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Failure Analysis

of Engineering Structures
Part III

Dr James Wang
Faculty of SET
Tel: 9214 8657
Email: jawang@swin.edu.au

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Topic IV:

Fracture Mechanisms and


Microfractographic Features
Fractography
• to analyze the fracture features and
• to attempt to relate the topography of the fracture surface to
the basic mechanisms of fracture

1
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip
the parallel movement of adjacent layers

(a) Zero load: No deformation

(b) Elastic deformation

(c) Plastic deformation


Slip plane

Schematic illustration of the response of a single crystal to shear stress

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip
edge dislocation

Slip plane

the distortion
and reformation
(a) (b) (c)
of atomic bonds

mechanism: Slip plane


dislocation
motion

(d) (e) (f)


A low-stress alternative for plastically deforming a crystal
involves the motion of a dislocation along a slip plane. 3
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip
Slip becomes more difficult as individual atomic distances increase.

Slip plane
Slip plane

Slip distance

(a) (b)
Dislocation slip is more difficult along (a) a low-atomic-
density plane than along (b) a high-atomic-density plane.

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip Systems
A slip plane and a slip direction in that plane constitute a slip system.

 - Fe,
bcc {110} <111> 6 2 12 Mo, W

 - Fe, Al,
fcc {111} <110> 4 3 12 Ni, Au, Ag

 - Ti, Mg,
hcp (0001) <1120> 1 3 3
Zn, Cd

5
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip Systems (Examples)

4 3 12
ductile & deformable
(a) fcc aluminum

1 3 3
brittle

(b) hcp magnesium


Slip systems for (a) fcc aluminum and (b) hcp magnesium.
The more slip systems available, the easier it is for dislocation.
6

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features


Slip in Single Crystals
• Normal Stress: • Resolved Shear Stress:
F

(a) (b) 
 Slip plane
 normal, n

n
Slip 
Normal to direction
slip plane A
Slip As
direction As
/ 

• Magnitude of :

• Relationship between and :  applied tensile stress,


  orientation of slip plane
 
/   orientation of slip direction

7
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip in Single Crystals


• Largest Resolved Shear Stress :

  )max

• Critical Resolved Shear Stress :

If is sufficiently high, and , then slip starts.

The yield strength:

 )

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip in Single Crystals


• Factors that affect the yield strength, :
Direction
ofDirection
Stress
 ) Normal to
of Stress
45° 45°
slip plane
 Critical resolved shear stress, and,
 Orientation of the most favorably oriented
slip systems
Slip
direction
• Minimum Stress to Initiate the yielding, :

  45° 2

 Slip occurs along equivalent and most


favorably oriented planes and directions. Direction
of Stress
 Slip deformation forms small steps: slip lines

 Several slip systems may co-exist in a crystal.

9
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Microscopic Slip in Cobalt Crystal


Slip band

Slip line

500 nm

5 m

5 m 50 nm

(a) (b)
(a) Cobalt single crystal, and (b) schematics of its plastic deformation

10

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Resolved Shear Stress in Single Crystal


A zinc single crystal is being pulled in tension, with normal to its basal
plane (0001) at 60 to the tensile axis and with the slip direction 1120 at
40 to the tensile axis.
a) What is the resolved shear stress, , acting in the slip direction when
a tensile stress of 0.690 MPa is applied?
b) What tensile stress is necessary to reach the critical resolved shear
stress, , of 0.94 MPa?
Solution: cos 
cos  cos 
/ cos 

cos  cos  0.69 40° 60° 0.264

cos  cos 
0.94
2.45
cos  cos  40° 60°

11
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip in a Polycrystalline Material


slip lines
 Random crystallographic orientation
the directions of slip planes change

 All grains deform together, and


accommodate each other.

 Greater stresses required to initiate slip and


attendant yielding

100 m
grain
boundaries
Slip lines on the surface of a well poshed copper polycrystalline specimen

12

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip in a Polycrystalline Material


Location of grain
boundaries Slip bands Slip bands

Load

A After A
Before
Deformation Deformation

Profile of slip
bands

(a) Cross section of A-A (b)

Plastic deformation of a polycrystalline aluminium specimen

13
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage
P P

Basal plane • occurs on the basal

• fracture surface:
smooth & featureless

• cannot occur for


crystals with a fcc
structure (Al and Cu
alloys)

side view P
P
Schematics of the orientation of a single crystal with hcp structure (Zinc)

14

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Slip or Cleavage ? Competition !


shear stress on the slip system
external tensile stress,
normal stress on the cleavage plane
A

bcc metals
(high temp.)

bcc metals
(low temp.)

0 0
Temperature
Schematics of the competition of slip and Effect of temperature on critical
cleavage: relationship between resolved resolved shear stress and critical
shear stress and resolved normal stress resolved normal stress for bcc metals
crystal structure and loading situation, and the service conditions
15
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography

Growing crack • Many lattice defects: serve as crack


origins and cause the propagating
defect
cleavage crack to deviate.

Growing crack • The cleavage cracks may nucleate at


more than one location, and thus the
different levels
cracks propagate at different levels.
Cleavage on
another plane
• When these levels meet, fracture occurs by
slip on another set of planes, generating
fracture occurs by slip Steps steps or facets on it.

