3 Induction Motors PDF

Electrical Machines
(Induction Motors)
by
Dr. Mithun Mondal

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 1/120

Introduction to AC Motors
Universal adoption of ac system of distribution of

electrical energy for light and power, the field of
application of ac motors has widened considerably
As regard to the principle of operation ac motors can be
classified into
Synchronous Motors
Asynchronous Motors (or Induction Motors)
Induction motor can be squirrel cage or slip-ring (external
resistance)

Induction Motors: General Principle
As a general rule, conversion of electrical power into

mechanical power takes place in the rotating part of an
electric motor
In dc motors, the electric power is conducted directly to
the armature (i.e. rotating part) through brushes and
commutator
Hence, dc motor can be called a conduction motor
However, in ac motors, the rotor does not receive electric
power by conduction but by induction in exactly the same
way as a 2-winding transformer receives its power from
the primary
Thus, such motors are known as induction motors

Induction Motors: General Principle (contd.)
In fact, an induction motor can be treated as a rotating

transformer, primary winding is stationary but the
secondary is free to rotate
Of all the ac motors, the polyphase induction motor is the
one which is extensively used for various kinds of
industrial drives.

Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES:
1 Simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable
construction (especially squirrel cage type)
2 Cost is low and reliable
3 Sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition
no brushes are needed, hence frictional losses are reduced.
It has a reasonably good power factor.
4 Requires minimum maintenance
5 It starts from rest and needs no extra starting motor and
has not to be synchronized.
6 Starting arrangement is simple especially for the squirrel
cage type
DISADVANTAGES:
Advantages and Disadvantages (contd.)
1 Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its

efficiency
2 Just like a dc shunt motor, its speed decreases with
increase in load
3 Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a dc
shunt motor

Applications
1-Φ Induction Motor 3-Φ Induction Motor

Low power and domestic Industrial and commercial
applications applications
Pumps Lifts
Compressors Cranes
Small fans Hoists
Mixers Large capacity exhaust fans
Toys Driving lathe machines
High speed vacuum cleaners Crushers
Electric Shavers Oil extracting mills
Drilling machines

Construction
An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts:
stator and rotor

STATOR:
Made up of a number of stampings, which are slotted to
receive the windings
Carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase
supply
Wound for a definite number of poles, the exact number
of poles being determined by the requirements of speed
Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice
versa

Construction (contd.)
Stator winding when supplied with 3-phase currents,

produce a magnetic flux, which is of constant magnitude
but which revolves at synchronous speed (Ns = 120f /P).
This revolving magnetic flux induces an emf in the rotor
by mutual induction.
ROTOR:
Squirrel-cage rotor
Phase-wound or wound rotor

Squirrel-cage rotor
Almost 90% of IMs are squirrel-cage type, because it is

simple, rugged, and almost indestructible
Rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel
slots for carrying the rotor conductors (heavy bars of
copper, aluminum or alloys)
Squirrel-cage rotor (contd.)
One bar is placed in each slot
The rotor bars are electrically welded to two heavy and
stout short-circuiting end-rings
Since, rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on
themselves, hence it is not possible to add any external
resistance in series with rotor circuit for starting purposes
The rotor slots are usually not quite parallel to the shaft
but are purposely given a slight skew due to
it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the
magnetic hum
it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e.
the tendency of the rotor teeth to remain under the
stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between
the two.

Wound rotor or Slip-ring Induction Motor
Rotor coils are 3-phase, double layer, distributed winding

Wound rotor or Slip-ring Induction Motor (contd.)
Rotor has as many poles as the number of stator poles

ans is always wound 3-phase even when the stator is
wound two phase
The three phases are starred internally and other three
terminals are brought out and connected to three
insulated slip-rings mounted on the shaft with brushes
resting on them
These three brushes are further externally connected to a
3-phase star-connected rheostat
This makes possible the introduction of additional
resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting period
for increasing the starting torque of the motor and
changing the speed-torque/current characteristics

Under normal running conditions, the slip rings are

automatically short-circuited by means of a metal collar,
which is pushed along the shaft and connect all the rings
together
The brushes are automatically lifted from the slip-rings to
reduce the frictional losses and the wear and tear
Thus in normal running conditions, the wound rotor is
short-circuited on itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor


Production of Rotating Field
Stationary coils wound and supplied for two or three phases,

respectively produce a uniformly rotating (or revolving)
magnetic flux of constant value
Two-Phase Supply
Let us consider two windings P and Q placed at 90◦ with
respect to each other
Exciting with two phase supply the flux produce is purely
sinusoidal (assume)
Direction of the flux is assumed positive whereas its
opposite side indicates negative values

Production of Rotating Field (contd.)

