Applied Clay Science 11 (1997) 337-355

Soil mechanics of the potentially expansive clays in

Poland
R. Kaczyiiski *, B. Grabowska-Olszewska
Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Faculty of Geology, Warsaw liniwrsity, Al. hirki i
Wiguv 93, 02-089 Warszawa, Poland

Accepted 28 August 1996

Abstract

This paper is an attempt to evaluate the expansivity of the main genetic types of Polish clays
which very often are considered as a bedground for engineering structures. Lithological character-
istics and basic physical properties presented in this paper concern the soils of (I) Quatemary age:
Boulder clays and glaciolacustrine clays, (II) Tertiary continental andmarineclays: Mio-Pliocene
clays of Poznat? series, Miocene clays of the Carpathian Foredeep (unweathered and weathered),
bentonites and bentonitic clays, Oligocene clays of Szczecin area and Carboniferous bentonites
(Tables 1 and 2). Based on the indirect methods described by Van der Merwe (1964) and Seed et
al. (1962) nomograms were used to evaluate potentially expansive soils. Information obtained
includes correlation between potential expansiveness (PE), degree of expansion (DE), swelling
potential (S) and the percentage content and mineral composition of the clay fraction. Graphic
illustrations are presented in Figs. l-7, which also include nomograms for the approximate
estimation of the value of swell pressure ( gsJ. The evaluation of potential expansivity of clays in
Poland plays a key role in the design of engineering structures and in site selection.

Keywords: activity; expansion; Polish clays; swelling; swelling pressure

1. Introduction

Cohesive soils that occur in Poland are highly sensitive to the action of weathering.
This causes soil disintegrationand leads to deterioration of the physical and mechanical
properties of cohesive soils. This results in decrease in bearing capacity value and
increasein deformation of the foundation. Swelling-shrinkage cycles play fundamental
role in these processesand bring about serious damage to the national economy. The
existing data concerning the evaluation of the damagelikely to result from soil swelling

* Corresponding author

0169.1317/97/$17.00 Copyright Q 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PIZ S0169~1317~96~00031,-4
338 R. Kaczyhski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science 1 I (1997) 337-355

is still insufficient. The present market economy in Poland requires more detailed and
specific information so that the evaluation of the costs and expenditures may be better
estimated to cover any failures of engineering structures.
Relatively many failures of engineering structures have been brought about by
swelling soils in Poland. Most of them were caused by superficial deposits of Tertiary
clays and occasionally by Quatemary clays-mainly glaciolacustrine in origin.
Failures of engineering structures can be the result of insufficient investigations and
unsuitable management of the expansive soils’ areas. This unsuitable management most
often leads to slow but systematic transformation of soils with high strength parameters
into soils of low parameter values (weathered materials are often involved).
The most common as well as the most destructive failures brought about by the
founding of engineering structures on unsuitable expansive soils are as follows:
* failures of buildings or even whole housing estates on Pliocene clays;
* failures of roads and railway tracks on Miocene clays of continental and marine
origins;
* landslides (slope failures) along the river valleys and anthropogenic cuttings into
cohesive soils of Tertiary and Quatemary age;
. individual failures of large structures e.g. power stations founded on the Miocene
marine clays interbedded with bentonite.
Failures of engineering structures have also resulted from nonuniform deformation
caused by shrinkage or swelling brought about by the non-uniform distribution of
expansive soils. The dynamics of swelling, or in other words soil deformation is
influenced by various factors such as lithology, clay fraction content, mineral composi-
tion of the clay fraction, composition of exchangeable cations, percentage carbonates
and moisture contents, structure and microstructure, chemical composition of water, etc.
Recognition of the practical importance of the problem led the authors to attempt to
determine the relationship between the above parameters and the swelling potential of
cohesive soils in Poland. Indirect methods (various nomograms) were then used in the
evaluation of potential expansiveness, swelling potential and swell pressure. The analy-
sis has been performed on the main types of cohesive soils in Poland occurring at
shallow depths.

2. Quaternary clays

Boulder clays and glaciolacustrine clays are the most important types of clays in
terms of area1 distribution in Poland.

2.1. Boulder clays

Nearly all of Poland is covered by glacial deposits of different ages. Three main
glaciate periods have been identified in Poland (Fig. 1). These are:
* North-Polish glaciation (WErrn),
* Middle-Polish glaciation (l&s),
* South-Polish glaciation (Mindel).
Boulder clays are the most common type of glacial drift. Generally they are unsorted
depositsof various granulometric compositions and genetically can be describedas tills.
 R. Kaczyhski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science II 119971337-355 339

--.--_ 1
.. . ., . . . .. . .. *
uiLLLul3
-6 6

Fig. 1. Map of occurrence of the investigated Quatemq Polish clays. (1) Polish border; (2) Extent of
North-Polish Glaciation (Wiirm); (3) Extent of Middle-Polish Glaciation (Riss); (4) Extent of South-Polish
Glaciation (Mindel); (5) Glaciolacustrine clays of Central part of Poland; (6) Glaciolacustrine clays of South
Baltic cliff, Symbols of towns: Ci - Ciechanbw, Gd - Gdabsk. Kr - Krak6w, MI - Mlawa, PO - PoznaA,
Ro - R&an, Sz - Szczecin, Wa - Warszawa.

