HIGH CAPACITY, ULTRA LOW NOx

RADIANT WALL BURNER

DEVELOPMENT

RANDY MCDERMOTT AND MICHAEL HENNEKE

J O H N Z I N K C O M PA N Y
TULSA, OK

P R E PA R E D F O R

STONE & WEBSTER

ETHYLENE CONFERENCE
HOUSTON, TX
M AY 1 1 - 1 4 , 1 9 9 9

®
A KOCH INDUSTRIES COMPANY

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©1999, John Zink Company, LLC. All rights reserved.
 ABSTRACT

This paper describes a current project at John Zink to develop a natural draft, premixed
radiant wall burner for the ethylene market. The new burner is to have an increased heat
release and lower NOx emissions than is currently available. Additionally, it is desired to
achieve higher capacity while maintaining the same burner block opening (i.e. tile hole
diameter) to allow retrofits to existing units.

Premixed burners have for many years been the burner of choice in ethylene cracking
applications. The main reason for this is the even heat distribution and compact flame
provided by these types of burners. Further advantages of premixed burners include
automatic air to fuel ratio control over a nominal range, and relatively large fuel nozzles
which reduce port plugging.

On the other hand, there are disadvantages to premixed burners. Typically large
quantities of burners are required due to low heat releases, which can increase maintenance
and operational difficulty. Premixed burners have problems with capacity and turndown
when asked to handle wide swings in fuel composition. For heavy fuels secondary air is
typically required. This adversely affects NOx emissions, and again, makes the burners
difficult to operate.

The desire to maintain uniform heat distribution with fewer burners, run hotter furnaces
and achieve lower NOx emissions has sent burner designers back to the drawing board.
With the help of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) John Zink engineers have increased
understanding of the capacity and flashback problems which have characteristically plagued
premix burners. This development effort will produce a burner that stretches the limits of
conventional technology and paves the way for future advancement in radiant wall burners.

C U R R E N T S TA T E O F T H E A R T

In today’s market new heaters are required to meet stringent NOx emission regulations.
To this end John Zink has developed a staged fuel version of the original PMS (PreMixed
Sidewall) burner. The current version is the PMS-SF (SF means Staged Fuel). Capacity at
100% premix has decreased from the original PMS due to the necessity to stage a small
percentage of the fuel to achieve low NOx. A heat release of 1.1 MMBtu/h is achievable
with low available fuel pressure and low draft. The capacity, of course, increases as fuel
pressure and draft increase.

NOx emissions on the PMS-SF rival numbers set by John Zink’s INFURNOx burner
line, even at cracking furnace temperatures. In a 2100°F box the PMS-SF will achieve about
20 ppm(vd) on a 20% hydrogen / 80% natural gas fuel. The NOx levels will vary depending
on box temperature and fuel composition.

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 John Zink engineers have pioneered advancement in high capacity premixed burners as
well, achieving capacities of 1.9 MMBtu/h 100% premixed within a four inch tile opening.
To this point, such burners have suffered from high NOx emissions, which limits their
application. This has still been beneficial development work, however. In addition to
understanding the pathway to higher capacity, the development of the ultra high capacity
burner brought improvements in turndown ratios to the premixed burner design. Even with
80% hydrogen fuels, turndowns of greater than 4 to 1 have been achieved.

NOX THEORY FOR PREMIXED FLAMES

Premixing is one of the earliest NOx reduction methods. When firing clean fuels (i.e. no
fuel bound Nitrogen) under fuel lean conditions, “thermal NOx” is the main source of NO
emissions (note: based on Chemkin calculations, NO constitutes 99%+ of the initial NOx
formation). When the fuel and air are well mixed, peak flame temperatures are suppressed
over a conventional diffusion flame (i.e. a flame without significant dilution of the fuel with
furnace gases). This is because localized temperatures in a premixed flame will tend to be
closer to the average flame temperature. Avoiding the “hot spots” created in diffusion
flames is how premixed flames provide lower NOx.