The instantaneous value of flux can be given by
ΦP = Φm sin θ
ΦQ = Φm sin (θ − 90◦ )

Point-1 Point-2
√ √
ΦP = 0; ΦQ = −Φm ΦP = Φm / 2; ΦQ = −Φm / 2
p
Φ = P2 + Q2 − 2PQ cos θ
p
Φ = P2 + Q2 − 2PQ cos θ r
q √ 2 √ 2
= 0 + (−Φm )2 − 0 = Φm / 2 + −Φm / 2 + 0
= Φm = Φm
Point-3 Point-4
√ √
ΦP = Φm ; ΦQ = 0 ΦP = −Φm / 2; ΦQ = Φm / 2
p
Φ = P2 + Q2 − 2PQ cos θ
p
Φ = P2 + Q2 − 2PQ cos θ r
q √ 2 √ 2
= (Φm )2 + 0 = −Φm / 2 + Φm / 2 + 0
= Φm = Φm
Conclusion:
The magnitude of the resultant flux is constant and is
equal to Φm – the maximum flux due to either phase
The resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed by
Ns = 120f /P rpm


Three-Phase Supply

Conclusion:
The magnitude of the resultant flux is constant and is
equal to 1.5Φm – the maximum flux due to either phase
The resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed by
Ns = 120f /P rpm

Why does the Rotor rotates?
The 3-phase supply given to the stator winding produce a

magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at
synchronous speed
The flux passes through the air-gap, sweeps past the
rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductors which as
yet are stationary
Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and
the stationary conductors, an emf is induced in the latter,
according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction
The frequency of the induced emf is the same as the
supply frequency
Its magnitude is proportional to the relative velocity
between the flux and the conductors and its direction is
given by Fleming’s RHR
Why does the Rotor rotates? (contd.)
Since the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit,
rotor current is produced whose direction is given by
Lenz’s law, is such as to oppose the very cause producing
it
In this case, the cause which produces the rotor current is
the relative velocity between the rotating flux of the
stator and stationary rotor conductors
Hence, to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts
running in the same direction as that of the flux and tries
to catch up with the rotating flux
Setting of Torque for rotor rotation:
Assume stator field is rotating clockwise
The relative motion of the rotor w.r.t stator is
anticlockwise
Thus by RHR, the induced emf in the rotor is outwards
Using LHR or combined effect, the rotor conductors

experience a force tending to rotate them in clockwise
Thus, rotor is set into rotation in the same direction as
that of the stator flux


SLIP
Ns − Nr
% slip (s) = × 100
Ns
Slip is ratio and have no units

Ns > Nr
Ns = Nr ⇒relative speed = 0 ⇒ No rotor emf/current ⇒
No Torque
At standstill/blocked rotor Nr = 0 ⇒ s = 1
At synchronous speed Ns = Nr ⇒ s = 0

FREQUENCY OF ROTOR CURRENT
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of rotor

current is the same as the supply frequency
When rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends
upon the realative speed or on slip speed
Let any slip-speed, the frequency of the rotor current be
fr . Then
120fr 120f
Ns − N = and Ns =
P P
fr Ns − N
=⇒ = =s
f Ns
⇒ fr = sf

FREQUENCY OF ROTOR CURRENT (contd.)
Thus rotor currents have a frequency fr = sf and when
flowing through the individual phases of rotor winding,
give rise to rotor magnetic fields
These individual rotor magnetic fields produce a combined
rotating magnetic field, whose speed relative to rotor is
120fr 120sf
= = = sNs
P P
However, the rotor itself is running at speed N w.r.t space
Hence, the speed of rotor field in space = speed of rotor
magnetic field relative to rotor + speed of rotor relative
to space
= sNs + N = sNs + Ns (1 − s) = Ns