In relation to the sedimentary environment and genesis the glacial tills (boulder clays)
are divided as follows (Boulton, 1972):
. lodgement till,
. melt-out till,
. flow till.
The above types of tills are the most common deposits in parts of Poland which were
subjected to Pleistocene glaciations.
The following characteristics are common in lodgement till and melt-out till which
occur at depths of 1- 10 m below ground level.
Granulometric composition of the tills is mainly a function of transport distance and
340 R. Kaczyriski, B. Crabowska-Olszewska / Applied Clay Science 1 I (1997) 337-355

is dependent on the petrography of the parent material (rocks). As far as the mineral and
petrological composition is concerned the coarse fraction most often is characterized by
the following components:
* quartz-20-50%;
* crystalline and metamorphic rocks: granite, gneiss, quartzite-up to 50%;
* sedimentary rocks: sandstone, limestone, dolomite-to 40-50%.
Particles of higher mechanical resistance are mostly found within the sand fraction.
Silt fraction consists of various minerals (quartz, microcline, plagioclase and heavy
minerals). Thus quartz grains of various size and detritus of various kinds of rocks such
as gneiss, granite, quartzite and limestone are volumetrically larger components of the
till. The groundmass is a mixture of fine calcite particles and clay minerals. Heavy
minerals occur in trace amounts. These are magnetite, hornblende, garnets, epidotes,
zircon staurolite, disthene, biotite, rutile and tourmaline. Clay fraction consists mainly of
illite and smectite (with content of over 50%). Also mixed-layer minerals (illite-smec-
tite) play an important role. In individual cases smectite appears to be in greater amount
than illite. Chlorite and kaolinite occur in amounts of a few %. No differences have been
observed in the qualitative composition of clay minerals in tills of different age in
Poland (Stankowska, 1979). Illite is the main component of the groundmass in Wurm
tills. The amount of smectite is larger in tills of older glaciations. The youngest tills
(Wiirm) are characterized by skeletal, skeletal-matrix, and matrix microstructures (with

-I
I
I

Clay fraction (Oh c 2pml

Fig. 2. Potential expansiveness (PE) of Quaternary Polish clays, nomogram according to Van der Merwe
(1964). (1) Boulder clays; (2) Glaciolacustrine clays of Central part of Poland; (3) Glaciolacustrine clays of
South Baltic cliff.
 R. Kaczyhki, B. Grabowsko-Olszewsko / Applied Clay Science 1 I (1997) 337-355 341

Table 1
Characteristic properties of Quaternary Polish clays
Parameters Genetic types of clays
Boulder clays Glaciolacustrine clays
Central part of Poland South Baltic cliff
1. Clay sizes, 0, 2pm, % 5-50 4-82 32-65
2. Density, p,, Mg/m’ 2.60-2.78 2.67-2.79 2.65-2.85
3. Bulk density, p, Mg/m3 1.65-2.15 1.82-2.12 1.70-2.03
4. Porosity, n, 5% 30-45 34-52 42-52
5. Liquid limit, wL, o/o 15-55 25-88 52-75
6. Plastic limit, wr, % 10-30 18-38 16-32
7. Plasticity index, lr, ‘% 2.5-25 5-51 26-48
8. Activity, A 0.25-1.0 0.5-0.75 0.5-1.0
9. Specific surface, f X 103, m’/kg 15-100 - -
10. Cation exchange capacity, CEC. meq/iOO g OS- 10 - -
11. Potential expansiveness, PE ’ L M L, M, H, VH VH
12. Swelling potential, S, % b <5 from <1.5upto >2.5 >2S
13. Swell pressure, osr, kPa < 150 < 150 < 150

a According to Van der Merwe (1964); low (L), medium (M), high (HI, very high NH),
b According to Seed et al. (1962).

0 lo 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 xx)

CLay fraction (% 5 2Pm)

Fig. 3. Degree of expansion (DE) and swelling potential (S) of Quaternary Polish clays, nomogram according
to Seed et al. (1962). (11 Boulder clays; (2) Gl~iolacust~ne clays.
342 R. Kaczyriski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science 11 (1997) 337-355

SEM) (according to Grabowska-Olszewska et al., 1984). Highly oriented microstructures