The “prompt NOx” mechanism is generally of little concern for premixed flames since
the mixture is fuel lean. An estimate of prompt NO contribution from typical combustion
devices has been estimated between 5 and 15 % (Bartok and Sarofim, 231). Development of
the new John Zink radiant wall burner has primarily focused on reducing thermal NOx.

In general, the leaner the fuel/air mixture the lower the flame temperature and hence the
lower the NOx. This trend is illustrated in Figure 1. The NOx and temperature peaks are
off-set from one another due to the additional presence of O2 and N2 when the mixture is
fuel lean. As can be seen from the following equation for NO production,

d [ NO]
[ ] [ N ] k(T)
1
= O2 2 2 e
dt e

the formation of NO is proportional to the oxygen and nitrogen concentrations. In the

above equation, e indicates equilibrium conditions and k(T) is the temperature dependent
rate constant. Eventually, the temperature effect begins to reduce the formation rate despite
the increase of O2 and N2 at leaner conditions. The peak appears at about 5% excess air.
From a practical sense, the lesson to be learned here is that operating a 100% premixed
burner at 5% excess air maximizes thermal NOx emissions

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 C hem kin R esults, Prem ixed C H 4 and Air
C onstant Volum e PS R, C onstant H eat R elease

1.0 5% Excess Air 3500

Adiabatic Flame Temp, °F

0.8
Normalized NOx

3000
0.6

0.4

2500
NOx
Tem perature
0.2

0.0 2000
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Equivalence Ratio

Figure 1. Perfectly Stirred Reactor calculations for Methane/Air mixtures

The benefit of leaner premix is demonstrated in the PMS-SF burner. Compared to a

conventional PMS burner, the staged fuel version puts a smaller fraction of the fuel in the
mixing venturi (this premixed fuel is called “primary” fuel), but maintains enough air in the
mixer to combust the primary and staged fuel. In other words, the primary zone becomes
more fuel lean. As will be discussed later, the NOx benefits do not come without penalty,
since the capacity of the burner is reduced by decreasing the primary fuel mass flow rate.

Fuel composition also plays an important role in NO formation. In 1995 John Zink
presented a study at the American Flame Research Committee Symposium that evaluated
the effect on NOx of hydrogen concentration in the fuel gas. The primary results of this
paper can be seen in Figure 2. This data was taken for a John Zink AMR burner, which is a
forced draft/raw gas/radiant wall burner. There appears to be a peak in NOx at about 70%
H2. The increase in NOx is expected due to the increase flame temperature caused by
adding hydrogen, but the decrease was not expected. In explaining the results it was
proposed that the reduction of prompt NOx, because of the absence of carbon, was
responsible for the observed decrease in emissions.

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 AMR NOx
26

NOx ppm(vd), corrected to 3% O2

24

22

20

18

16
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

M o le Fra ctio n H 2 , B a lan ce N a tu ra l G a s

Figure 2. NOx emissions from a raw gas radiant wall burner

This trend may not hold true for premixed burners. The plots in Figure 3 suggest, based
on Chemkin calculations for a perfectly stirred reactor (PSR) that increasing hydrogen
concentration continues to increase NO production even up to 100% H2. Experimental
data to confirm this model is not yet available. The model shows the trend of total NO to
follow closely with the plot for flame temperature. For these calculations it was assumed
that 20% of the heat load was removed from the flame. Thus, the flame temperature is
more realistic, and not adiabatic. At low hydrogen concentrations the NO and flame
temperature trends separate, presumably due to the added importance of the prompt NO
mechanism in this region.