FREQUENCY OF ROTOR CURRENT (contd.)
No matter what the vale of s, rotor currents and stator

current each produce a sinusoidally distributed magnetic
field of constant magnitude and constant space speed Ns
In other words, both rotor and stator field rotate
synchronously, which means that they are stationary w.r.t
each other
These two synchronously rotating magnetic fields, in fact,
superimpose on each other and give rise to the actually
existing rotating field

Relation between Torque and Rotor Power factor
I2 = rotor current at standstill

T ∝ φ I2 cos φ2
φ2 = angle between rotor e.m.f and rotor curr
⇒ T = Kφ I2 cos φ2
K = a constant
Denoting rotor e.m.f at standstill by E2 , we have E2 ∝ φ
T ∝ E2 I2 cos φ2
⇒ T = K1 E2 I2 cos φ2
φ2 ↑⇒ cos φ2 ↓⇒ T ↓ and vice-versa

Starting Torque
The torque developed by the motor at the instant of

starting is called starting torque
In some cases, it is greater than the normal running
torque, whereas other cases it is somewhat less

Starting Torque (contd.)
E2 = rotor e.m.f per phase at standstill

R2 = rotor resistance/phase
X2 = rotor reactance/phase at standstill
q
R22 + X22 = rotor impedance/phase at standstill

∴ Z2 =
E2 E2
⇒ I2 = =q
Z2 R22 + X22

R2 R2
⇒ cos φ2 = =q
Z2 R22 + X22


Standstill or starting torque Tst = K1 E2 I2 cos φ2
E2 R2
Tst = K1 E2 · q ×q
R22 + X2 2 R22 + X22

K1 E22 R2
⇒ Tst =
R22 + X22

If supply voltage V is constant, then the flux φ and hence E2

both are constant
R2 R2
∴ Tst = K2 · = K2
R2 + X22
2 Z22

3
Now, K1 =
2πNs
3 E2 R2
Tst = · 22 2
2πNs R2 + X2
where, Ns → synchronous speed in r.p.s

Starting torque of a squirrel-cage motor
The resistance of the Squirrel-cage motor is fixed and
small as compared to its reactance which is very large
especially at the start because at standstill the frequency
of the rotor currents equal the supply frequency
Hnece, the strating current I2 of the rotor though very
large in magnitude, lags by a very large angle behind E2 ,
with the result that the starting torque per ampere is very
poor
It is roughly 1.5 times the full-load torque although the
starting current is 5 to 7 times the full-load current
Hence such motors are not ver useful where the motor
has to start against heavy loads

Starting torque of a slip-ring motor
The starting torque of such motor is increased by
improving its power factor by adding external resistance in
the rotor circuit from the star-connected rheostat
The rheostat resistance being progressively cut out as the
motor gathers speed
Addition of external resistance, increase the rotor
impedance and so reduce the rotor current
At first the effect of improved power factor predominates
the current - decreasing effect of impedance. Hence, the
starting torque is increased
But after a certain point, the effect of increased
impedance predominates the effect of improved power
factor and so the torque starts decreasing
Condition for maximum Starting torque
K2 R2
Tst =
R22 + X22
" #
dTst 1 R2 (2R2 )
∴ = K2 2 2
− 2 = 0
dR2 R2 + X2 R22 + X22
⇒ R22 + X22 = 2R22
=⇒R2 = X2
Thus, Tst is maximum when R2 = X2

Effect of change in supply voltage on Starting torque
E2 ∝ V
K1 E22 R2 K1 V 2 R2 K3 V 2 R2
∴ Tst = = =
R22 + X22 R22 + X22 Z22
=⇒ Tst ∝ V 2
Thus, The torque is very sensitive to change in supply

voltage
A change in 5% in V will produce a change of approx.
10% in the rotor torque

Rotor E.M.F and Reactance under Running
Conditions
At standstill, s = 1 and fr = f
The value of E2 at standstill is maximum because relative
speed between the rotor and the revolving stator flux is
maximum
In fact, the Induction motor is equivalent to 3-phase
transformer with short-circuited rotating secondary
Under running condition, the relative speed decreases,
E2 ∝ relative speed also decreases