were observed in older tills (Trzciiiski, 1994). This orientation is expressed by an
increase in value of an anisotropy coefficient.
The consistency of the tills varies. The analyzed tills occur directly below ground
level and were subjected to loading in the past and to fairly long period of active
weathering so today they are found in different states of consolidation. The youngest
tills (Wit) can be taken as unconsolidated or normally consolidated soils. Older tills
appear to be normally consolidated or slightly overconsolidated. It is impossible at the
present stage of research to determine the values of consistency parameters for the tills
of the three main glaciations because of the fact of quite large variability of the other till
parameters (Table 1). However, such features as increase in bulk density, and decrease
in porosity have been observed and recognized as dependent on the age of the till
(Wurm-Riss-Mindel).
Generally the boulder clays can be termed inactive and occasionally normally active.
(Physical properties of the tills are shown in Table 1.) They are characterized by low and
medium potential expansiveness (PE) (according to Van der Merwe, 1964) (Fig. 2) and
by low and medium degree of expansion (DE). Swelling potential is less than 5%
(S < 5%, Seed et al., 1962) (Fig. 3). Anticipated swell pressure is less than 150 kPa
(%p < 150 kPa).
2.2. Glaciolacustrine clays
2.2.1. Central part of Poland
Sedimentation of glaciolacustrine clays of central Poland took place in several
separated basins during Riss glacial period. They occur directly on the surface and
constitute direct foundation base for engineering structures or at shallow depths (up to
several meters). Their average thickness has been evaluated to be about 4 m. They are
usually underlain by sandsor glacial tills. The clays represent typical glaciolacustrine
sedimentsand are characterized by dark (clayey) and bright (silty) interbedding. Their
mineral composition is fairly monotonous: quartz, feldspars, glauconite, heavy minerals
and clay minerals (illite, with minor smectite and kaolinite). Variability of contents of
individual mineral groups results from the granulometric composition. Dark varves are
fine-grained and richer in clay minerals and bright varves are coarser and richer in
detrital minerals. The average CaCO, content for the whole clay complex is 22%.
Basic parametersof physical and soil mechanical properties (according to Myslihska
(1965) and Frankowski, personal communication) are shown in Table 1.
2.2.2. South Baltic cliff
Clays of South Baltic cliff have been under intensive investigation for many years
becauseof their undoubted influence on slope failures which occur as landslides and
falls. Their thickness is about 15 m. The content of clay in these soils is estimatedto be
about 90%. Silty clay constitutes about 10% and occurs as lenses and interbeds. The
mineral composition of the clay fraction is as follows:
* illite-50-60%,
l mixed-layer illite-smectite-20-30%,
* smectite-up to 5%.
Minor amounts of chlorite and kaolinite are also present. The basic parametersof
physical properties of these soils are shown in Table 1 (according to Czajka, 1991).
 R. Karzyhski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science 11 (1997) 337-355 343

The microstructure of all investigated clays is laminar (according to Grabowska-

Olszewska et al., 1984). This is reflected in the anisotropy of the physical properties of
the soils. Expansivity of the glaciolacustrine clays is illustrated in Fig. 2.
According to that figure the clays of central Poland are characterized by the whole
range of types of both potential expansiveness (PE) and degree of expansion (DE)-from
low to very high. Swelling potential value (S) ranges from less than 1.5% to over 25%
(Fig. 3). The clays of the South Baltic cliff are characterized only by very high values of
PE and DE and S > 25%. Anticipated values of swell pressure a,, for both types of clay
are below 150 kPa.

3. Tertiary clays

Variability of Tertiary deposits results from paleogeographic changes, numerous

marine transgressions and limnic and fluvial sedimentation within continental areas
during this fairly long time period. An overview shows that Poland can be divided into
two sedimentary environments. These are: an epicontinental region of Middle-European
Lowlands (central Poland) and the Para-Tethys’ basin (Carpathian Foredeep). In spite of
considerable areas of occurrence and specific properties the following clays are the
object of particular interest from the applied point of view:
. Mio-Pliocene clays of Poznaii series,
. Miocene clays of Carpathian Foredeep,
* Oligocene clays of Szczecin area.

3.1. Mio-Pliocene clays of Poznah series

The Poznan series of clays occur over a considerable area of Poland and are overlain
by Quaternary drift deposits of varying thickness. They represent the youngest Neogene
deposits (upper Miocene and Pliocene) and are termed as Mio-Pliocene clays. Areas of
their occurrence are shown in Fig. 4.
Three zones have been distinguished within the basin (Dyjor, 1970). These are:
-Central (clayey) zone, where three main lithostratigraphic horizons are most fully
developed:
. lower horizon-grey clays,
* middle horizon-green clays with glauconite,
. upper horizon-flame coloured clays;
-offshore zone;
-adjacent to Fore Sudetic Block zone, with predominant sand-middle horizon
pebbles.
These deposits which differ in their lithofacial meaning also show certain differences
in their clay fraction compositions, physical properties and thickness. The thickness of
clays of the Poznan series varies within the basin. In the western, shallow part of the
basin it is estimated to be 100 m (in Poznan area) and in the eastern, deeper part it is
over 150 m (in Warsaw area). An average value is defined to be 40-60 m. The
thicknesses of individual horizons also vary:
-grey clays-from several to tens of meters;
-green clays and flame coloured clays-in average up to several meters (locally
 ARPATHIAN MTS

-6
10 fyyy,,\ [Fj,6
\\l 13
-7

Fig. 4. Map of potential expansiveness of Polish clays of Tertiary age. (I) PoIish border; (2) Limit line of
occurrence of Mio-Pliocene clays of Pozn& series; (3) Boundary lines of regions A, B and C; (4) Limit line of
occurrence of Miocene clays of C~~ian Foredeep; (S) Boundary line between clays of different activity:
(6) Carpathian Thrust; (7) Limit line of occurrence of Oligocene ciays, Mio-Pliocene clays of Poznafi series.
Symbols of towns: Be-Beichatbw, By-Bydgoszcz, Ka-Kalisz, Ko-Konin, Op-Opole, Os-Ostroleka, Po-
Poznari, To-Torud, Tu-Turoszbw, Wa-Warszawa, Wr-Wrocfaw, ZG-Zielona G&a; (8) regions A and B;
PE-medium, high and very high; activity A = 0.75- 1.25; (9) region B; PE-very high; activity A =i 0.75- 1.25
and A = 1.25-2.0; (IO) region B; PE-high and very high; activity A = 1.25-2.0, (I 1) region C; PE-medium,
high and very high; activity A < 0.75; (12) anticipated P&medium, high and very high; (13) anticipated PE-
very high, Miocene clays of Carpathian Foredeep. Symbols of towns: CH-Chmielnik, Ja-Jawor, Kr-KrakBw,
Pr-PrzemySl, Ta-Tamobrzeg; ( 14) PE-medium, high and very high; activity A = 0.5- 1.O; ( 15) PE-medium,
high and very high, activity A = 1.0-4.0, Oligocene clays. Symbols of lawns: Sz-Szczecin; (16) PE-very
high; activity A = 0.75-2.0.
 R. Kaczyhski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science 1 I (1997) 337-355 345

