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CJC College of Health Science 23 June 2018

ACADEMIC PAPER NO. 1

BIOCHEMISTRY

Hybridized Photovoltaic Cells: A Look into how Organic

Materials Impact Technology Development

Name : Lemuel M. Sayao

Course : BSN - 1
Subject : Biochemistry

Instructor: Lemuel M. Sayao, MATCC

 HYBRIDIZED PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS: A LOOK INTO HOW ORGANIC
MATERIALS IMPACT TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

Lemuel M. Sayao

ABSTRACT

The concern of people today on the use of technology that is practical, cost efficient and
environment safe is one the rise as they start to observe the toll that environmental
destruction is taking from people With the issue of global warming as caused of burning
fossil fuel for electricity production getting into the consciousness of everyone lead
scientists to find ways on what technology they can develop. The utilization of renewable
resources specifically the solar energy has been observed to significantly help solve
pollution. However, scientists have seen some limitations of the silicon-based solar panel
and tried to create new designs and use new materials to maximize its potential. The
creation of an organic solar cell (OSC) or photovoltaic cell (OPV) in 2018 has finally
erased the border in potential in terms of efficiency as the new material can finally generate
an amount of electricity competitive to it inorganic commercial counterpart after almost
60 years of innovation through research. This paper presents the development of the
solar/photovoltaic cells development for both the silicon-based and the OSC but
highlighting on the latter’s function mechanism, advantages, promising applications in the
future and even the issues it faces.

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INTRODUCTION

The use of electricity in households in today’s world has become an essential part
of man’s everyday living. The ability of man to do many tasks at home or at work has
become mostly dependent on electricity availability. But the looming danger that relates to
how electricity is also produced in today’s world has also become more and more visible.
According to Keenan (2018), at present, over 65% of the world's electrical energy
used today is generated by steam turbine generators burning fossil fuels as their source of
energy and large scale fossil fuelled plants provide most of the world's base load generating
capacity. However, fossil fuel combustion for electricity production has been attributed to
problems to the environment that’s starting to take its toll on humans. In the latest data
released by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), electricity
production generates the second largest share of greenhouse gas emissions it contributed
28.4 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions in 2016.
In the data released by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014)
carrying out global warming research have recently predicted that average global
temperatures could increase between 1.4 and 5.8 °C by the year 2100. Changes resulting
from global warming may include rising sea levels due to the melting of the polar ice caps,
as well as an increase in occurrence and severity of storms and other severe weather events.
There environmental problems are deemed to worsen in the coming years as it seem
impossible for man to stop doing what it is currently doing. However, the scientific
community, having the power to create technologies has seen the potential of utilizing
renewable energy resources specifically solar energy to reduce the negative impacts of
global warming. Hence, solar or photovoltaic cells were created as an alternative electricity
generator that is believed to cut down carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere. But
with solar cells seen to have its own limitations and disadvantages, improvement of its
design is empirical to maximize the potential it possess so that greener energy is achieved.
Hence, the “hybridization” of the inorganic silicon-based solar cells into an organic
material made technology has now achieved as breakthrough of being open for commercial
development as its potential has reached the capacity of the more popular inorganic
counterpart.

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 This paper aimed to present the following:
1. Developmental background of silicon-based solar cells as well as the organic
solar cells (OSCs);
2. Function Mechanism of OSCs;
3. Innovations that the OSC has gone through leading to its current condition and
potential;
4. Advantages of using the OSC compared to its inorganic counterpart;
5. Promising applications of OSCs in the future and the issues it faces.

The Evolution of Inorganic-Based Solar Panels

Hence, the finding of the best alternative sources of energy has been a top race of
product developers in materials engineering. Among the renewable sources of energy that
scientists have been very enthusiastic to be working on in on solar energy. In the
metaanalysis of Tsao, Lewis and Crabtee (2006), solar energy has the highest technical
potential among all other non renewable resources such as wind and geothermal in terms
the ability to produce energy exceeding 15 terawatts (TW) which is cost competitive with
nuclear energy resource. Because the sun’s extractable potential is so huge, its land-based
technical potential remains large. Although this finding came out in later years, man’s work
on harnessing energy from the sun has long began.
The ordinary man’s encounter with solar cells, a device that produces electricity
from a renewable resource came about when Vanguard 1 was sent by the US in space in
1958 and became known as the first space technology to use solar panels (instead of
batteries that would run out after a few months) to power its instruments, providing a near-
never ending supply of data to scientists. But the work on photovoltaic cells started as early
as 1839 when a French physicist named Edmund Becquerel realized that the sun's energy
could produce a "photovoltaic effect" (photo = light, voltaic = electrical potential)
(Alternative Energy Solutions for the 21st Century). The first practical photovoltaic cell
however was publicly demonstrated on 25 April 1954 at Bell Laboratories invented by
Calvin Souther Fuller, Daryl Chapin and Gerald Pearson.