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 Chemkin Results, Stoichiometric Fuel/Air Mixture
Constant Volume PSR, Constant Heat Release
3300

1.0
Flame Temperature 3250
NO
3200
0.8

Flame Temperature, °F
Normalized NO

3150
0.6
3100

0.4 3050

3000
0.2
20% Heat Removal 2950

0.0 2900
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Mole Fraction H2, Balance CH4

Figure 3. Variation of NO with increased Hydrogen concentration

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 Figure 4. CFD study of slotted tip showing flue gas entrainment

NOx emissions can be controlled by diluting the fuel or fuel/air mixture with inert
furnace gases. This is the basis of John Zink’s INFURNOx technology. John Zink’s radiant
wall burners implement a similar method of NOx reduction with their slotted tip design.
Figure 4 above is a view from a CFD study aimed at understanding the NOx reduction
mechanisms present in these burners. In this picture the wall is the horizontal plane. As can
be seen the flue gases are drawn in by the high velocity jets issuing from the venturi
discharge tip. These flue gases mix with the reacting fuel/air mixture and lower the average
flame temperature.

When developing the ultra-high capacity radiant wall tip mentioned previously John
Zink experimented with the idea of a circumferencially slotted tip. The basic geometry is
shown in Figure 5. It was discovered that the longitudinal slots, like those in Figure 4,
provide better NOx reduction. This is presumably because when the slots are turned
lengthwise they provide a path that allows increased entrainment of furnace gases. With the
circumferencial slots a barrier is created by the outer most slot that prevents additional
entrainment.

Figure 5. Circumferencially slotted radiant wall discharge tip for high capacity

This same mechanism for entrainment is present in the center staged fuel nozzle as
shown in Figure 6. The staged fuel becomes so dilute that it burns “flamelessly”. In other
words, it burns at a very slow rate, and the furnace residence time and high box temperature
allow for complete burn out of the gases.

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 Figure 6. Side view of venturi discharge with center staged fuel nozzle. Furnace gases are
entrained by staged fuel jets.

EDUCTOR ANALYSIS

Venturi-style natural draft premixed burners operate differently than most natural draft
burners. Most natural draft burners use the motive force of the small pressure difference
between ambient and the furnace volume to accelerate combustion air through the throat of
the burner. Since ethylene furnaces typically operate at floor draft levels around than 0.5
inWC, this means that the combustion air velocity in these burners is limited to about 50
ft/s. However, radiant wall burners using a venturi to educt combustion air into the furnace
can easily achieve combustion air velocities over 100 ft/s. These burners use the motive
force of the high pressure fuel issuing through a small orifice to accelerate air into the mixing
section of the burner.

The performance of an eductor can be quantified using fluid dynamic analysis. The
integral momentum equation provides a convenient framework for the analysis of venturi
performance. This equation is: (Panton, 1984)

[ ]
0 = ∫∫ ρn j v j vi + ni P − n j τ ji dA
A
(1)

where:

subscript j - Jet (Fuel)

subscript e - Educted fluid (Air)
subscript m - Mixture (Jet + Ambient fluid)

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 m& - Mass flow
ρ - Density
v - Velocity
A - Area
ni - Outward pointing normal

This equation has been simplified for steady flow and a stationary control volume with no
body forces. The nomenclature is given below. In order to illustrate the type of analysis that
can be pursued, consider the following geometry:

Educted Air

Jet
Exiting mixture

Figure 7. Integral momentum analysis of venturi eductor

Figure 7 illustrates the venturi eductor system. The smaller cylinder represents the high
pressure jet, while the bigger cylinder represents the venturi itself. Applying equation (1)
using the bigger cylinder as a control volume yields useful results.

Typical premixed burners have a choked orifice as the fuel jet. We can evaluate the
contribution of such a jet in equation (1) using isentropic compressible flow relations. If the
total pressure of the fuel is Po , then the pressure at the control surface, Pj, is given by

γ
 2  γ −1
Pj = Po   (2)
 γ − 1
(Anderson, 1982) where γ is the ratio of specific heats. Similar relations exist to evaluate the
temperature and density at this plane. Since the jet is critical, these conditions are
independent of the downstream conditions in the eductor.

The momentum balance for the eductor can then be written

G j + Ge = Gm + losses (3)

where:

& + PA
G - Momentum flux normal to control surface= mv

Losses include viscous losses in the tube, entry losses, and exit losses due to non-plug flow
velocity distributions.