Schematic illustration of separation


between cleavage planes by slip

16

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography

parallel cleavage planes


Ni

steps

Fe-Si 40 2

(a) (b)

(a) OM cross section image of a cleavage profile in an Fe-Si single crystal (nickel
plated). (b) TEM fractograph showing cleavage steps and secondary rupture along
a (100) plane. Material: mild steel, impact-fractured at -196 °C.

17
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography

Nickel plate Teared by plastic


deformation

main branches
0.5
(a) (b)
(a) Cross section of a cleavage fracture surface, showing tearing of the connecting
material between cleavage surface, Material: Fe-3%Si. (b) SEM fractograph showing
tear ridges which make up a river pattern. Material: extramild steel.

18

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography

Nickel plate Nickel plate


tongue
{112} type

twin

Fe-Si 40 1

(a) (b)
Cross section through fracture surface. (a) OM of an Fe-Si single crystal,
impact-fractured at – 196 °C. (b) High resolution TEM micrograph of fracture in
Armco iron, showing profile of a tongue (Adapted from G. Henry and D. Horstmann, De Ferri
Metallographia, vol. V: Fractography and Microfractography, Verlag Stahleisen m.b.H., Dusseldorf, Germany, 1979).

19
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography


 Distinctive feature associated with cleavage: River-like pattern

A B • some cracks advance until they meet a


boundary along the line A-A, initiating
many cracks.

• As the cracks propagate, these levels


combined to form cracks advancing on
a fewer parallel planes.

• An extremely smooth fracture facet


B stops the cracks.
A 4

TEM micrograph showing river–like


pattern in cleaved Iron

20

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography


A
 Distinctive feature associated
with cleavage: Fan-like feature

• The advancing crack encountered a


grain boundary (A-A)

B • From B many fresh cracks initiated


locally

• Each crack propagated in a fan-like


fashion onto planes of slightly
5 different elevations.
A
TEM micrograph showing a fan-
like feature. Material: Iron

21
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography

River Lines

Origins Common
origin

2
b 4
a
Niobium alloy Low-carbon steel
Cleavage fracture occurs along “River Lines” identify separate origins on
crystallographic planes in each parallel but slightly offset planes, and show
grain. a radiating pattern away from the common
origin.

22

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography


single grain

Slip lines

10 30

(a) (b)
Cleavage fracture surfaces (a) Slip bands/lines on the cleavage facets. (b)
Featherlike structures in weld metal: 30% chromium steel.

23
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Cleavage Fracture Topography


Tongues: protrusions and depressions
Tongues

1 1

(a) (b)
SEM Fractographs showing the general appearance of "tongues”. Samples
were impact fractured at -196 °C. (a) Extramild steel. (b) Fe-1.8% Si steel
(Adapted from G. Henry and D. Horstmann, De Ferri Metallographia, vol. V: Fractography and
Microfractography, Verlag Stahleisen m.b.H., Dusseldorf, Germany, 1979.

24

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Void Coalescence

P
45° 3rd
1st Slip
Slip plane
plane Cross
Slip
“pinching off”

2nd
Slip
plane

Schematic illustration of fracture of a single crystal by cross slip

25
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Void Coalescence
P P

(a)
Internal voids Voids growing Internal voids

P void growing
P
process

P
Slip planes

void
45°
(b)
cross slip
void growing
P
mechanism
Schematic illustration of void growing process and its mechanism
Once a void forms, then it will continue to deform by multiple cross slips, and grows
bigger and bigger. 26

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Void Coalescence
cusps

void A A

Voids coalescence
Dimple

Dimple
a) Voids coalescence process
c) Dimple formation

P
Slip
plane Slip on
Cross
dimple
void slip
surface
Slip
void plane

Slip Two voids


P plane now joined

b) Voids coalescence mechanism


Schematic illustration of void coalescence process and its mechanism

27
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Void Coalescence

50

void coalescence
100 30
void coalescence
H. C. Rogers, Trans. AIME, vol. 218,
Left and right, K.E. Puttick, Phil. Mag. vol. 4, page 964, 1959. page 498, 1966.

(a) shear bands (b)


(a) OMs fractographs show cross sections of a tensile specimen during necking
process, revealing void coalescence. (b) shows the development of shear bands
between coalescing microvoids in copper.

28

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Voids and Second Phase Particles


Dimple

Dimple
some particles

(a) 20 5
(b)
R.W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials (3rd ed.), p. 255

Examination of fracture surface shows some particles are in the dimples.


If these particles fell out during separation, then some dimples are empty
in the fractograph.

29
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Voids and Second Phase Particles

Dimple
Dimple

particles
particles

2 2

(a) (b)

The fractograph indicates the formed dimples are shallow in depth.


Adapted from T. J. Baker and J. A. Charles, J. Iron Steel Inst., vol. 210, pp. 702–706, 1972.

30

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Voids and Second Phase Particles

(a) 1.8 (b)

5 1

A. W. Thompson, Met. Trans., vol. 5, p. 1855 (1974).

Fractograph of Nickel-20%Cr-2%ThO2: large particles are thoria; small


ones between large voids are nickel oxides.

31
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Voids and Second Phase Particles

Missing
particle

Fractured
particle sulfide inclusions
sulfide inclusions
1 1

(a) (b)

Areas from two different fracture surfaces. The fractures are clearly ductile,
with varying sizes of dimples and distinct particles in the bottom of the larger
dimples. Material: low-carbon steel used as railroad wheels.