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 The development of photovoltaic cells came at a fast rate as scientists saw its great
potential and working with it is easy.
Solar technologies are currently dominated by wafer-size solar cell configured as a
large-area single p–n junction made from crystalline silicon between 160 and
240 micrometers thick that are assembled into large area modules. Based on the Shockley–
Queisser limit set in 1961, a single p-n junction with an infinite number of layers, in the
extreme, has the corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated sunlight and with a lot of
modifications and improvement, the efficiency level of silicon solar cell has reached 25.6%
in 2014 by Panasonic in which their design included moving the front contacts to the rear
of the panel, eliminating shaded areas and they applied thin silicon films to the high quality
silicon wafer's front and back to eliminate defects at or near the wafer surface. Today,
according to Ruhle (2016), single p–n junction crystalline silicon devices are now
approaching the theoretical limiting power efficiency of 33.16%.
There are also other semi conductor materials and devices that are under active
investigation in order to further reduce the cost of produced electricity by increasing the
power conversion efficiency, reducing the amount of absorbing material needed, and
lowering the assembly cost of modules. Today, there are improvements in the creation of
the electricity generating device called thin-film photovoltaic technologies, referred to as
second-generation photovoltaics which are based on inorganic semi-conductor materials
that are more absorbing than crystalline silicon and can be processed directly onto large
area substrates. Such semiconductors include amorphous silicon, II–VI semi- conductors
such as CdS or CdTe with 16% efficiency, and chalcogenides such as CuInSe (CIS) or
CuInGaSe (CIGS) with 19% efficiency (Kippelen and Bredas, 2015).
In 2015, French and German companies collaborated – Fraunhofer Institute for
Solar Energy Systems, Laboratory of Electronics Information Technology (LETI) and
Soitec and their prototype of a 4-junction GaInP/GaAs//GaInAsP/GaInAs solar cell
achieved a new laboratory record efficiency of 46.1%. (Dimroth et al., 2016).
Despite these laboratory demonstration of cells with high efficiencies, the
controlled manufacturing of second- generation cells remains a challenge and their
commercial use is growing but not as widespread yet.

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 In terms of commercial viability, the review done by Review.com on the best solar
panels on October 13, 2017, revealed that the best solar panels in the market are those just
above 20% efficiency. But there are many solar panels sold at 13-18% efficiency.

Issues Surrounding Inorganic Photovoltaic Cells

With the efficiency of photovoltaic cells relatively average, these are still being
widely used all over the world today because its efficiency is relatively helpful as
alternative source of electricity than completely relying on fossil-fuel or nuclear source of
electrical energy and among the renewable source of energy. In the article Alternative
Energy Solutions for the 21st Century (n.d.), solar energy is considered one of the most
promising renewable energy sources in the world. Ina addition, it is non-polluting, has no
moving parts that could break down, requires little maintenance and no supervision, and
has a life of 20-30 years with low running costs. It is especially unique because no large-
scale installation is required. Remote areas can easily produce their own supply of
electricity by constructing as small or as large of a system as needed. Solar power
generators are simply distributed to homes, schools, or businesses, where their assembly
requires no extra development or land area and their function is safe and quiet. And most
importantly, as communities grow, more solar energy capacity can be added thereby
allowing power generation to keep in step with growing needs without having to overbuild
generation capacity as is often the case with conventional large scale power systems.
Compare those characteristics to those of coal, oil, gas, or nuclear power, and the choice is
easy, solar energy technologies offer a clean, renewable and domestic energy source.
But people have enjoyed the benefits of this inorganic made electrical energy
provider only up to the level that the natural capacity of the solar panels can offer. Besides,
there are looming issues that the silicon base solar panels are facing which makes its
utilization still not in full mode until the present time. Issues on the manufacturing process,
weight, limitations in installations have surfaced about the consequences of using the
silicon-based solar panel. In an interview results gathered by Nagata (2016) with a Japanese
scientist Itaru Osaka, a senior research scientist at Riken institute in Japan said that the

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regular silicon-made panel normally weighs about 15 to 20 kilograms is practically heavy
and would contribute to the tension when places in house roofs. Moreover, it is heated at
hundreds of degrees Celsius during the manufacturing process, which actually results in
greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to increasing greenhouse gases instead of
reducing it. Also, these solar panels can be installed at certain portions of the house for
example which add up the bulk of the volume. It is difficult to install these panels in parts
of infrastructures that make them non-distracting. But with the energy that the sun can
offer, it is good that the use of the solar panels can be maximized.

