed. Once there are a few catalysts
the rate of reactions increase rapidly and quite suddenly a set of reactions becomes established
in which each molecule is the result of a catalytic reaction. This set of molecular reactions is
closed and self regulating. When computer models are run several times an interesting
phenomenon emerges. The set always emerges suddenly, as if there was a phase shift from
disorder to order. The actual composition of each set varies so that in no sense is it predictable,
yet the process is deterministic as there are clearly defined rules for the interaction of each
molecule in the model.
Computer models of auto-catalytic sets are supported by recent chemical experiments
which have shown that there are peptides which will catalyse their own formation. David Lee
has demonstrated that a 32 amino acid sequence peptide was able to catalyse ligation of its own
two 15 and 17 amino acids to form a new copy of the 32 sequence peptide. It takes a long time
for them to form but once on the go, the concentration leaps up exponentially.
However autocatalytic networks are not yet autonomous agents able to act on their own
behalf and such order as may appear within the system is not self sustaining. Left to its own
devices the system will continue until all its possible reactions are exhausted.
A free living cell uses energy in nutrients to sustain a state which is far from equilibrium. It
does this by storing chemical energy rather than burning it up in a short consuming "fire". The
release of this stored energy is constrained and directed to permit work such as cell movement
and division to occur. The internal organisation of a living cell may be brought about partly by
networks of molecular relationships but it is dependent on an external energy supply. It also
requires to operate in a physically contained space which has some boundary. The boundary is
not absolute but selectively allows some traffic between it and the medium around it. These
criteria of self organisation define the concept of autopoiesis put forward by Maturana and
Varela (1987) which was reviewed in a previous essay “How we know what we know”.

Emergent order in cells

The traditional view of the million or more chemical agents in the cytosol, is that they form a
“soup” of enzymes and substrate, whose interactions is controlled by lock and key structures

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which are specific for each reaction. Mae Wen Ho suggests that this is an unlikely mechanisms
in view of the constant wriggling behaviour of molecules. She suggests that in addition to lock
and key mechanisms, enzyme and substrate resonate together due to matching frequencies of
vibration. Mutual resonance provides recognition and also provides the energy to power the
reaction.
We will return to the topic of resonance a little later, but we need to note that there is a structural
coherence which may contribute to the ordered metabolism of cells. Kaufman notes the huge
improbability of enzymes and substrates being in the same place at the same time and suggests
that encounters may take place on the surfaces of microtubules and inner cell membranes
which would increases the chances of ordered encounters. Microtubules are part of the cell’s
“skeleton” and not only serve to maintain and change a cell’s shape but also transport cell
products. Membranes define cell compartments and have a very large surface area, 50 times
that of the cell. The orientation of membranes also allows coherent flows of electrons down
gradients caused by heat, light or pressure. The cell membranes represent the structure used in
semiconductors to transform light energy into a stream of electrons. So from molecular scale,
to a macro scale, there are currents flowing in living cells, pumped along by light, heat or
pressure and which may be transformed into any of those forms of energy. This is the coherent
electromagnetic field that underlies living organisation.
This ordered structure within a cell may be lost when the cell is homogenised and centrifuged to
extract particular enzymes. Such rough treatment breaks up the ordered complexes and leads
the observer to conclude that the enzymes and substrate are floating about in the cytosol. But if
you centrifuge a cell without first homogenising it, the soluble part (at the top) contains no large
molecules. So there are no loose molecules floating about in the soluble part of the cytosol.
More evidence comes from making holes in cells. Nothing "falls out" as you might expect if it
were not fairly tightly coupled to the cells internal structure.
This concept of internal cell order with complexes at a sub-cellular level complements
Koestler’s ideas of holons. His view is that the whole view of a pyramidal organization is really
just of the top layer of its building blocs. The reductionist view is of all the components
represented by the bottom layer of the blocks and all the stones in between are left out. Holons
are centres or nodes of organisation which provide stages between the parts and the whole.