32

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Voids and Second Phase Particles


Effect of the Size, Shape, and Dispersion of the Second-phase Particles

Equiaxed dimples
Smaller particle

Elongated
Larger particle particles/dimple
pair

4 20

(a) (b)
(a) Fractograph showing dimples with (b) Fracture surface showing elongated
particles in them. These silicate inclusions dimples due to elongated MnS inclusions.
determine the size, shape of the dimples in Material: steel containing 0.12% C, 0.02%
the fracture surface . Si, 0.44% Mn, 0.059% P, and 0.068% S.
Material: unalloyed carbon steels 33
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Voids and Second Phase Particles


Effect of Material Strength Effect of Particles in Grain Boundary

2 10

(a) (b)
Fractograph showing shallow dimples. Intergranular fracture surface
Material: Maraging steel showing dimples on the surface

34

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Mixed Mechanism

100

Mixed mechanism of fracture: cleavage and void coalescence.


Material: 1040 hot-rolled steel.

35
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Effect of Second-phase Particles


Yield strength, ksi
4.0 60 70 80 90 100
(in super-purity 2.0 150
3.5 Al matrix)
4 125

, MPa
3.0
1.5 7761 Upper bound

,
2.5 Super-purity super purity 100
,

aluminium base
2.0 7475 75
1.0
1.5

7461 50


Al-4Mg base Other 7XXX
1.0
25


0.5
0.5


0 400 500 600 700
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Particle, vol.% Yield strength, MPa
(a) (b)
(a) The decrease in fracture strain with increase of volume percent of micron-size intermetallic
particles for a super-purity aluminum matrix and an AI-4Mg matrix. (b) A comparison of high-
purity 7050 aluminum sheet, 7475 sheet, and a 7xxx-series aluminum alloy. (Adapted from
“Aluminum: Properties and Physical Metallurgy, J.E. Hatch, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1984)

36

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Effect of Second-phase Particles


A Transverse yield strength, MPa
400 450 500
1.5
Plane fracture toughness, MPa

1000
Notch tensile strength

1.4
Yield strength

A
1.3 900

B 1.2 800
B
1.1
700

1.0
55 60 65 70 75
Transverse yield strength, ksi
(a) (b)
The effect of decreasing the number of AI2CuMg constituent particles on the the
strength and fracture toughness of 7050 (Adapted from “Aluminum: Properties and
Physical Metallurgy, J.E. Hatch, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1984)

37
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Effect of Loading on Dimple Shape Fracture


(a) Tension (a) Equiaxed
surfaces

dimples formed

Equiaxed dimples

Opposite direction
(b) Shear 4

(b) Elongated dimples


point in opposite
directions
Shear dimples
10
(c) Tensile shearing
Same direction

(c) Elongated
dimples point
toward fracture
15 origin Tear dimples

38

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features


Path of Crack
Transgranular Fracture Grains Propagation

 For brittle materials, crack propagation


corresponds to successive breaking of
atomic bonds along specific crystallographic
planes (Cleavage planes)

 Transgranular: the crack propagations pass


Fractured grains
through the grains
(a)
 Fracture Features:

• Faceted textures due to change in


orientation of the cleavage planes

• Some completely fractured grains

faceted texture (b)


(a) schematic illustration of crack propagation through the interior of grains for transgranular
fracture; (b) SEM fractography of cast iron fracture surface. Mag. Unknown. Adapted from Callister,
“Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction, eight edition, 2009, Figure 8.6, page 240.
39
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Path of Crack
Intergranular Fracture Grain boundaries
Propagation

 Intergranular: When the grain boundaries


are the weakest locations, then decohesion
occurs before cleavage or slip.

 Fracture Features:

• 3 dimensional topographical details


due to different shapes and (a)
orientations.

• Grain shapes and sizes determine fracture


topography

• The areas close to the grain boundaries


are relatively rough on a fine scale.

Relatively rough areas (b) 400


(a) schematic illustration of crack propagation through the grain boundaries to form
intergranular fracture; (b) SEM fractography of intergranular fracture surface. Mag. Unknown.
Adapted from Callister, “Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction, eight edition, 2009, Figure 8.7, page 241. 40

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Intergranular Fracture

(a) (b)

Ideal grain shape:


100 transgranular regions
tetradaidecahedron (14 sides);
surface area-to-volume ratio is Fractures contain both intergranular facets and
close to actual grains transgranular regions. The crack at the specimen
surface maintains the intergranular fracture for
only a few grains.

41
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Intergranular Fracture

Effect of Grain Shapes on the Intergranular Fracture Topography

(a) (b) (c)

Schematic illustration of grain-boundary fracture. (a) Decohesion along


grain boundaries of equiaxed grains. (b) Decohesion through a weak
grain-boundary plane. (c) Decohesion along grain boundaries of
elongated grains.

42

IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features

Causes for Intergranular Fracture


various metals, become brittle and fracture following
For Alloys: exposure to hydrogen
 Hydrogen embrittlement causes grain boundary fracture during
loading.
 In some corrosion environments stress corrosion results in granular
cracks.
The decrease in notch toughness of alloy steels when
For Steels: heated, or cooled slowly in 400°C ~ 600°C
 Temper embrittlement fracture along the austenite grain boundaries
due to presence of embrittling elements: Sb (antimony), P (phosphorous),
Sb (tin), and As (arsenic).

 Segregation to the grain boundaries, forming 2nd phase particles,


intermetallic compounds, or carbide networks, and making the grain
boundary the weakest location.