green clays show the thickness of 100 m). In the Konin area the whole complex of
Poznan series is estimated to be about 20 m and most often between 10 and 15 m.
Detailed characteristics of the clays have been described in certain parts of the basin
(Wichrowski, 1981):
* north-eastern part (region A),
* central part (region B),
. south-western part (region C).
Sedimentation of clays in the Poznati series reveals distinctive cycles where clay
complexes are interbedded with silty and sandy layers. Relative thickness proportions
are different in different parts of the basin e.g.: clay complexes are most common in
region B. Pozn& clays have been glaciotectonically disturbed over wide areas. These
movements led to numerous foldings, decolbments and displacements which often
disturbed typical layer sequences and stratigraphical successions.
Mineral composition of Poznat? clays is fairly uniform. The only inconstant value is
the quantitative content of individual minerals. The main components are quartz, mica,
feldspars and clay minerals. Mixed-layer minerals have been found. These are: beidel-
lite/illite, illite, kaolinite (secondary halloysite, chlorite). Beidellite layers described as a
swelling phase contain mostly calcium and magnesium exchangeable cations. They
occur in inconstant quantities in mixed-layer structures. Their content changes from 30
to 100%.
Apart from the above clay minerals, pyrite, marcasite, goethite and hematite which
gives a cherry colour to the sediments and hydrated oxides which give a rusty colour are
also present. Generally the flame coloured clays are characterized by iron in the ferric
state while grey, blue-grey and green clays contain Fe3+ as well as Fe+2 in varying
proportions. Pliocene clays contain up to 5% of CaCO, in the whole mass.

3.1.1. Region A- North-eastern part of the basin ( Warsaw-Ostrotcka area)

Poznali clays in this region do not differ substantially from the region B clays in
terms of occurrence and lithostratigraphic sequence. However in the periphery of the
basin the sediments have a lower content of clay fraction proper. According to Fortunat
(1960) this content amounts to 35% here. (In the central part of the basin this value is as
high as 54%).
The mineral composition of the clays here also confirms that region A is on the
periphery in spite of a high quartz content. Mixed-layer minerals are predominant within
the clay fraction and consist of over 50% of beidellite layers which sometimes can be
recognized as pure beidellite. Also a considerable amount of illite and minor amount of
kaolinite have been identified. Generally the content of clay minerals here is smaller
than in region B.
Considerable denivelations of the roof of Poznah clays are one of the characteristic
features of these soils. The physical properties of these clays are shown in Table 2.

3.1.2. Region B-Central part of the basin (Poznari-Bydgoszcz-Konin-Kalisz area)

The Poznan series are the most fully developed series in this part of the basin (Fig.
4). Grey clays and green clays (of Mio-Pliocene age) are overlain by Pliocene flame
coloured clays. In regions A and B Poznan clays show evidence of rhythmic changes in
sedimentation. Proportional makeup of Poznan clays generally is as follows: clay-50%,
 h
Table 2 f:
Characteristic properties of Tertiary and Carboniferous Polish clays Q3,
Parameters Genetic types of clays .s
per
Mio-Pliocene clays of Poznan series Miocene clays of Carpathian Foredeep Oligocene Carboniferous
Regions Unweathered clays of bentonites 9
Weathered Bentonites and
Szczecin B
bentonitic clays
A B C area s
R
Ia 15-55 12-83 27-90 15-60 15-45 8-35 37-65 22256
2 2.69-2.75 2.67-2.78 2.59-2.88 2.65-2.74 2.65-2.75 2.10-2.70 2.68-2.75 2.52-2.73
3 1.80-2.13 1.80-2.43 1.82-2.15 1.85-2.36 1.60-2.00 1.45-2.15 1.90-2.10 2.03-2.32
4 33-48 31-50 29-49 22-45 35-60 33-67 25-38 14-21
5 49-95 42-118 30-77 39-82 45-85 72-121 75-121 109-181
6 25-38 28-35 12-31 22-39 20-35 32-78 26-34 21-60
7 23-38 13-82 13351 15-50 16-49 22-61 48-68 70- 144
8 0.75- 1.25 0.75-2.00 0.50-0.75 0.50- 1.40 0.6c-1.50 1.25-4.00 0.70- 1.40 4.00-4.50
9 - 105-310 68-25 1 50-3cul 176-822 -
10 12-39 14-43 12-42 23-53 32-139 24-33
11 M, H, VH M, H, VH M, H, VH M, H, VH H, VH M, H VH H, VH
12 > 1.5 > 1.5 > 1.5 1.5-25 5-25 1.5-25 > 25 > 25
13 30-300 30-300 30-300 from 150 up < 150 from < 3Oup 30-150 >300
to >300 to >300