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Koestler uses the metaphor of two watches, one made by Mekhos, is full of tiny parts which fall
out when you open the watch, and are very difficult to re-assemble. The other watch is made by
Bios, and, although there are the same total number of parts as in the Mekhos watch, they are
organised into units and sub units (holons). When you open a Bios watch only five sub
assemblies fall out.
Ho points out that discovering coherence in cells is not easy if the object of your investigation
has been killed, pinned out, macerated, homogenised, extracted and fractionated. She believes
that when we find coherence in living systems it looks as if information, energy and
organisation are all connected.
What is the source of organisation?
There have been suggestions that dynamic systems which are in critical and unstable balances
and so are very sensitive to collapsing into a new order.
Self organisation is a term used to describe the behaviour of a sand pile onto which was slowly
dropping single particles of sand. The physical rules governing the binding of one particle
against another could be calculated but the overall behaviour of the sand pile cannot be
predicted. There will be occasional large scale collapse of the pile due to major avalanches but
these will be interspersed with more frequent small slips of fewer numbers of particles.
The distribution of avalanche sizes follows a power law; the average frequency, being
inversely proportional to some power of its size.
A familiar power functions is the relationship between the force of gravity between two masses
and their distance. The force of gravity is inversely proportional to the distance squared. So f ~
1/ d 2. This inverse square law also describes the falloff of radar power with distance. Areas are
proportional to linear dimensions squared. The power may not be a whole number. The power
which relates the size of large avalanches on the sand pile to their frequency is -2/3. Manfred
Schroeder reviews many examples of Power Laws in Fractals, Chaos, Power Laws.
To return to our sand pile, Per Bak argued that there was an intrinsic order in dynamic systems
which although deterministic was not predictable. Many systems show self organised
criticality such as earthquakes, fluctuations in stock prices, and extinctions of species. Sole and
coworkers examined the fossil records for extinction of ammonites. During a period of 320
million years the number of ammonite families fluctuated. If SOC provides an appropriate

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framework for these fluctuations, they should be self similar ( that is independent of scale).
They conclude that indeed they are. Just like the sand pile, the size of extinctions is a related to a
power of their frequency. This suggests that the pattern of mass extinctions events may be due
to the non-linear nature of the biosphere. So mass extinctions may not may not be qualitatively
different from minor background ones. Raup (1993) suggests that evolution occurs at a macro
level in which bad luck (being swept away in a mass extinction) is more influential on survival
than bad genes.

Phase transitions and coherence

Transitions from one state of order to another are described as phase transitions. When a
liquid freezes it undergoes a phase transition from a liquid to a solid state. A new level of order
emerges at a well defined boundary between liquid and solid states. Such transitions from one
level of order to another also occur in dynamic systems. For example light waves are
incoherent; that is the peaks and troughs of individual wave are not synchronised. When
subjected to controlled emission (using laser production) they may undergo a dynamic phase
transition and get into step with each other. The new coherent light has far greater focus and
penetration than ordinary light waves.
Living systems may also acquire a levels of macro order beyond that of the component
molecules or cells. Proteins, nucleic acids and cell membrane have large dipole charges and
characteristic oscillation frequencies. When closely related a synchronous mechanical or
electrical oscillation may occur. Froelch called these, coherent excitations. Ho says these
oscillations account for long range order and coordination, rapid and efficient energy transfer
and extreme sensitivity to specific signals.
Songs and dances mobilise individual energies in an efficient and coherent way. Passing a
heavy load from hand to hand, along a chain of workers in a coherent rhythm, helps to keep the
load moving. Receptivity to a signal, such as a work song, helps to set the rhythm, even though
it is a weak physical signal. Slime mould are receptive to the weak signal, of cyclic AMP. They
add to the strength of the signal as it is received. The levels are pumped up until each individual
cells starts to behave in a coherent way.

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 Emergent order in communities
“Organisms have the power to build up ordered, coherent perceptions and complex systems of
knowledge out of the chaos of sensation impinging on them: life sucks information from the
environment"
Arthur Koestler "The ghost in the machine" 1967

A community can be thought of in terms of a system of members or agents, all with a degree
of independence, but influencing each other through a rich network of connections. There is a
fair chance that when a system like this, becomes excitable, it is going to behave in an
unpredictable, and perhaps creative manner. Whatever it does, will be done as if all the
individuals were acting as one. An experienced observer might predict that a herd of buffalo is
about to charge, or a hive of bees is about to swarm, or terns are about to take off and flock, or a
football crowd is about to get violent, or a host of amoeba is about to form a slug.
These are examples of a shift in phase between individuals and community, but they
illustrate how connected the two phases are, and sometimes, like the termitry, difficult to decide
in which phase the individual is. Less visible order is however going on, which in no lesser way,
reflects the capacity of a community to behave like a single organism, doing routine
homeostasis. The oxygen level throughout a biofilm of different bacteria, is being regulated, the
activity levels of an ant hive are being synchronised, the cells of a Dictyostelium are becoming
“differentiated” into those who will do stalk duty and those who will form spores.
While individual behaviour of organisms is commonly ascribed to genetic influence which
assures survival, it requires special pleading to upscale this explanation to explain the behaviour
of communities, especially when they are composed of mixed species. The jibe of a “ghost in
the machine” still makes scientists wary of the suggestion, that there may be some inexplicable
forces in nature. The text book versions of biology and sociology are evasive about emergent
order in communities.
The soul of the ant
Eugene Marais’s use of the word “soul” may have contributed to the rejection of his
conclusions about termite order in mainstream zoology, although his view that the termite
colony is a single organisms “whose organs have not yet been fused” has become at least a more