43
Topic V:

Fatigue Fracture

44

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue
 Fatigue occurs in structures subjected to
tension

cyclic stress.

 Failure occurs at a lower stress than under


static loading
compression

t
 ~ 90% of metallic failures occur in fatigue!

 Also occurs in ceramics, polymers and


composites Variation of stress with time that
accounts for fatigue failure.
 Brittle-like in nature, even in ductile materials

Fatigue consists of three stages:


 accumulated damage (cracking), occurring
over a long period of time  Crack initiation

 Crack propagation
 Catastrophic and insidious, occurring
suddenly and without warning  Rupture

45
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Cycle Stress


 Three fluctuating stress-time modes
Reversed Stress Cycle Repeated Stress Cycle

tension

tension
compression

compression
t
t

Random Stress Cycle


tension

2 2
compression

Variation of stress with time that accounts for fatigue failure

46

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Stress Calculation: Example 1


A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress was 50 MPa and
the stress amplitude was 225 MPa.
a) Compute the maximum and minimum stress levels.
b) Compute the stress ratio.
c) Compute the magnitude of the stress range.

Solution:
50 , 225
a)
50 225
2 2

100 275

450 175

47
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Stress Calculation: Example 1

Solution (Continued):

b) Stress Ratio
175
0.64
275

c) The Magnitude of the Stress Range

275 175
450

48

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Stress Calculation: Example 2

An 8.0 mm diameter cylindrical rod


fabricated from a red brass alloy (as
shown in the figure) is subjected to
, (MPa)

1045 steel
reversed tension-compression load
cycling along its axis. If the
Stress,

2014-T6 Al Alloy
maximum tensile and compressive
loads are +7500 N and -7500 N,
respectively, determine its fatigue Red Brass
life.
Assume that the stress plotted in
Cycles to failure, N (log scale)
the figure is stress amplitude.
Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the
number of cycles to fatigue failure (N) for
three different materials

49
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Stress Calculation: Example 2


Solution:
a) Find and

7500
150
8.0 10
2 2
7500
150
8.0 10
2 2
b) Find Stress Amplitude
150 150
150
2 2
From the figure provided, for the red brass, the number of cycles to
failure at this stress amplitude is about 1  105 cycles.

50

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Testing
fatigue properties of materials
Compression Tension

counter
Guide Guide
Spring Imbalance

Specimen

high speed motor

service stress conditions


(stress pattern, Machine Frame
time frequency…)

Schematic diagram of fatigue-testing apparatus using an alternating


uniaxial tension-compression stress cycle through the spring

51
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Testing
grip ends: transfer load

Transition section:
large, smoothly blended radius to
12 eliminate stress concentration

R50 R50 Test section:


reduced in cross-section to
prevent failure in the grip ends
14

10 10

35 35
120

Fatigue Testing Specimen Preparation

52

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Testing

The compression and tensile stresses are imposed on the specimen using an alternating
uniaxial tension and compression stress cycle

A crack initiates and propagates on the surface, and ultimately the component fails.
The number of stress cycles to failure is counted. 53
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Testing

Features of fracture surface

54

S - N Curve
Materials performance: characterized by an S-N curve: a graph of amplitude of
cyclic stress (S) against the number of cycles to failure (N).
(MPa)

230

Cycles to failure, N (log scale)


S-N curve for structural steel S235JR: relationship between the amplitude
of cyclic stress (S) and the number of cycles to failure (N)

55
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Limit

Stress , S (MPa)
Fatigue limit / Endurance Limit

103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010


Cycles to failure, N (log scale)

• For some iron and titanium alloys, the S-N curve becomes horizontal at higher
number of cycles, N.
• Fatigue Limit: a limiting stress level below which fatigue will not occur.

• The fatigue limit for many steels: ~ 35~60% of the tensile strength

56

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Strength
Stress, S (MPa)

Fatigue Strength

103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010

Cycles to failure, N (log scale)

• Most nonferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Mg…) do not have fatigue limit

• Fatigue will ultimately occur regardless of the magnitude of the stress.

• The fatigue response is specified as Fatigue Strength: the stress level at


which failure occurs for some specific number of cycles (e.g. 107 cycles)

57
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Life
Data scatter
• material parameters
o specimen
Stress, S (MPa) fabrication
o surface preparation
o metallurgical
variables
• Test conditions
o mean stress
o test frequency
103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
o specimen alignment
Fatigue Life
Cycles to failure, N (log scale)
at stress S1

Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to


fatigue failure (N) for a material that does not display a fatigue limit

58

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Behavior: Two Domains


Low-cycle fatigue: high High-cycle fatigue: low stress
stress levels generate both levels produce totally elastic
elastic and plastic strains strains (longer fatigue life)
(short fatigue life)
Stress, S (MPa)

103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010

Cycles to failure, N (log scale)

Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to


fatigue failure (N) for a material that does not display a fatigue limit

59
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Limit: Example 3


100

90
1.20% carbon steel
80

70

Stress (kpsi)
Chromium nickel steel
60

50
0.53% carbon steel
40

30
Structural steel rod as rolled
20

10 Copper, drawn and annealed

Cycles to failure, N (log scale)

Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles


to fatigue failure (N) for materials that display a fatigue limit

60

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture: Example 4


The fatigue data for a brass alloy are given as follows:
a) Make an S–N plot (stress amplitude
versus logarithm cycles to failure) (M Cycle to Failure
using these data. 310 2 10
b) Determine the fatigue strength at 5 
105 cycles. 223 1 10
c) Determine the fatigue life for 200 191 3 10
MPa.
168 1 10
Suppose that the fatigue data for the 153 3 10
brass alloy were taken from torsional
143 1 10
tests, and that a shaft of this alloy is to be
used for a coupling that is attached to an 134 3 10
electric motor operating at 1500 rpm. 127 1 10
Give the maximum torsional stress
amplitude possible for each of the
following lifetimes of the coupling:
d) 1 year, and e) 1 month.