Organic Photovoltaic Cells: The More Environment and User friendly Alternative
Source of Energy

The idea of designing photovoltaic cells that can assure convenience has long been
investigated as well. In fact, during the time that the silicon-based solar cells were created,
other laboratories have also simultaneously investigated in creating solar panels that could
be more environment and consumer friendly but still efficient. The scientists solution to
this is creating the device made of organic components.
The earliest of this attempt began as early as 1958 of which the creation of voltage
of cell based on magnesium phthalocyanine (MgPc)—a macrocyclic compound having an
alternating nitrogen atom-carbon atom ring structure—was discovered to have a
photovoltage of 200 mV. An Al/MgPc/Ag cell obtained photovoltaic efficiency of 0.01%
under illumination at 690 nm. Conjugated polymers were also used in this type of
photovoltaic cell. One device used polyacetylene as the organic layer, with Al and graphite,
producing an open circuit voltage of 0.3 V and a charge collection efficiency of 0.3%
Semiconducting conjugated polymers are the organic materials used in OPV cells,
since they possess the base property required to activate the fundamental mechanisms to
transform the radiative energy of light into an electric current. By capturing photons in its
semiconducting polymeric absorber, an organic solar cell allows the conversion of light
energy directly into electricity (Kippelen and Bredas, 2015).
Specifically, the mechanism of electricity generation can be described in four
phases. First, is Light Absorption phase. At this phase, photons are captured in the donor
layer, which is the polymeric absorbing material. The light energy excites the photoactive

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material, allowing the formation of excitons within the donor layer. Excitons are electron-
hole pairs that are bound or localized within the material. Then, it enters into the next
phase called Exciton Diffusion wherein a concentration gradient of excitons between the
donor and acceptor layers makes the excitons diffuse into the donor-acceptor interface. The
Charge Separation phase follows wherein the ‘hole’ or positive part of each exciton
transfers to the acceptor layer, while the ‘electron’ or the negative part goes to the donor.
Finally Charge Extraction happen when these positive and negative carriers then move
toward the cathode and anode, respectively (Chidichimo and Filippelli, 2010).
As cited by Lazo-Cruz (2018), a group of chemists from the University of
California in Berkeley in 2016 was able to improve the efficiency of organic solar cells
through a process called the ‘singlet fission.’ In this process, one photon can generate two
excitons instead of only one. In this phenomenon, if a triplet exciton has half the energy of
a singlet, then it is possible for one singlet exciton, generated by one photon, to split into
two triplet excitons thus resulting to a 200% yield of excitons, therefore harnessing a higher
greater amount of energy. The semiconducting material that they use is an organic
compound called pentacene. The research team discovered that in order for a material to
produce singlet fission efficiently, its structure must have symmetry and dense packing of
molecules in each symmetrical unit.
Research findings of Zhang, et.al (2017) on the study of the derivatives of the
carbon molecule fullerene specifically PC71BM ([6,6]-phenylC71butyric acid methyl
ester) and ICBA (indene-C60 bisadduct) as acceptor materials in organic solar cells are
found to be highly efficient donors, leading to devices with power conversion efficiencies
(PCEs) of over 11% but they admit that further improvements in efficiency face great
challenges, as fullerene-based OSCs suffer from large energy losses.
Other researchers conducted similar studies on materials chosen in the device. In
2017 also, researchers also from China namely Huiting Fu, Zhaohui Wang, and Yanming
Sun investigated in new materials that could enhance the efficiency rate of organic solar
cells. They came up with a ternary blend OSCs consisting of three light absorbing materials
(a donor, an acceptor, and an additional donor or acceptor) in one active layer enjoy the
complementary photo-harvesting from tandem devices while inheriting the simplicity of
binary devices. Initially, the majority of ternary OSCs solely use fullerene as an acceptor