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acceptable metaphor. The complex structure of the termitry, and its regulated inner environment
defies an easy explanation in terms of gene control. It does not seem possible even, that the ant’s
100,000 neurons, could contain the necessary blue print for such an engineering feat (Hofstader
1979). Eugene Marais wrote about white ants 50 years before there was some evidence to
substantiate his sense of unity and oneness in the ant colony, which we might, using Blake’s
permission call the soul.
The ant Leptothorax allardycei adapts quite well to being kept in experimental colonies
where it can be accurately observed. The heart of the colony is the brood chamber which
contains the queen and the young developing larvae, both of whom need feeding and cleaning
up. This work is done by female worker ants. Each individual ant has a non periodic pattern of
activity, about 10 minutes on and 15 minutes rest. There appears to be no inner rhythm for each
ant, whose periods of activity appear to be chaotic but not random (Cole 1991). However ants do
touch each other in passing and it has been observed that a resting ant can be aroused to activity
by the touch of an active ant. In contrast to individuals, the behaviour of the whole intact colony
is periodic with one distinct spectral peak. The whole colony settles down to a regular period of
work and rest.
The benefit of this regime may be to insure that the nurturing resources to the larvae and
queen are evenly distributed. When ants are feeding larvae, only one or two will get to a single
larva and if that larva is being fed, they will go and find one who is unattended. Thus, when all
ants are on “feed shift” it is unlikely that any larva will get left out. The density of ants in the
brood chamber appears to be a determining factor in establishing a periodic and uniform activity
pattern.
These observations by Cole (1991) suggest a phase shift from chaos to order, which looks as
though it is emergent and not produced by any higher level authority. It is important to make a
distinction between the ant synchrony and the synchrony that develops as a resonance between
adjacent independently periodic individuals. The cuckoo clocks hanging on a resonating wooden
wall eventually start ticking in time. This can be explained on the basis of frequent very slight
perturbations on other pendulums, which are about the same length, which eventually pushes
them away from their original independent origins into a synchronous rhythm. The distinction
we need to make with the ants, is that they did not start with a periodic rhythm but followed a

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chaotic dynamic.
The real test for emergent order out of chaos in the ant colony, is to construct a
mathematical model. If such synchrony emerges from chaos, we may be more certain of calling
the behaviour emergent.
Sole, Miramontes and Goodwin (1993) constructed a mathematical model of the ant brood
chamber in the form of a mobile cellular automata. The model’s ant behaviour is produced by a
neural network generating a chaotic pattern of activity and inactivity. A few simple rules govern
result of interactions with other ants. An active ant meeting an inactive one, stimulates it,
according to the level of a gain parameter (g) which is set for the whole colony. If g is too high
the whole “colony” remains active all the time, and if too low, no coherent pattern emerges. At a
range of g increases beyond 0.02 the model colony starts to show periodic activity, provided the
density of ants is above 0.40. From these critical values, cyclic activity occurs as either is
increased. However cycles emerge at lower densities if g is increased to approach 1.0.
Rich interconnections are provided by increasing the interaction levels and increasing the
density of individuals, which wind up the excitability of the system.
It is interesting to note that not all ant contacts result in mutual arousal. Some ants clearly
ignore the wake up call. This level of freedom is reflected by Mae Wen Ho, who describes the
coherence of a community as “maximum collective order combined with maximum individual
freedom”.
Slime mould
The ant colony illustrates the emergence of a temporal order amongst members of a
community. Dictyostelium sp, or slime mould, illustrates a far more dramatic shift in structural
organisation between individuals of the same species (Goodwin 1994). We have met slime
before. These free living amoeba are able to coalesce to form a sort of chimera form in which
they quite suddenly behave as an organised whole. This chimera form is like a slug and moves
along quite gracefully with a sort of regular nod of the front part. Inside, the amoebae are moving
in a spiral vortex from for to aft, and in some way propelling the unlikely vehicle along. A casual
observer would not notice that there are no mouth parts, the slug does not feed, nor are there any
excretions left behind. It is then quite unexpected when the slug divides bilaterally, without
pausing in its smooth progress. Now there are two slugs. After a few hours the purpose of this