63
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture: Example 4


Solution:
a) The fatigue data for this alloy are plotted below.

Stress, S (MPa)

Log Cycles to Failure, N


(b) As indicated by the “ ” set of dashed lines on the plot, the fatigue strength at 5  105
cycles [log (5  105) = 5.7] is about 250 MPa.
(c) As indicated by the “ ” set of dashed lines on the plot, corresponding to fatigue
strength of 200 MPa, the Log cycles to failure is about 6.3. Therefore, the fatigue life is
2  106 cycles.

64

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture: Example 4


Solution (continued):
For each lifetime, first calculate the number of cycles, and then read the
corresponding fatigue strength from the S-N plot.

d) Fatigue lifetime for 1 year:


24 60 1500
365 7.9 10

log (7.9  108) = 8.9  130

e) Fatigue lifetime for 1 month:


24 60 1500
30 6.5 10

log (6.5  107) = 7.8  145

65
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture: Example 5


Three identical fatigue specimens (denoted A, B, and C) are fabricated
from a nonferrous alloy. Each is subjected to one of the maximum -
minimum stress cycles listed below; the frequency is the same for all
three tests.

Specimen (M (M
450 350
400 300
340 340

a) Rank the fatigue lifetimes of these three specimens from the longest
to the shortest.
b) Then justify this ranking using a schematic S – N plot.

66

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture: Example 5


Solution:
a) Find the mean and stress amplitude
2
450 350
50
2

400 300
50
2

340 340
0
2

Find the stress amplitude


2
450 350
400
2

400 300
350
2

340 340
340
2

67
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture: Example 5


Solution (continued):
b)
On the basis of these results, the fatigue lifetime for specimen C will be
greater than specimen B, which in turn will be greater than specimen A.
This conclusion is based upon the following S-N plot on which curves
are plotted for two values.

Stress Amplitude (MPa)


0
Fatigue lifetime:
400
>
350
, 50
340

Log Cycles to Failure, N

68

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Process
 Crack Initiation
Stress raisers: scratches, dents,
concentric ridges
fillets, keyways, threads…..

On very smooth surfaces, slip steps Initiation


can act as stress raisers.
Propagation

 Crack Propagation Fatigue


The crack advances incrementally rupture
with each stress cycle.

 Fatigue Rupture
It occurs very rapidly; dull and
fibrous surface
Schematic representative of a fatigue
fracture surface in a steel shaft

69
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fractography
Origin
 Beachmarks: macroscopic
evidence of fatigue

• Concentric Ridges: expand


away from the crack initiation
sites

Final
• Reason: interrupted loading,
rupture
e.g. machine being switched on
and off

• The Beachmarks do not


represent the crack growth per Fracture surface of a rotating steel shaft that
stress cycle. experienced fatigue failure. Mag. Unknown. Adapted
from Callister, “Materials Science and Engineering An
Introduction, eight edition, 2009, Figure 8.21, page 260.

70

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fractography
 Striations: microscopic evidence of
fatigue and observed by SEM/TEM

• generated from incremental


advance of fatigue crack, and
represents the advance distance
of a crack front in a single stress
cycle
Striations
• Striation spacing depends on
loading conditions:
Secondary crack
stress magnitude
loading frequency Transmission electron microscopy fractograph
showing fatigue striations in aluminium. 9000X.
Adapted from Callister, “Materials Science and
Striation spacing Engineering An Introduction”, eight edition, 2009,
Figure 8.22, page 260.

71
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fractography

(a) (b)

Striations
Striations

Secondary
crack Secondary
crack

5 10

Fractographs of fatigue fractures showing secondary cracks associated with


striations. (a) From a tantalum heat-exchanger tube. The rough surface
appearance is due to secondary cracking caused by high-cycle low-amplitude
fatigue. (b) From steel containing 0.10% C, 0.27% Si, 0.43% Mn, 0.027% P,
and 0.022% S.
72

V. Fatigue Fracture
Region of slow
Fatigue Fractography A crack initiates
crack propagation
 Comments: Beachmarks & Striations 2

• Beachmarks and Striations may not


appear on the final rupture region.

• Each beachmark may consist of


thousand of striations.

• Beachmarks caused by interrupted


loading; Striations by one stress cycle

• Cannot be used to estimate the crack


growth rate
Rapid failure region: dull and fibrous
• Presence of beachmarks or striations texture
confirms that the cause of failure was Fatigue failure fractograph. Adapted from
fatigue Callister, “Materials Science and Engineering An
Introduction”, eight edition, 2009, Figure 8.23, page 261.

73
V. Fatigue Fracture
Rapid Rupture
Fatigue Fractography: Example 6
• Crack initiates at the bottom edge.

• The beachmark patterns indicate


fatigue as the fracture mechanism.

• The smooth region near the top


corresponds to the area over which
the cracks propagated slowly. (a)
Origin

• Rapid rupture occurs over


the area that has a dull and
fibrous texture.