Rotor E.M.F and Reactance under Running
Conditions (contd.)
Hence under running condition
Er = sE2
fr = sf2
Xr = sX2
where E2 , X2 , and f2 are rotor quantities under standstill

conditions
Due to decrease in the frequency of E2 , Xr also decreases

Torque Under Running Conditions
Tr ∝ φ Ir cos φ2
Er R2
⇒ Tr ∝ E2 · (∵ E2 ∝ φ )
Zr Zr
  
sE2   q R2
⇒ Tr ∝ (E2 )  q 
2 2 2 2
R2 + (sX2 ) R2 + (sX2 )
sE22 R2
⇒ Tr ∝
R22 + (sX2 )2
" #
sE 2R
3 2 2
⇒ Tr =
2πNs R + (sX2 )2
2
2
⇒ Substitute s = 1 to get Tst

Condition for maximum torque under running
condition
The torque under running condition is given by
sE22 R2
Tr = K1 ·
R22 + (sX2 )2
To make calculation simple take Y = 1/Tr

condition (contd.)
Then, to obtain the condition of maximum torque

" #
d R22 + (sX2 )2 sX22

dY d R2
= = +
ds ds K1 sE22 R2 ds K1 sE22 K1 E22 R2
dY −R2 X22
⇒ = + =0
ds K1 s2 E22 K1 E22 R2
R2 X22
⇒ =
K1 s2 E22 K1 E22 R2
=⇒ R2 = sX2

condition (contd.)
Thus, torque under running condition is maximum when
R2 = sX2 , and thus the maximum torque is
sE22 (sX2 )
Tmax = K1
(sX2 )2 + (sX2 )2
sE22 (sX2 )
= K1
2 (sX2 )2
E2
= K1 2
2X2
3 E2
⇒ Tmax = · 2
2πNs 2X2

condition (contd.)
Conclusions
Tmax is independent of the R2
However, the speed or slip at which Tmax occurs is
determined by R2
By varying R2 (possible only with slip-ring motors) Tmax
can be made to occur at any desired slip (or motor speed)
Tmax ∝ 1/X2 Hence, it should be kept as small as possible
Tmax ∝ V 2
For obtaining Tmax at starting (s = 1), R2 = X2

condition (contd.)
Rotor Torque and Breakdown Torque

The rotor torque at any slip s can be expressed in trems of the
maximum (or breakdown) torque Tb by the following equation

2
T = Tb
(sb /s) + (s/sb )
where sb is the breakdown or pull-out slip

Torque-Slip Characteristics of 3 − Φ IM

Torque-Slip Characteristics of 3 − Φ IM (contd.)
Three different regions are:
• low slip region • medium slip region • high slip region
The torque equation is given by:
KsE22 R2
T=
R22 + (sX2 )2
LOW SLIP REGION:

At Ns , s = 0 and therefore the torque is zero
When Nr ≈ Ns , s is very low and (sX2 )2 is negligible as
compared with R2
Therefore,
K1 s
T=
R2
As R2 is constant, the torque becomes T ∝ s
Hence, in the normal working region of the motor, the
value of the slip is small and torque-slip curve is a straight
line
MEDIUM SLIP REGION:
As s increases, Nr decreases with the increase in load
The term (sX2 )2 becomes large
Then, R22 may be neglected in comparison with (sX2 )2
The torque becomes
K3 R2
T=
sX22
The torque is inversely proportional to the slip

HIGH SLIP REGION:

Beyond Tmax , the value of T starts decreasing
As a result motor slows down and stops
At this stage, the overload protection must immediately
disconnect the motor from the supply to prevent damage
due to overheating of the motor
The motor operates from s = 0 and s = SM
For a typical IM, the pull-out torque is 2 to 3 times the
rated full-load torque
Tst is about 1.5 times the rated full load torque


Modes of Operation of 3 − Φ IM
Motoring Mode:
Motor always rotates below the synchronous speed
The torque varies from zero to full load torque as the slip
varies (0 to 1)
No load s = 0 and Standstill s = 1
From curve, torque is directly proportional to the slip
The linear relationship simplifies the calculation of motor
parameter to great extent
Generating Mode:
Motor runs above the synchronous speed and should be
driven by a prime mover
The stator winding now supplies the electrical energy