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aggregation becomes clear. The slug stops, goes into a ball and then starts to push out a stalk
with a ball of cells on top of the stalk. The community of cells apparently determine which ones
should become spores in the top ball, and wait there to be released when food is more plentiful.
They are to be released into the air, hopefully to drift off in the breeze to a new feeding ground.
The rest, remain behind and die, having exhausted their last bit of energy, in providing the
supportive base and stalk for the more fortunate spore travellers.
The cells may be distantly related but not close enough to apply kinship altruism process to
explain their sacrifice. Even if it could be argued that they are saving related genes, there is no
current hypothesis to explain their extraordinary collective behaviour. All the cells of the slug,
were a few hours before the slug forming event, free crawling amoeba moving about eating
bacteria on the forest floor. Food became short and some started sending out distress signals.
Those surrounding picked up the signal, cyclic AMP, and after a short delay, they release their
own stored up cyclic AMP to propagate the signal. The cells then started moving towards the
origin of the signal. I have mentioned earlier that these patterns are very similar to those seen in
the Beloussof-Zhabotinskii (B-Z) reaction. These patterns provide a useful illustration of order
developing in a both a non-living system( B-Z reaction) and living organisms whose agents
behave in quite a deterministic way, but do so with time delays which introduce complex
patterns of interaction. The order which appears in Dictyostelium is temporal in that there is a
wave like process in the movement towards the aggregation of cells, which is followed by a
temporal order responsible for the coherent movement of the slug. Slime mould also shows a
striking degree of spacial order in the structure of the slug, a base, stalk and spore bag. Further
and perhaps most remarkable of the order which emerges from these simple organisms are early
signs of learning. It(they) can remember the timing(10minutes every hour) of periods of cold
experimentally produced in the laboratory. The respond to the cold by slowing down. Soon the
slow down for 10 minutes every hour even if the temperature remains constant. Collectively they
appear to learn and to remember.
The order in the ant colony and slime mould are imminent, that is from within. An attempt
will be made below, to derive a paradigm of order that will support this emergent order.

Emergent order in mixed species communities.

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 The order in ant colonies and slime moulds seems somehow appropriate as they are both
interactions between organisms of the same species. If one can put aside the uncanny similarity
between the B-Z patterns and slime mould it is possible to make a fair argument that what we are
seeing is an organism in some sort of loose life cycle (slime mould), with unattached semi-
differentiated cells (ants), which is merely intermediate between the clear duality in time of
caterpillar and butterfly, and a single organism composed of tissues of differentiated cells. The
organisation between communities of unlike species is more awkward to fit into the Procrustean
bed of conventional biology.
Biofilms
Slime collects on the inside of water pipes, the bottoms of ships, artificial heart valves, the
lining of the gut, rocks and plants in ponds, rivers and sea. Slime is everywhere it is wet.
The word slime, tells us that it is slippery but not that it is made up of living organisms.
Hence biofilm is a more descriptive word, though it does not sound as good. Biofilms have a
most interesting characteristic, in that the living organisms which colonise and grow on wet
surfaces show levels of interaction, cooperation and organisation not found in their free-
swimming or planktonic form. The concentration of organisms in a biofilm is likely to be 10,000
times greater than their concentration in planktonic form. Biofilms have recognisable channel-
like structures of varying size which allow for the transportation of fluids and currents between
the clumps of organisms at both the superficial and deep levels (Massol-Dey et al 1995).This
means that even aerobic organisms may flourish at quite a distance from the oxygen rich
substrate fluid. However, there is a gradient of oxygen tension towards the centre of the clump,
where anaerobic organisms are found. The gradients of substrate concentration, oxygen
availability and pH in the complex structure of the biofilm provide a wide variety of habitats for
microorganisms.
Many species of organisms produce biosurfactants which decrease the surface tension of the
substrate so they can adhere more easily. It has been discovered that the concentrations of these
biosurfactants is far higher than is possible from one species of bacteria. There appears to be a
collective effort to provide an adherent surface for anchoring the biofilm. Some species of oral
organisms are unable to adhere to the substrate, and must hold on to those that can. Cocci
piggyback onto long filamentous bacteria anchored well to the substrate. The round beads