• Closely spaced striations


formed during stage II
(b)

Fatigue failure fractograph, (a) at low


magnification; (b) 1000X
74

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fractography: Example 7

(a) Fatigue crack surface in a 40 mm (b) Fatigue crack in the deck of a ship
thick steel plate

75
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fractography: Example 8


Both beachmarks and striations are fatigue fracture surface features have
similar appearance, however, they are different. Briefly explain the
difference between fatigue striations and beachmarks in terms of (a) size
and (b) origin.
(a) With regard to the size
Beachmarks: • of macroscopic dimensions
• observed with the naked eye
Striations: • of microscopic size
• observed using SEM/TEM
(b) With regard to the origin
Beachmarks: • result from interruptions in the stress cycles
Striations: • caused by progressive advance of crack front
and corresponds to the advance distance of a
fatigue crack in a single stress cycle

76

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fractography: Example 9


The following photograph shows a small part of a fatigue fracture surface
taken in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The position of the crack
at the end of each stress cycle is indicated by parallel lines, or "striations."
By taking measurements from the photograph, estimate the striation
spacing.
(a) (b)

7.8

Fatigue striations in (a) interstitial free steel and (b) aluminium alloy AA2024-T42.

77
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fractography
A

(a) 25 (b) 25

Two examples of cracks initiated at defects. In figure (a) the crack initiated at a
void. In figure (b) the crack initiated from the side of the inclusion. Cracks were
observed after 150,000 cycles. Material: 2024-T3.

78

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fractography

long slender
particles

smaller, more
spherical
particles

Transmission electron micrograph of thin foil of an aluminum alloy.


Fractured elongated particles and smaller, more spherical particles
are potential source of void formation, leading to possible interface
separations
79
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms

Stage I
Fatigue
Crack

Intrusions,
Extrusions Stage II
Fatigue
Crack

Persistent
Slip Bands Cyclic Slip
(PSB)

Schematic representative of a fatigue fracture surface in a steel shaft

80

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms


 Stage I Fatigue Crack: Stage I
Single slip system

• the crack initiation stage Fatigue


Crack
• initiates from stress raisers in
component surface; occurs for
high-cycle-low-stress loading

• tends to grow initially along


crystallographic planes of high
shear stress
Stage II
• 45 and propagates only a few Fatigue
grains, and controlled by mean Crack
stress, grain boundaries …
Surface

• difficult to recognize, so microscopy needed.

60 m 81
V. Fatigue Fracture
Slip Bands
Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms
Stage I
 Stage II Fatigue Crack: Fatigue
• the crack propagation stage Crack
Fatigue Crack
• becomes perpendicular to the
tensile stress

• propagates only during the


tensile stress part of the cycle

• much larger than the grain size, Stage II


sensitive to large scale features: Fatigue
texture, residual stress … Crack

• Notch: stress raiser, initiates the crack;


• Very short stage I crack length;
• Crack advancement direction: perpendicular to…
• Slip lines observed

82

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms: Example 10


Slip
paths Stage I
crack
Local plastic
flow
Plastic
Stage
zone
II crack
Stage I
crack

(a) How cracks form in low-cycle fatigue (b) How cracks form in high-cycle fatigue

83
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms


 Cyclic Slip (CS): If the local microscopic stress exceeds the yield strength,
upon repeated fatigue loading, plastic deformation occurs locally.
(a)
• Local plastic
deformation
occurs

• 45° (slip lines,


slip bands)

Cyclic (b)
Slip (CS) • Cyclic
hardening
• occurs within a grain
• Tangled slip
• operates on an atomic lines
scale

Formation of slip bands during fatigue


loading, mag. unknown.
84

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms


 Persistent Slip Bands (PSBs): thin lamellae generated by intensive cyclic
plastic deformation in crystalline materials

 PSBs Role in the Process of Crack Initiation:


• formed due to intensive cyclic plastic
PSB deformation prior to crack initiation

• The cyclic plastic deformation in PSBs leads


to the formation of surface extrusions and
intrusions along slip planes (~ 45°
PSB
• Fatigue cracks start from surface intrusions
and propagate along the PSBs

• Stage II fatigue cracks often follow the PSBs on


the microscopic level.
Micrograph of formation of PSBs during fatigue loading, mag. unknown.
85
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms


 Intrusions and Extrusions: those depression and elevation of thin lamellae
along slip planes due to very intensive cyclic deformation in PSBs

• The formation of Intrusions and


Extrusions occurs before stage I
Extrusions fatigue crack initiation, and results
in cyclically hardened material.

• Intrusions serve as initiators for


Intrusions fatigue cracks, which then run along
(a) the PSBs.

thin lamellae (PSBs)


(a) schematic illustration of PSBs, Intrusions and
Extrusions , and PSBs during fatigue loading. (b)
Magnified illustration showing intrusion, extrusion
(b) and PSBs.

Stage I Fatigue Crack initiates at PSBs


86

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms


 Intrusions and Extrusions:
(a) (b)

2 5

(a) Example of extrusions and intrusions on (b) Cross section of the surface of a fatigue
the surface of an aluminum alloy: 4% Cu, sample showing stage I cracks at the surface
1.2% Mg, 0.3% Mn. 10,000 cycles. and the beginning of stage II. Material: pure
aluminum.
87
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate


• Initially, the growth rate is small,
but increases with increasing the
number of cycles.