a According to Table 1
 A. Kaczyirski. B. Grabowska-Olszewska / Applied Clay Science I1 f 1997) 337-355 341

silty clay-20%, clay with sand-lo%, clayey sandy silt-lo% and others amounting
to about 10%. In region B Wichrowski (1981) showed that there is a substantial clay
minerals content within the whole soilmass (higher than in region A). This results in the
more ‘clayey’ character of the sediments in the central part of the basin. Mixed-layer
minerals are predominant and their content is higher than that of illite and kaolinite.
Calcium beidellite is the main component among mixed-layer minerals, but its quantity
decreases southward in favor of an increase in illite layers. The amount of kaolinite
increases southward. Position of the roof of the clays in this zone-overlain by
Quatemary deposits-varies a lot and is found at a depth of several centimeters to 2-3
m. The physical and soil mechanical properties of these clays are presented in Table 2.
3.1.3. Region C-South-western part of the basin (Zielona Gdra- Wrociaw-Opole area)
Region C comprises the Marginal Fore Sudetic zone where marine green clays with
glauconite, gypsum crystals and foraminifera detritus occur. According to Choma-Moryl
(1988) characteristic colours of these soils are grey-blue and grey-green. Granulometri-
tally the soils are represented by boulder clay, silty clay and clay. They overlay
Kedzierzyn beds which in turn are represented by silty clay and clay. The facies of these
clays change northward into Mio-Pliocene flame coloured clays of the peripheral part of
the central zone and granulometrically are represented by clay. Green clays and
Kedzierzyn beds have been identified under 1.5 m overburden of Quatemary drift
deposits; flame coloured clays in the Wroclaw area occur directly on the surface or at a
depth up to 2 m.
Kaolinite is a predominant mineral component in this region and it concentrates in
clay and coarser fractions. Mixed-layer minerals are of the same sort as in the central
part but are present in smaller amounts relative to illite. Clays containing larger amounts
of swelling beidellite layers also occur. Calcium and magnesium are the main exchange-
able cations. Mixed-layer minerals predominate west of Zielona G&a but the proportion
of beidellite-illite layers is not constant (similarly to region B). Illite and kaolinite
contents are also not constant. Clays of this part are enriched with kaolinite-as
similarly found in the Wrodaw-Opole area. This seems to confirm the peripheral nature
of the basin.
Physical properties of these clays are given in Table 2.
On the basis of previous investigations it has been ascertained that the microstruc-
tures of Poznan clays in regions A and B are of matrix type while those in region C are
of turbulent, matrix and matrix-turbulent types (Grabowska-Olszewska et al., 1984;
Choma-Moryl, 1988). The clays in question (Figs. 5 and 6) are characterized by medium
to very high potential expansiveness (PE), medium to very high degree of expansion
(DE) and swelling potential value S > 1S%. In relation to their activity the clays vary
from inactive to very active. Swell pressure values ranging from 30 to 300 kPa should
characterize an overwhelming majority of the clays of all regions (A, B and C).
Occasional occurrence of soils with an a+, value lower than 30 kPa and higher than 300
kPa has been recorded (Fig. 7).
3.2. Miocene clays of Carpathian Foredeep
Miocene marine clays occur in the Carpathian Foredeep which is a part of the
Para-Tethys’ basin as a subprovince of Neogene in Europe. The Carpathian Foredeep is
a distinctively marked tectonic structure. In Poland its length comprises an interval of
348 R. Kaczyirski. B. Grabowska-Olszewsku/Applied Clay Science II (1997) 337-355

150 f--
I
I
140 p

I / I
I I
/
130 I- -4
L
I
120 c-
I
i
I
I
no r- -4
/ ‘I
I / I
loo /-- ’ -1
/ I
I / I
I /
/ I
/ 71
/
/ ‘I

70 ’

60

50

40

_
30.k

20

I
10 -4 --I
I
I I I I ---L---.I
-0 10 M 30 LU 50 60 m @.I 90

Clay fraction WI c 2pm)

Fig. 5. Potential expansiveness (PE) of Tertiary clays, nomogram according to Van der Merwe (1964).
(1) Mio-Pliocene clays of Poznari series (regions A, B and C); (2) Miocene clays of Carpathian Foredeep
(unweathered and weathered clays, bentouites and bentonitic clays); (3) Oligocene clays of Szczecin area; (4)
Carboniferous bentonites.
 R. Kaczyhki, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science I I f1997J 337-355 349

‘;
a

30 LO 50 60 70 80

Clay fraction (% < 2 urn1

Fig. 6. Degree of expansion (DE) and swelling potential (S) of Tertiary clays, nomogram according to Seed et
al. (1962). (1) Mio-Pliocene clays of Poznafi series (regions A, B and C); (2) Miocene clays of Carpathian
Foredeep (unweathered and weathered clays, bentonites and bentonitic clays); (3) Oligocene clays of Szczecin
area; (4) Carboniferous bentonites.