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 Starting from this model of an eductor, additional physics can readily be added, such as a
Reynolds number dependent wall shear, the effect of non-plug flow on the inlet flow, and
non-idealities in the high pressure jet. Such a model can then be used to answer ‘what-if’
questions. The following paragraphs discuss typical model results using a model validated by
both experimental and CFD results.

Figure 8 shows the effect of fuel pressure on eductor performance. As the fuel pressure
rises, the mass flow rate of educted air also rises, but the ratio of entrained air to fuel
decreases. This implies that the fuel-to-air ratio in the burner decreases as the burner is
turned down. Since stoichiometry affects NOx formation, we must understand how the
eduction performance is affected by turndown to control NOx formation under turndown
conditions.
Ratio of educted fluid to jet fluid

Fuel pressure

Figure 8. Effect of fuel pressure on eductor performance

Figure 9 shows the effect of diameter on eduction performance. The typical rule of
thumb used in eductor design is that the throat of the eductor should be approximately the
same area as the exit restriction. However, this optimum can be changed by altering the exit
coefficient of the exiting restriction or changing the length-to-diameter ratio of the throat.

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 Venturi Throat Diameter

Figure 9. Effect of throat diameter of venturi eductor system. This figure clearly shows that there is an optimum
diameter for maximum eduction.

Figure 10 shows the effect of throat length on venturi performance. This data was
generated by the integral momentum analysis discussed above. The figure indicates that
making the throat length as small as possible will maximize performance, however, real
experimental data indicates that a the throat becomes shorter, there is an optimum below
which the high pressure jet fails to attach to the venturi walls. At this point, the
performance of the venturi is degraded significantly.

17.6

17.5

17.4
Air/Fuel by Mass

17.3

17.2

17.1

17

16.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Venturi Length, in.

Figure 10. Effect of throat length on vneturi performance

The furnace draft is also an important variable in the capacity of the premixed burner,

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 although less sensitive than its raw gas counterpart. The eductor capacity is affected in two
ways. Firstly, the more negative the furnace pressure, the more the fuel/air mixture is
“pulled” out of the venturi mixer.

In addition, the tip coefficient appears to become lower when the draft level is high. In
other words, the K factor of the tip is decreased (this will be discussed in more detail in the
Flashback Control section). This is misleading, however, since the increase in air capacity is
most likely being caused by the additional furnace leakage present at higher draft. This has
an adverse effect on NOx emissions. Typically operators will close the burner primary air
doors to achieve the proper O2 concentration. The fuel/air mixture is, therefore, closer to
stoichiometric and the flame temperature increases.

A final note on burner capacity deals with the number of primary fuel ports. It is a
common practice to increase the number of ports to aid in noise reduction from the jet.
Smaller diameter ports shift the peak frequency level further out of the range of human
hearing and thus the burner seems more quiet. Another reason to use multiple fuel ports is
if a center staged design is used. This allows for simple manifolding of the staged gas.

Unfortunately, the increase in port number is detrimental to the capacity of the burner
for a given venturi configuration. Figure 11 shows a plot of eductor efficiency versus
number of ports. Eventually the efficiency levels off.

1 .0 0

0 .9 5
Eductor Efficiency

0 .9 0

0 .8 5

0 .8 0

0 .7 5
1 2 3 4 5
N u m b e r o f F u e l P o rts

Figure 11. Effect of the number of primary fuel ports on eductor performance

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 FLASHBACK CONTROL

Conventional wisdom suggests that the two goals, higher capacity and increased
flashback resistance work against each other. In other words, for higher capacity more tip
area is needed. This slows the velocity in the slots and in turn increases the chance of
flashback. This is not necessarily true, however. There are two factors that must be
considered when addressing tip capacity, the flow area and the flow coefficient (K). The K
factor is defined as follows.

2 ∆Ptotal
K=
ρv 2

where, ∆Ptotal = [Pstatic + Pvelocity]tip - Pfurnace

ρ=density
ν=velocity

Defining the K factor in this manner means that K is a measure of the flow resistance of
the tip, the higher the K factor the higher the resistance. Therefore, if the K factor is
decreased the tip will have a higher capacity.