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sticking onto a central core give the appearance of a corn cob, and this is the name by which
these aggregates are now commonly known. Further benefits of a life in the biofilm are that
antibacterial toxins are much less effective on biofilms. It has been calculated that it requires
1500 times the concentration of antibacterial agent to have the same effect on the biofilm as it
does on planktonic organisms.
The change in phenotype from a plankton phase of the organism to a biofilm phase is made
possible by the switching on of about 80 genes with a large number of new proteins being
formed. This change in the phase of organisms is an indication that communal living, calls for
significant adaptations. Considering the relative mass of organisms which the biofilm sustains,
this phase change to communal living is most successful. It illustrates the value of symbiotic
relationships between living organisms, in contrast to the competitive scramble envisaged by
neoDarwinians. Caldwell and Costerton (1996) believe that evolution occurs at a variety of levels
between genes, communities, and ecosystems. They argue that life consists of various forms of
information (order) which evolve through proliferation and association.
Kefir
An ancient process of curdling milk has been popular in parts of Russia since the recipe was
brought from the middle east, courtesy, so the tale goes of the Prophet Mohammed. The
curdling agents are an aggregate of some 30 different species of organism, including bacteria and
fungi (Margulis 1997). The mixture must be carefully looked after, for without the right amount
of available milk at just the right temperature, the community falls apart and the drink, called
Kefir, must be given to the pigs. If the brew is well tended, the drink is delicious and the
aggregate, now about a centimetre in diameter divides all by “itself” into two of the same. These
daughters must be collected (they float on the milk surface) and transferred to a new batch of
warm milk. This association has been fostered by the cooks who look after the brew, for
thousands of years. Any rogue variants which ruin the drink are discarded, the good tasting
survive. It is, according to Lynn Margulis, a good example of harmless creation of a new species
by the cooks who select the good kefir stock.
When the kefir aggregate “dies” , the mess has to be thrown away although the individual
organisms may still be alive and well. They have just ceased to synchronise their metabolisms,
are no longer coherent and depart their separate ways.

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 Death in communities of organisms.
The neoDarwinist interpretation of what appears to be sacrificial behaviour is to assume that
it is a version of altruism. Altruism is thought to be a successful strategy for the survival of kin
related genes. But there are several examples of the death of individuals in a community of
organisms which appear to support the organisation, rather than individuals.
Small quantities of some bacteria added to a growth solution will not grow or divide. When
larger quantities are added, some of them live to divide and the inoculum grows, but most of the
original bacteria die. It appears that the dying mass provides some essential growth factor
required to start a new colony.
The individual protozoa that make up the base and stalk of the slug die so that the spores can
be launched. They are the very individuals who first sent out distress calls which brought the
community together, so they have served it well.
On a larger scale, Pacific salmon swim all the way back to their spawning grounds to die.
Zooplankton eat the dead salmon and in turn cycle the nutrients to the young salmon fry. An
important limiting nutrient for the young fry is phosphorous, which were it not for the
pilgrimage of the dyeing adults, might be in short supply.
At least ten orders of birds eat some of their offspring. Cell death, and cannibalism are
common means of recycling limited nutrients in autopoietic systems.
The narrative of living systems has been contaminated by such anthropomorphic terms as
selfishness, cost benefit and altruism. The conclusions form these examples must be cautious
but they do suggest that there is a degree of coherent behaviour which favours the survival of the
community at the cost of individuals.
The survival of expressions in biology such as “selfish”, “altruism” and “survival of the fittest”
appear to have made quite a short successful journey from the narrative terms of our own
human story.

Summary
While it is helpful to take on the paradigm of self organisation it does not explicitly get us
closer to understanding the dynamics of complex systems. We still need to observe the
individual agents and their collective behaviour to be able to move towards a model which

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might confirm what we are think we observe. The closer the mathematical variables and values
are to the real ones, and the closer the mathematical emergence to the real observation, the
more secure is the conclusion that the order is emergent.
The process however of coming into order remains inscrutable. No one, not even the creators
of the mathematical model, can explain what causes order in complex systems. Though it is clear
from mathematical models, that the behaviour of agents and the nature of their interactions are
critical factors in allowing order to emerge.
Stylised ant colonies are far from replicating anything as complex as cognition, but they take
us close to the mysterious processes which occur when we observe imminent order. The
remarkable finding that slime mould can learn invites questions about aggregates, colonies,
swarms and flocks because they display what looks like ordered or even cognitive behaviour.
The conclusions from some examples of apparent order must be cautious but they do suggest
that there is a degree of coherent behaviour which emerges from interactions between
organisms.

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