340 km. Its width is not constant and distinctive narrowing occurs in the Krakow area.
The narrowing divides the Foredeep into two parts-a narrow and shallow western part
and a broader eastern part of considerable length. Maximum thickness of the Miocene
sediments has been recorded along the axis of the Foredeep and at the Carpathian Thrust
and evaluated as high as 3-4 km. The thickness of clays decreases northward and in the
periphery of the Holy Cross Mountains totals several or several tens of meters. Miocene
clays occasionally occur on the surface or under a fairly thin overburden. More often
however they are overlain by younger-Quatemary drift deposits (loess, alluvium, tills,
slope wash material). The characteristic feature of the marine Miocene sediments is the
occurrence of bentonite and bentonitic clays.
At the surface zone of the Miocene clays microtectonic disturbances in the form of
continuous deformations and fractures have been observed.
350 R. Kaczyfiski, B. Grabowska-Obzewska /Applied Clay Science I1 (1997) 337-355

0.6

q5

-0,A I-’ \
SWELlI
$.=
PREssJRi

ii I \ SWELL PRESSURE -

SWELL PRESSURE ---

6 s,>3COkPa ~ - _-___---_---

q- _____------_

---l---J----
30 4 50 60 70 80 90 100

Liquid Limit (w,p!)

Fig. 7. Estimated swell pressure (Use,) values of Tertiary clays, nomogram according to Vijayvering and
Ghazzaly, vide Chen (1988). Swell pressure converted into SI. (1) Mio-Pliocene clays of Poznd series
(regions A, B and C): (2) Miocene clays of Carpathian Foredeep (unweathered and weathered clays, bentonites
and bentonitic clays); (3) Oligocene clays of Szczecin area.

The following characteristics concern the parameters of the soils at the average depth
of 20 and at the extreme to 100 m. Changes of shore line of the Miocene sea and of its
depth were particular causes of lateral and vertical lithological variation of sediments in
the basin. Sediments in off shore zones of the Miocene basin show the largest
lithological variability in relation to their distribution. This variability ceases towards the
axis of the Foredeep.
Generally, Miocene clays which have been investigated occur in the forms of
laminated and layered clays. Their degree of consolidation differs. Often at greater
depths and at the borders of the Carpathian range they convert into more firm materials
like claystones, shales and mudstones. In spite of high variability of analyzed soils’
properties, the latter will be discussed separately for:
- unweathered clays,
- weathered clays,
- bentonites and bentonitic clays.

3.2.1. Unweathered clays

The present state of Miocene clays of the Carpathian Foredeep is the result of the
complex geological history of the region. Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) of the clays
 R. Kaczyhski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science 11 (1997) 337-355 351

ranges from 1.0-l 1.O and shows the values of the past overburden. The basic textural
element of the analyzed soils is their well-developed lateral lamination and stratification.
The lamination is correlated with mutual interbedding of tiny dark clayey layers or
laminas (which contain various amount of iron sulfides and organic matter) and more
occasionally thinner and brighter layers-laminas of silty and sandy character. Inserts
and interbeddings of quartz sands, clays of low plasticity, volcanic tuff, hard marls,
mudstones, pyrite (marcasite) concretions, and barite concretions are observed. Lateral
and vertical variability in facies of Miocene clays is also observed. The largest
variability of the sediments occurs at the boundary zones of the Foredeep.
On the basis of microstructural tests (SEM) in accordance with the atlas of mi-
crostructures (Grabowska-Olszewska et al., 1984) the most common microstructures in
these clays are of laminar and matrix-turbulent types.
Clay minerals, carbonates and quartz are the main mineral components in the clays;
organic matter and iron sulfides are of less importance and occur together with
accessory glauconite and barite. Quantitatively clay minerals constitute the predominant
component. Among them smectite minerals and illite are predominant; chlorite and
kaolinite occur occasionally. Their mutual proportion is not constant. Clays enriched
with smectite occur in the north-eastern part of the Foredeep where bentonites and
bentonitic clays are found (see Section 3.2.3).
Values of basic physical properties shown in Table 2 indicate substantial compaction
of the Miocene clays. This is revealed by the low values of porosity and void ratio and
high values of bulk density in the natural condition and dry bulk density. Soaking and
cyclic swelling-shrinkage tests carried out on Miocene clays indicate their particular
sensivity to weathering processes which lead to rapid soil disintegration. The disintegra-
tion takes place along the planes of lamination or bedding. Evaluation of the expansivity
of Miocene clays is given in Figs. 5 and 6. On Van der Merwe’s nomogram typical
Miocene clays cover a large area between lines A = 0.5 and A = 1.25 of potential
expansiveness (PE) and degree of expansion (DE) medium, high and very high.
Swelling potential S = 1.5-25%. Anticipated swell pressure value ranges from 150 to
over 300 kPa (Fig. 7).

3.2.2. Weathered clay

Weathering factors action within the surface zone lead to soil disintegration. Such
weathered material radically worsens soil properties in relation to the parent material
(see; unweathered Miocene clays). Observations carried out over the whole area of the
Foredeep make it possible to separate the weathering profile into two distinct zones:
(1) zone of clays with original properties totally changed;
(II) zone of weathered clays.
Zone I is characterized by total loss of original shape, first of all typical lamination is
no longer observed. Below this zone in the weathering profile zone II occurs. This
comprises weathered clays of maximum thickness 2-4 m. Total thickness of weathering
profile is from several tens of centimeters up to 5 m. Deconsolidation with swelling and
shrinking played the most severe role in the process of changing the basic physical and
soil mechanical properties. Weathered clays show higher activity (A up to 1.5) in
relation to unweathered clays. Results of these investigations are plotted on Figs. 5 and
6, and show high and very high potential expansiveness (PE) and degree of expansion
352 R. Kaczyhski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science I1 (1997) 337-355

(DE) with swelling potential S = 5-25%. Estimated swell pressure values do not exceed
150 kPa.