Modes of Operation of 3 − Φ IM (contd.)
Torque and slip both are negative
Receives mechanical energy and delivers electrical energy
Induction generator are not used because it requires
reactive power for its operation and should be supplied
from outside and if it runs below synchronous speed by
any means it consumes electrical energy rather than
giving it at the output
Braking Mode:
The two leads or the polarity of the supply voltage is
changed so that motor starts to rotate in the reverse
direction and as a result the motor stops
This method of braking is known as Plugging and is used
when motor has to stop within a very short period of time

Modes of Operation of 3 − Φ IM (contd.)
The kinetic energy stored in the revolving load is
dissipated as heat so motor develops enormous heat
energy
For this motor is disconnected from the supply before
motor enters the braking mode
The other form of braking is Dynamic or Regenerative
braking
If load driven by motor accelerates motor in the same
direction as the motor is rotating, the speed of the motor
may increase more than the synchronous speed
Motor acts as induction generator which supplies
electrical energy to the mains which tends to slow down
the motor to its synchronous speed and the motor stops

Effect of R2 on T − s Characteristics
Figure: T − s for various values of R2 keeping X2 constant

Effect of R2 on T − s Characteristics (contd.)
Tmax is independent of R2
Therefore, the effect of change in R2 is the change in s at
which Tmax takes place
Greater the R2 , greater the value of s at which Tmax
occurs since s = R2 /X2
Tmax can be obtained at the start by adding much
resistance in the rotor circuit so that R2 = X2
When (R2 = X2 ) ⇒ (s = R2 /X2 = 1) i.e. Tst = Tmax

Effect of parameters on Torque and speed
Change in supply voltage:
E2 ∝ φ ∝ V ⇒ T ∝ sV 2
T at any Nr is proportional to V 2
If V decreases by 10%, then T decreases by 20%
Changes in V not only affectTst but torque under running
conditions also
If V decreases, then T also decreases
Hence, for maintaining same T, s increases i.e. Nr falls
0 0 0
Let V → V , s → s and T → T
T sV 2
=
T 0 s0 V 0 2
Effect of parameters on Torque and speed (contd.)
Change in supply frequency:

Hardly any important changes in f take place on a large
distribution system except during a major disturbance
However, large frequency changes often take place on
isolated, low-power systems in which electrical energy is
generated by means of diesel engine or gas turbines
Example of such systems are: emergency supply in
hospital and the electrical system on a ship etc.
The major effect of change in f is on motor speed
If f drops by 10% then Nr also drops by 10%
A 50-Hz motor connected to 60-Hz supply then motor
runs (60 − 50) × 100/50 = 20% faster than normal

Effect of parameters on Torque and speed (contd.)
A 50-Hz motor operates well on a 60-Hz line provided its

terminal voltage is raised to 60/50 = 120% of the name
plate rating
In that case, the new breakdown torque becomes equal to
the original breakdown torque and the starting torque is
only slightly reduced
However, power factor, efficiency, and temperature rise
remain satisfactory
Similarly, a 60-Hz motor can operate satisfactorily on
50-Hz supply provided its terminal voltage is reduced to
5/6 = 80% of its name-plate rating

Full-load Torque and Maximum Torque
Let sf be the slip corresponding to the full-load torque
sf R2 1
Tf ∝ 2 and Tmax ∝
R22 + sf X2 2X2
Tf 2sf R2 X2
∴ =
Tmax R2 + sf X2 2

2
Tf 2sf · R2 /X2 2sm sf
⇒ = = 2
Tmax (R2 /X2 ) + s2 sm + s2f
2
f
In general,
operating torque at any slip s 2sm s
= 2
maximum torque sm + s2f

Starting Torque and Maximum Torque
R2
Tst ∝
R2 + X22
2
1
Tmax ∝
2X2
Tst 2R2 X2
∴ = 2
Tmax R2 + X22
2R2 /X2
=
1 + (R2 /X2 )2
2sm
=
1 + s2m

Torque/Speed Curve
T depends on Nr but the relation between two cannot be

represented by a simple equation
It is easier to show the relationship in the form of a curve
T: nominal full-load torque of the motor
Tst (N = 0) is 1.5T and Tmax (also called breakdown
torque) is 2.5T
Motor (Electrical) Torque: magnetic flux × armature
current
Load (Mechanical) Torque: force × distance
Motor running in steady state, Ia is constant, Electrical
torque is equal and opposite to mechanical torque
Motor is decelerating, motor torque < load torque.
Motor is accelerating, motor torque > load torque
Torque/Speed Curve (contd.)