Crack length, a
• Increasing applied stress level will ,

significantly increases the crack


,
growth rate and thus the crack
length.
Initial crack length

• increases with increasing Number of cycles, N

crack length and stress level Relationship between the crack length and the
applied. number of stress cycles, N, at two different
stress levels

88

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate  Region III


Rapid crack growth just
 Region I prior to final rupture
At low stress levels small crack, or pre-
existing cracks will not grow with cyclic
loading.

 Region II
Relationship between fatigue growth rate
,

( ) and stress intensity factor (∆ ):


∆ ln
and constants, depending on the

material: Non Unstable


propagating Linear crack
relationship
• m: 1~ 6 fatigue growth
cracks
• Cracks grow faster if
 ∆ increases
 Cracks become longer, and Stress intensity factor, ∆
 Loading frequency increases. ∆ ∆
89
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate: Example 11


10
10
10

./
/
10 ∆
Region 1: 10

,
10 slow crack

,
Region 3:
growth rapid
10


unstable
10 crack growth
∆ Region 2: 10
power law


10 behaviour
10

10


6 8 10 20 40 60 80
Stress-intensity factor ∆ ,
Entire da/dN vs. ∆ plot for A533 steel showing asymptotic behavior at
either end of the curve and a relatively linear portion in the center. Yield
strength 470 MPa. Test conditions: R = 0.10, ambient room air, 24 °C.

90

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate


 Region II 0.2% yield strength: 84,500 psi (583MPa)
Test temp: RT
∆ ln Test frequency: 1800 cpm (30Hz)
Max cyclic load, lbf /
/

500 (2.22 KN)


700 (3.11 KN)
• A straight line segment will result 900 (4.00 KN)
when . ∆ data are
,

plotted

• The slope and Y–intercept: ∆


correspond to the values of m and
ln , respectively

1.8 10 ∆
m=3

A 1.8 10
Stress intensity factor, ∆ (103 psi .)
Logarithm crack growth rate versus logarithm
stress intensity factor range for a Ni-Mo-V steel
91
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate


10
0.8
0.4

/
10 0

,
0.5

/
1

10

Fatigue crack growth rate



10

10

10
2 5 10 20 50 100
Stress-intensity factor ∆ ,
The influence of stress ratio value on the fatigue crack growth
characteristics of a steel. Fatigue crack propagation properties of JIS
SS41 steel.
92

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate


Fatigue growth rate ( ) and stress intensity factor (∆ ) Relationship:

∆ ∆
/ /
∆ ∆ ∆
1
∆ / /

∆ / /

are initial and final crack lengths, then the safe number of cycles

∆ / /

93
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate: Example 12


Calculation of the safe number of cycles
1 1 1
∆ / / ∆

For cast iron, 4.3 10 , 4, 1.23.

If the range of tensile stress ∆ = 1.60 MN ,

= 0.02 m, and = 0.03 m


1 1 1
∆ /

1 1 1
4.3 10 1.23 1.60 0.02 0.03

2.6 10 cycles

94

V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate: Example 13


/
A large component is made of a steel for which 62 . Nondestructive
testing (NDT) by ultrasonic methods shows that the component contains long
surface cracks up to 2 deep. Laboratory tests show that the crack-growth
rate under cyclic loading is given by
/
∆ where 6.5 10
The component is subjected to an alternating stress of range ∆ 180 .
Given that ∆ ∆ , estimate the number of cycles to failure if the final crack
length is defined by 40 mm.
Solution:
Determine whether the component fails by fast fracture:
≪ 1
/
1 180 0.002 14.30

Therefore, there is no risk of fast fracture.

95
V. Fatigue Fracture

Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate: Example 13


Solution (continued):
Determine the number of cycle to failure:
Since Other conditions:
∆ 3 2 0.002
∆ 40 0.04
∆ 180
/
6.5 10

/ . /

∆ / 6.5 10 1 180 /
.

.
/
1 1
4737.45 9474.9 164,491
. 0.04 0.002

96

V. Fatigue Fracture

The Safety of Stretham Engine: Example 14


• Built in 1831 for agricultural
use
• Maximum horsepower of
105 at a speed of 15 rpm

• Lift 30 tons of water per


revolution, or 450 tons per
minute

• Now the sole surviving steam


pump of its type in East
Anglia, England

• Run for demonstration


purposes Part of the Stretham pumping engine

97
V. Fatigue Fracture

The Safety of Stretham Engine: Example 14


Suppose that a crack 0.02 m deep has been found in the connecting rod, a
cast-iron rod, 21 feet long, with a cross-section of 0.04 m2.
Will the crack grow under the cyclic loads to which the connecting rod is
subjected? And what is the likely life of the structure?