3.2.3. Bentonites and bentonitic clays

Bentonites and bentonitic clays belong to the most expansive clayey soils in the
Carpathian Foredeep. Their occurrence is connected to volcanic activity and in particular
to decomposition of volcanic ash by weathering. These materials occur mostly in the
north-western part of the Foredeep. Bentonites appear most often as interbedded layers
of extremely variable thickness. Maximum thicknesses reach a value of 2 m and the
minimum value is from 1 to several millimeters. Thickness of the laminae changes
laterally, they may pinch out into thin streaks or lenses.
Bentonites stand out distinctively in colours against the dark clayey soilmass. The
bentonites are accompanied by tuff inserts of violet-grey color with thicknesses of
3.5-5.0 cm. Their texture is described as massive and nodular. In this part of the
Foredeep Miocene clays enriched with smectite are often observed.
Bentonites show nearly monomineralic composition. Calcium smectites are the main
minerals; admixtures (or trace minerals) are present in the form of illite, kaolinite,
feldspars, glauconite, pyrite, gypsum, volcanic glass and heavy minerals. In bentonitic
clays (in relation to bentonites) the content of illite and kaolinite is larger.
Potential expansiveness (PE) of the bentonites and bentonitic clays belongs to
medium and high (Fig. 5). Their degree of expansion (DE) is also estimated to be
medium and high. Swelling potential S = 1.5-25% (Fig. 6). Estimated swell pressure
varies and ranges from 30 to over 300 kPa (Fig. 7).

3.3. Oligocene clays of Szczecin area

In Poland as well as in adjacent countries Oligocene deposits are common and their
thickness reaches as much as 400 m. From the engineering-geological point of view only
Oligocene Szczecin clays are considered. They occur in north-western Poland in
Szczecin area (Fig. 4). Thickness of these clays reaches 60 m; they are covered by
younger non-cohesive Pleistocene deposits of various thickness which reaches up to 10
m. These clays are the sediments of marine origin, heavily glaciotectonically disturbed
with fractures, faults and folds present.
Illite, smectite and quartz are the main minerals within the soil. Apart from them
calcite, organic matter, pyrite and iron oxides are also observed. Chlorite and glauconite
have also been recorded (Kozydra and Wyrwicki, 1970). Table 2 shows the basic
parameters of Oligocene clays. Potential expansiveness (PE) and degree of expansion
(DE) of the clays is very high. Swelling potential S > 25% and estimated swell pressure
(us,) ranges from 30 up to 150 kPa.
Additional detailed information concerning Tertiary soils can be found in the paper
by Grabowska-Olszewska and Kaczyiiski (1994).

4. Carboniferous bentonites

In spite of specific properties of bentonites and in order to compare the analyzed soils
with well-known model Carboniferous bentonites from Radzionkow the latter have been
 R. Kaczyriski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science I1 (19971337-355 353

included into the present analysis. They belong to one of the most expansive soils.
Bentonites from Radzionkow are represented mainly by smectite, and by minor amounts
of illite and kaolinite whose percentage content changes along the profile (Grabowska-
Olszewska, 1968; Baker et al., 1995). The exchangeable cations composition is the same
for the whole profile: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ with predominant sodium. Basic physical
properties of the bentonites are shown in Table 2.
Nomogram analysis (Figs. 5 and 6) indicates that Carboniferous bentonites from
Radzionk6w are characterized by high and very high potential expansiveness (PE) and
degree of expansion (DE). They are termed highly active and show a very high degree
of expansion. Swelling potential S > 25%. Swell pressure is estimated to be over 300
kPa (Fig. 7).

5. Conclusions

(1) The analyzed clays (Quaternary and Tertiary) are the most common soils in
Poland. Very often they occur in the zone of soil-engineering construction interaction.
Cohesive soils, particularly the clays of Tertiary age are very sensitive to weathering
factors action which leads to soil disintegration and worsening of physical-mechanical
properties of engineering foundations. Swelling-shrinkage cycles play the key role in
these processes.
(2) Lateral extent of the occurrence of the analyzed soils is illustrated in Figs. 1
and 4.
(3) Thicknesses of the earths or soils in question show different values from several
to over 150 m. Their roofs also occur at different depths (directly from the surface to the
depth of over 100 m).
(4) Considerable variability in lithofacies of the analyzed soils is expressed by their
granulometric and mineral compositions and also by their physical properties.
(5) Considering the mineral composition of the clay fraction the soils reveal different
contents of individual minerals and are represented by: smectites, mixed-layer beidel-
lite/illite, illite, and kaolinite. Calcium, magnesium and sodium are the main exchange-
able cations.
(6) Intensity of soil deformation results most often from the depth of the soil
occurrence, structural-textural features, and from lithological character of a deposit ie.
granulometric composition (clay fraction content), chemical composition of clay frac-
tion.
(7) Quatemary and Tertiary soils of Poland are characterized by different values of
potential expansiveness (PE), degree of expansion (DE), swelling potential (S), and can
be ordered in accordance with increase of the values as follows:
* Quatemary tills,
* Quatemary glaciolacustrine clays of central Poland,
* Mio-Pliocene clays of region C,
* Glaciolacustrine clays of South Baltic cliff,
. Mio-Pliocene clays of region A,
* Miocene unweathered clays of Carpathian Foredeep,
* Miocene weathered clays of Carpathian Foredeep,
354 R. Kaczyhki, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/Applied Clay Science I1 (19971337-355