When mechanical load increases, motor speed decreases

till the motor torque becomes equal to the load torque
As long as the two torques are in balance, the motor will
run at constant (not synchronous) speed
However, if the load torque exceeds 2.5T, the motor will
suddenly stops

For SCIM, the torque/speed curve depends on V and f

supplied to the stator
If f is fixed, T ∝ V 2 and Ns depends on f
In practice, V and f are varied in the same proportion in
order to maintain a constant flux in the air-gap
Shape of T − N curve remain the same but its position
will shift along the X-axis
Torque of SCIM remains the same whenever slip-speed
remains the same
11 KW, 440-V, 60-Hz, 4-pole, 3-φ SCIM

110-V, 15-Hz 660-V, 90-Hz
440-V, 60-Hz
(1/4) (50% ↑)
full-load N = 1728 rpm
full-load T = 45 N-m Curve shifts left Curve shifts right
TB =150 N-m Ns = 450 rpm Ns = 2700 rpm
Locked-rotor T = 75 N-m

Current-Speed Curve
V-shaped curve having a minimum value at Ns

Current-Speed Curve (contd.)
This minimum is equal to the magnetising current which
is needed to create flux in the machine
Since Φ is purposely kept constant, it means that
magnetising current is the same at all Ns

Current-Speed Curve (contd.)
Locked rotor (for 440-V/60-Hz): Current (100 A) and
Torque (75 N-m)
Variation of V/f , current-speed curve has the same
shape, but shifts along the speed axis
Locked rotor (for 110-V/15-Hz): Current (75 A) and
Torque (150 N-m)
Conclusion: by reducing frequency obtain a larger torque
with a reduced current
Big advantage of frequency control method
Another advantage of frequency control method is it
permits regenerative braking
Popularity of frequency-control induction motor drives is
ability to develop high torque from zero to full-speed
together the economy of regenerative braking
Torque-Speed Characteristics under Load
Stable operation lies over the linear portion of T − s curve

Slope of the straight line depends mainly on R2
Higher R2 sharper the slope
The parameters under two different load conditions are
related by
2
T2 R2 V1
s2 = s1 · · ·
T1 R1 V2

Power Stages in an Induction Motor

Power Stages in an Induction Motor (contd.)
Stator iron loss (eddy+hysteresis losses) depends on the
supply frequency and the flux density in the iron core, is
practically constant
The rotor iron loss is negligeble because frequency of
rotor current under normal condition is always small
Total rotor Cu loss = 3I22 R2
Gross Torque developed by the motor
P2 P2
Tg = = · · · · · · in terms of the rotor input
ωs 2πNs
Pm Pm
= = · · · · · · in terms of rotor output
ω 2πN
Shaft Torque
Pout Pout
Tsh = =
ω 2πN
N and Ns are in r.p.s. If they are taken in r.p.m, then

P2 60 P2 P2
Tg = = · = 9.55
2πNs /60 2π Ns Ns
Pm 60 Pm Pm
= = · = 9.55
2πN/60 2π N N
Pout 60 Pout Pout
Tsh = = · = 9.55
2πN/60 2π N N
Stator input P1 = stator output+stator losses

Rotor input P2 = stator output
Rotor gross output Pm = rotor input P2 − rotor Cu losses

If N in r.p.s be the actual speed of the totor and if Tg is

in N-m, then for rotor gross output
Tg × 2πN = Pm
Pm
⇒ Tg =
2πN
If there is no Cu losses in the rotor, then rotor output will
equal rotor input and rotor will run at synchronous speed
P2
Tg =
2πNs

Rotor gross output Pm = Tg ω = Tg × 2πN

Rotor input P2 = Tg ωs = Tg × 2πNs
∴ Rotor Cu loss = P2 − Pm = Tg × 2π (Ns − N)
Rotor Cu loss Ns − N
⇒ = =s
Rotor input Ns
Rotor Gross Output Pm = Input − Rotor Cu loss