Mechanics: 1 hp = 745.7 J/s

105 7.8 10 / 1 feet = 0.3048 m

15 0.25 / 8 2.44
S 2
7.8 10
6.4 10
2 2.44 0.25
Nominal stress in the connecting rod:
6.4 10
1.6
0.04

98

V. Fatigue Fracture

The Safety of Stretham Engine: Example 14


Failure by Fast Fracture:
/
For cast iron, 10
First, check whether the rod fails
by fast fracture?
0.02

/
1.19 1.6 0.02
/
0.48

Therefore, there is no risk of fast


Schematic of the Stretham engine.
fracture. Y 1.19 for 0.02
Y 1.26 for 0.03
99
V. Fatigue Fracture

The Safety of Stretham Engine: Example 14


Failure by Fatigue:
The growth of a fatigue crack is described by ∆

For cast iron, 4.3 10 , 4

∆ ∆


1.60
∆ ∆
0 0

(a) (b)
Crack growth by fatigue in the Stretham engine

100

V. Fatigue Fracture

The Safety of Stretham Engine: Example 14

Substituting ∆ ∆ into ∆ gives

∆ 4

Expressing as the subject

Integration gives the number of cycles to grow the crack from to :

1 1 1
∆ ∆

101
V. Fatigue Fracture

The Safety of Stretham Engine: Example 14


0.02 , Y 1.19 0.03 , 1.26 1.23
1 1 1

1 1 1
2.6 10
4.3 10 1.23 1.60 0.02 0.03

15 0.25 /

Conclusions:
• This is sufficient for the engine to run for 8 h on each of 361 open
days for demonstration purposes.
• A crack of 0.03 m length is still far too small to go critical, and thus
the engine will be perfectly safe after the 2.6 x 106 cycles.

102

V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life


 Mean Stress Level

 Surface Effects

 Geometrical Design

 Surface Treatments

 Microstructural Features

 Environments

, (log scale)
Schematic illustration of the influence of
mean stress σ on fatigue behaviour

103
V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life


 Geometrical Design

Any notch or geometrical Stress raiser and fatigue


crack initiation
discontinuity:
Grooves, holes, keyways,
threads, etc.
Fillet

Structural irregularity, sharp


corner, sudden contour
changes:

All increase stress concentration.


(a) (b)
The sharper the discontinuity Schematic illustration how design can reduce
stress concentration: (a) poor design due to sharp
the more severe the stress
corner. (b) good design due to application of
concentration. rounded fillet into the rotating shaft. Adapted from
Callister, “Materials Science and Engineering An
Introduction, eight edition, 2009, Figure 8.25, page 263.

104

V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life


 Surface Conditions 75
Alternating stress, psi x 10-3

Polished
Scratches and machining 70
marks reduce the fatigue life.
65

Polishing improves the 60


surface finish and thus Rough
55
enhance fatigue properties
of a component significantly. 50

45
104 105 106 107 108
Cycles to failure
Effects of polishing die marks from the surface on the S -
N curve of heat-treated chromium-molybdenum aircraft
tubing. Tube dimensions: 0.5 inch O.D. with 0.065 inch
wall. Heat treatment: oil quench 1625 F, draw 650 F.

105
V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life


small steel balls
 Surface Treatment: Shot Peening
• A process to enhance the fatigue strength
• Use small steel balls to impact on
workpiece surface and result in very small
indentations
Localized plastic
• Convert residual stress from tensile to deformation
compressive

Stress amplitude (MPa)


Shot Peening
Residual stress (MPa)

Compression Tension
400 Zone Depth

0
Compression No Shot Peening
-400
-800
Cycles of failure, in log scale
0.25 0.50
Depth below surface (mm) Schematic illustration of the S-N
curves for shot peening and normal
steels. 106

V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life Carbon-rich dark


out layer: harder
 Surface Treatment Knoop indentation
• Case hardening: carburising/nitriding
o surface hardness and strength Case
a
o fatigue life for steel alloys

• The carbides or nitrides formed in the


surface layer: harder than the inner core
Core b
• The increase in hardness increases the
resistance to fatigue.
100
• Compressive stress produced due to
Knoop indentation
the difference in volume of case Photograph showing both core (bottom) and
carburised outer layer (top) regions of a case-
layer.
hardened steel. Adapted from Callister, “Materials
Science and Engineering An Introduction, eight edition, 2009,
Figure 8.27, page 264.

107
V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life


 Effect of Grain Size
40

Alternating stress, psi x 103


Fine grained
(8,000/mm3)
30

20
Coarse grained
(4/mm3)

10
104 105 106 107 108 109
Cycles of failure, N

Influence of grain size on the S-N curves for 18S


aluminium alloys. The average diameter ratio of
coarse grains to fine grains is about 27:1.

108

V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life


 Environmental Effect: Thermal Fatigue
• Generated at elevated temperature by fluctuating thermal/mechanical stress

• The magnitude of a thermal stress developed by temperature change, ∆ :

:

:

• Thermal stresses minimized by careful designs:

o Eliminate restraint sources

o Reduce temperature gradients

o Choose materials with appropriate mechanical properties (CTE)

109
V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life


 Environmental Effect: Corrosion Fatigue
• Generated by the simultaneous action of cyclic stress and chemical attack

• Small pits formed: stress concentration sites

• Corrosion enhances crack propagation rate


 Decrease fatigue strength and shortens fatigue life

• Prevention Measures:
 Application of protective surface coatings: painting, galvanizing

 Selection of more corrosion resistant materials

 Reducing applied tensile stress level

 Imposing residual compressive stresses

110

V. Fatigue Fracture

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life: Example 14


List four measures taken to increase the resistance to fatigue of
a metal alloy.
Solution:
1. Polish the surface to remove stress amplification sites (scratches,
grooves, marks, and roughness)
2. Reduce the number of internal defects (pores, 2nd phase particles,
inclusions) by carefully controlling the manufacturing processing.
3. Modify the design to eliminate notches and sudden contour changes.
4. Harden the outer surface of the structure by case hardening
(carburizing, nitriding) or shot peening.
Other measures:
• decrease the mean stress levels
• decreasing grain sizes

111

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