Another misconception is that the bulk average velocity of the combustion mixture
flowing through the tip is always indicative of the flashback tendencies of the tip. Flashback
will occur if any portion of the flow profile is moving slow enough to allow combustion to
propagate back to the mixing section of the venturi. Often, since the fluid mixture is turned
radially at the tip, recirculating flow zones are created. This is the main cause of flashback.
If these zones can be eliminated, the flashback resistance of the tip can be improved
dramatically.

Fortunately, using turning vanes to eliminate the eddy zones is the same strategy used to
decrease the tip K factor. A 2-D axi-symmetric CFD model was designed to optimize the
baffle arrangements in the tip. The goal of the modeling was improve the flow patterns to
get as even a distribution as possible. Figure 12 shows the velocity patterns set up in a tip
with only one turning vane. A large separation occurs just downstream of the vane and a
recirculation in the slots is created.

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 Figure 12. Velocity vectors colored by velocity magnitude of flow through a discharge tip with a single turning vane

Even more revealing is Figure 13, which plots the radial velocity as a function of
distance along the slot. From this plot it is easy to see where the flashback would occur for
the operating point shown.

Figure 13. Plot of radial velocity for a discharge tip with a single baffle

The goal of the tip design should be to provide as even a velocity distribution as possible

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 along the length of the slot. One way to achieve this is to add multiple turning vanes to the
interior of the tip. A CFD image of such a design can be seen in Figure 14. This many
turning vanes is probably not necessary, but it illustrates what an ideal velocity profile might
look like. The resulting plot of radial velocity for the tip in Figure 14 can be seen in Figure
15.

Figure 14. Velocity vectors for a multi vane discharge tip

Figure 15. Plot of radial velocity for a multi vane discharge tip

Another source of flashback is hot interior surfaces exposed to a combustible mixture.

A remedy often used in the field to help eliminate flashback is to turn on the secondary

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 air to the premixed burner. If one thinks about the conventional theory behind why
flashback occurs, this operation makes no sense, because the primary air and hence the
velocity out the tip is decreased. This operation does help to prevent flashback, however,
and the reason is that it helps to reduce the venturi skin temperature. The need for an
extremely hot furnace wall to radiate to the process tubes in cracking furnaces means that
the burner block will also be radiating to the venturi. This radiant heat is absorbed by the
fuel/air mixture. If that mixture reaches the auto-ignition point before it is accelerated
through the tip, or if the flame speed of the mixture is increased due to increased
temperature, flashback could occur. Figure 11 shows a plot of normalized inside skin
temperature of the mixing venturi, with and without secondary air present.

CFD Data, Turndown Conditions

with secondary air

without secondary air
venturi metal temperature

length along venturi

Figure 16. Plot of venturi metal temperature with and without secondary air

The CFD data from Figure 11 shows only a small variation at the maximum temperature
region. This small variation may be all that is required, however, to ignite the mixture. This
theory may help explain many intermittent flashback problems.

CONCLUSIONS

At the present time the high capacity ultra-low NOx burner is in the prototype stage of
development. Rapid prototype tip castings have been ordered and testing is scheduled to
begin within the next month. Upon completion of this project, future work plans are

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 aimed at reducing maintenance and operational efforts. For the radiant wall burner to
remain a viable option for new heaters ease of operation must accompany improved capacity
and NOx performance. The limits of radiant wall technology have not yet been reached. At
John Zink, driving the advancement of this technology is top priority.

REFERENCES

1. Anderson, J. (1982) Modern Compressible Flow with Historical Perspcctive, McGraw-Hill, New
York.
2. Bartok, W. and Sarofim, A. Fossil Fuel Combustion, A Source Book. John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. 1991.
3. Panton, R., (1984) Incompressible Flow, Wiley-Interscience, New York.
4. Waibel, R.T.; Athens, L. and Claxton, M. Effect of Fuel Composition on Emissions from Ultra-
Low NOx Burners, American Flame Research Committee, Fall International Symposium,
Monterey, CA, 1995.

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