Pm = P2 − sP2
Pm = (1 − s) P2

Rotor Gross Output Pm N

⇒ = (1 − s) =
Rotor Input P2 Ns
N
⇒ Rotor Efficiency =
Ns
Rotor Cu loss s
⇒ =
Rotor Gross Output 1 − s
Important Conclusion
P2 : Pm : Pcr :: 1 : (1 − s) : s

Induction Motor Torque Equation
Tg = P2 /2πNs · · · · · · Ns in r.p.s
= 60P2 /2πNs = 9.55P2 /Ns · · · · · · Ns in r.p.m
P2 = 3I22 R2 /s
 2
sE2  × R2
= 3 × q
s
R22 + (sX2 )2
3sE22 R2
=
R22 + (sX2 )2

Induction Motor Torque Equation (contd.)
P2
∴ Tg =
2πNs
3 sE22 R2
= ×h i · · · · · · in terms of E2
2πNs R22 + (sX2 )2
3 sK 2 E12 R2
= × h i · · · · · · in terms of E1
2πNs 2
R2 + (sX2 ) 2
3K 2
k= = constant of the given machine
2πNs
sE12 R2
=⇒ Tg = k · · · · · · in trems of E1
R22 + (sX2 )2

Synchronous Watt
Synchronous watt is that torque which, at the

synchronous speed of the machine under consideration,
would develop a power of 1 watt
P2
Tsw =
2πNs
1 Ns 1 Ns
= · · Pg = · · Pm
ωs N ωs N
rotor Cu loss Pm
∴ torque in synchronous watt=rotor input= =
s (1 − s)

Equivalent Circuit of an IM
For 2-winding T/F, I0 is 1% of the F.L Current. The

reason is magnetic flux is confined completely in the steel
core of low reluctance, hence Iµ is small, as a result I0 is
small
For IM, the presence of air-gap (high reluctance)
necessitates a large Iµ , hence I0 is very large (40-50 % of
F.L Current)
Although, stator and rotor operates at different frequency,
but represented in the same vector diagram because
magnetic field relative to them are synchronous with each
other

When motor is loaded, rotor current is given by
E2 E2
I2 = s q =q
R22 + (sX2 )2 (R2 /s)2 + X22
From above equation, it appears that rotor circuit consists of
a fixed R2 and variable sX2 (proportional to slip)
connected across Er = sE2 , or
Fixed reactance X2 connected in series with a variable
R2 /s (inversely proportional to slip) and supplied with
constant E2

R2 1
= R2 + R2 −1
s s
⇒ R2 = represents the rotor Cu loss

1
⇒ RL = R2 − 1 = electrical equivalent of the mechanical load
s

The exciting current may be transferred to the left because
inaccuracy involved is negligible and calculations is very much
simplified

• Gross-Mechanical Power Developed:
Pm = P2 − Pc
0 2 0
3 I2r R2 0 2 0
= − 3 I2r R2
s
0 2 0 1 − s
= 3 I2r R2
s
• Torque Developed:
0 2 0 1 − s
3 I2r R2
Pm s
T= =
ω 2πN
60
0 2 0
0 2 0 1 − s 3 I2r R2

3 I2r R2
s s
= = 9.55 ×
2πNs (1 − s) Ns
60
• Maximum Power Output:
On further simplifying the approximate equivalent circuit
(i) exciting circuit is omitted i.e. I0 is neglected
(ii) K is assumed unity

Gross-power is given by
Pg = 3I12 RL
 2
V1
= 3q  RL
2 2
(R01 + RL ) + X01
3V12 RL
=
(R01 + RL )2 + X01
2
The condition for maximum power output is obtained by

differentiating and equating with zero, we get
R2L = R201 + X01
2
2
= Z01
⇒ RL = Z01
Hence, power is maximum when the equivalent load resistance
is equal to the standstill leakage impedance of the motor
Corresponding slip:
Z01 = RL = R2 [(1/s) − 1]
R2
⇒s=
R2 + Z01
3V12 Z01
Pm,max =
(R01 + Z01 )2 + X01
2
3V12
=
2 (R01 + Z01 )
NOTE: V1 is volt/phase and K is unity

Methods of starting 3-Φ IM
The purpose of starter:

To reduce the heavy starting current
To provide overload and under voltage protection.
The method employed in starting a IM depends upon the
the size of the motor and the type of the motor.
The common methods used to start IMs are:
1 Direct-on-line starting
2 Stator resistance starting
3 Autotransformer starting
4 Star-delta starting
Methods (1) to (4) are applicable to all IMs
Method (5) is applicable only to slip ring (wound rotor)

Methods of starting 3-Φ IM (contd.)
In practice, any one of the four methods is used for

starting squirrel cage motors, depending upon the size of
the motor
But slip ring motors are invariably started by rotor
resistance starting
Except DOL other three methods of starting squirrel-cage
motors employ reduced voltage across motor terminals at
starting
All methods of starting squirrel-cage control depends on
applied voltage across the stator

Testing of Induction Motors
No-load test:
gives the information regarding no-load losses such as
core loss, friction loss and windage loss
Rotor copper loss at no load is very less that its value is
negligible
evaluate the resistance and impedance of the magnetizing
path

Testing of Induction Motors (contd.)

As motor is running at no-load, the total input power is equal
to the constant iron loss, friction and windage losses of the
motor
Pconstant = Pi = P1 + P2
√
Pin = 3V0 I0 cos φ0
Iµ = Io sin φ0
Iω = I0 cos φ0
Vip
Rc =
Iω
Vip
Xm =
Iµ

Separation of losses:
Friction and windage loss can be separated from P0
At no load various readings of the No load loss are taken
at the different stator applied voltages.
The readings are taken from rated to the breakdown
value at rated frequency.

The curve is almost parabolic at the normal voltage.

As the iron losses are almost proportional to the square of
the flux density and therefore, the applied voltage.
The curve is extended to the left to cut the vertical axis
at the point A.
At the vertical axis V = 0 and hence the intercept OA
represents the independent voltage loss.
This means the friction and the windage losses are
separated from the total no load loss.

Blocked-rotor test:

√
Psc = 3Vscl Iscl cos φsc
Pscp
Re1 = 2
Iscp
Vscp
Ze1 =
Iscp
q
Xe1 = Ze1 2 − R2
e1
This test should be performed at the reduced frequency.

In order to obtain the accurate results, the Blocked Rotor
Test is performed at a frequency 25 percent or less than
the rated frequency.

The leakage reactances at the rated frequency are

obtained by considering that the reactance is proportional
to the frequency.
some suitable test are done on stator windings to find the
value of R1 and then
R2 = Re1 − R1


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Electrical Machines

Dr. Mithun Mondal

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 1/120

Universal adoption of ac system of distribution of

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 2/120

As a general rule, conversion of electrical power into

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 5/120

In fact, an induction motor can be treated as a rotating

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 6/120

1 Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 8/120

1-Φ Induction Motor 3-Φ Induction Motor

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 9/120

An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts:

stator and rotor

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 10/120

Stator winding when supplied with 3-phase currents,

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 11/120

Almost 90% of IMs are squirrel-cage type, because it is

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 13/120

Rotor coils are 3-phase, double layer, distributed winding

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 14/120

Rotor has as many poles as the number of stator poles

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 15/120

Under normal running conditions, the slip rings are

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 16/120

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 17/120

Stationary coils wound and supplied for two or three phases,

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 18/120

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 19/120

The instantaneous value of flux can be given by

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 20/120

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 22/120

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 23/120

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 24/120

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 27/120

The 3-phase supply given to the stator winding produce a

Using LHR or combined effect, the rotor conductors

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 30/120

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 31/120

Slip is ratio and have no units

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 32/120

When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of rotor

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 33/120

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 34/120

No matter what the vale of s, rotor currents and stator

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 35/120

I2 = rotor current at standstill

φ2 ↑⇒ cos φ2 ↓⇒ T ↓ and vice-versa

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 36/120

The torque developed by the motor at the instant of

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 37/120

E2 = rotor e.m.f per phase at standstill

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 38/120

If supply voltage V is constant, then the flux φ and hence E2

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Condition for maximum Starting torque

Thus, Tst is maximum when R2 = X2

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 43/120

Thus, The torque is very sensitive to change in supply

Dr. Mithun Mondal Induction Motors 44/120

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