* Oligocene clays of Szczecin area,

* Mio-Pliocene clays of region B,
* Miocene bentonitic clays of Carpathian Foredeep,
. Carboniferous bentonites.
(8) Anticipated values of swelling potential for the soils investigated range from 30
kPa to over 300 kPa, the highest values being shown by Miocene clays of the Carpathian
Foredeep together with Mio-Pliocene clays of the Poznar5 series in Konin and Byd-
goszcz areas. Swell pressure value depends upon various factors and any prognosis
requires verification by means of detailed tests.
Evaluation of soil expansiveness is within the field of interest of many research
workers in various countries. A paper by Abduljauwad and Al-Sulaimani (1993)
presented at international conferences on expansive soils are examples (5th in Adelaide,
1984, 6th in New Delhi, 1989, 7th in Dallas (TX), 1992).
The main objective of this paper was to demonstrate the importance of the full
characteristics of the clays (their origin, stratigraphic position, lithology, mineral compo-
sition, microstructural type and occurrence). It appears that this paper should form the
basis for the future study of clay soils in terms of land-use planning.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their thanks to people who directly contributed to the
present paper: Dr. Z. Frankowski is thanked for offering the results of investigations of
various soils from various parts of Poland. Thanks are also extended to the staff of our
Institute: Dr. P. Dobak, MSc. W. Granacki, M.Sc. P.W. Marciniak, M.Sc. B. Markowska,
M.Sc. H. Pustula, Mrs. A. Swica for their kind assistance.

References

Abduljauwad, S.N. and Al-Sulaimani, G.J., 1993. Determination of swell potential of Al-Quatif clay. Geotech.
Test. J., December: 469-484.
Baker, J.C., Grabowska-Olszewska, B. and Uwins, P.J.R., 1995. ESEM study of osmotic swelling of bentonite
from Radzionkow (Poland). Appl. Clay Sci., 9: 465-469.
Boulton, G.S., 1972. Modem Arctic glaciers as depositional models for former ice sheets. J. Geol. Sot., 128.
Chen, F.H., 1988. Foundations on expansive soils. Dev. Geotech. Eng., 54.
Choma-Moryl, K., 1988. Variability of physical properties of the Poznan clays (Neogene) from the area of
Wroclaw, with reference to their genesis and lithostratigraphy. Geol. Sudetica, 23(l): 58-63.
Czajka, R., 1991. Variability of the physical properties of glacial clays from Jastrzbia G&a. Przegl. Geol., 3:
182.
Dyjor, S., 1970. The Poznan series in west Poland. Kwatt. Geol., 14(4): 835.
Fortunat, W., 1960. Characteristic physical properties of Tertiary clays of Warsaw, Bydgoszcz and Tarnobrzeg.
Biul. Inst. Geol., 163: 159-161.
Grabowska-Olszewska, B., 1968. Influence of sorption properties upon the hydrophility of selected clay soils.
Biul. Geol. UW, 10: 105-l 14.
Grabowska-Olszewska, B. and Kaczybski, R., 1994. The assessment of expansivity of Tertiary clays in
Poland. Gospod. Surowcami Miner., lo(l): 190.
Grabowska-Olszewska, B., Osipov, V. and Sokolov, V., 1984. Atlas of the microstructure of clay soils. PWN,
Warszawa.
 R. Kaczyyriski, B. Grabowska-Olszewska/AppIied Clay Science I1 (1997) 337-355 355

Kozydra, Z. and Wyrwicki, R., 1970. Surowce ilaste. Wyd. Geol.. Warszawa.
MySlinska, E., 1965. Influence of sedimentary conditions and of diagenesis of varved clays of the Middle-Polish
glaciation from the Mazovian area upon their engineering-geological properties. Biul. Geol. UW, 7:
101-106.
Seed, H., Woodward, R. and Lundgren, R., 1962. Prediction of swelling potential for compacted clays. J. Soil
Mech. Pound. Div. Am. Sot. Civ. Eng., 88(3): 53-87.
Stankowska, A., 1979. Stratigraphic and regional variation of glacial tills in Poland on the base of clay
minerals investigations (Ser. Geogr., 17). Adam Mickiewicz Univ. Press, Poznan, pp. 220-224.
Van der Merwe, D.H., 1964. The prediction of heave from the plasticity index and percentage clay fraction of
soils. Trans. S. Afr. Inst. Civ. Eng., 6(6): 103-107.
Trzcihski, J., 1994. The quantitative SEM-computer analysis of morphomettic and geometric features of
microstructures in boulder clays in the area of Poland. Geol. Q,
Wichrowski, Z., 1981. Mineralogical studies of clays of the Poznan series. Arch. Mineral., 37(2): 193-196.