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material because of its prevalence in OSCs technology development, but with previous
studies revealing a weak absorption and poor stability issues of fullerene derivatives just
as in the fullerene-based binary devices, the researchers decided to use non-fullerene
acceptors would exhibit great potentials in offering morphological advantages, reducing
energy loss, enhancing light absorption strength and then developing highly efficient multi
component junction device. Their findings revealed that using the non fullerene material
reached over 12%, and showed great potential in further improving the photovoltaic
performance of the organic solar cells (Fu, Wang, and Sum 2018).
In March 2018, a study of Zhao et al., in the Institute of Chemistry of the Chinese
Academy of Science in Beijing designed and synthesized via fluorination a new polymer
donor (PBDB-T-SF) and a new small molecule acceptor (IT-4F) for fullerene-free organic
solar cells (OSCs). The influences of fluorination on the absorption spectra, molecular
energy levels and charge mobilities of the donor and acceptor were systematically studied.
The PBDB-T-SF:IT-4F-based OSC device showed a record high efficiency of 13.1%, and
an efficiency of over 12% can be obtained with a thickness of 100–200 nm, suggesting the
promise of fullerene-free OSC’s in practical applications.
Similarly, a group of researchers in the United States conducted a similar study of
organic solar cells and were able to generate a higher efficiency rate which today is
considered the highest recorded value in the development of organic photovoltaic cells.
According to Che, Li, Qu and Forrest (2018) the researchers who made this latest
breakthrough from the University of Michigan, they have created organic solar cells that
achieved 15% efficiency. The cells they created measured 2mm² and utilized a two-layer
‘tandem’ set up, with one layer tuned to absorb visible light and the other infra-red. They
combined a solution processed non-fullerene-acceptor-based subcell which is capable of
absorbing near-infra red light of up to 950 nanometers in wavelength, on top of a fullerene-
based subcell grown by vacuum thermal evaporation and able to absorb visible light from
350 nanometers wavelength. The process for stacking the cells was developed by the
University of Michigan, and utilized interconnecting layers to prevent damage to the
bottom cell, without impairing light absorption. Che explained that the cells achieve 10- to
11-percent efficiency but when they stack them together, the light absorption increased and
the efficiency improved to 15 % with an antireflection coating. They consider considered

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it a difficult process because there’s a chance the liquid used in processing the top cell will
dissolve the layers already deposited underneath.
Even if the cells produced here are far smaller than any commercially available
solar cell, the researchers pointed out that the technology could in future be used to create
cells on rolls that can be bent around any structure, and made transparent or a variety of
colors. The researchers now plan to work further on increasing the cells’ light absorption,
and minimizing energy losses. The team says that based on its calculations, it expects to
boost the tandem cell’s efficiency as high as 18% in the near future.
The significance of this finding is that the material is now ready for commercial
considerations considering that 15% efficiency is already in the same capacity as those
available and popularly chosen by the public.

Promising Future and Issues for the Organic Solar/Photovoltaic Cells

Organic solar cells incorporate carbon into their construction to offer several
advantages over conventional "inorganic" cells. Silicon-based inorganic solar panels are
costly to make -- composed of thick, rigid sheets that require fixed installation points. On
the contrary, the new organic solar cells are more flexible and lighter in weight because
they require much less energy to create. These organic solar cells are actually greener than
the silicon PVs. The cells can be crafted at temperatures of less than 100 degrees, making
them more environmentally friendly.
Another benefit of this technology is that the organic photovoltaic actually
possesses ability to choose the molecule that absorbs sunlight more efficiently. This means
that the organic solar cells can actually be made to be up to 1000 times thinner than the
silicon-based solar cells which would lessen the amount of material used to manufacture
them. This would allow manufacturers to ‘print’ solar cells onto rollable panels that can be
easily transported and would need to be simply unrolled on the buyers’ roofs. These can
be stuck vertically or installed on weak structures, such as vinyl greenhouses. They are thin
enough to bend and curve around structures or within clothing, tents and made any color,
even transparent, to blend in to their environment. Installing them on the exteriors of
electric cars, so that the cars can generate electricity while driving. Also, by changing the
structures of organic compounds, it is possible to alter the colors of the cells. There are

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even transparent ones, which can be applied to windows (Organic Solar Cells: Game
Changer or Hype?, 2011)
As for today, the most promising aspect of organic photovoltaic cells is on
electricity alternative which are the most tangible concern of people. Stephen Forrest and
Paul G. Goebel, Professors of Engineering of the University of Michigan where the study
was conducted said that the organic photovoltaics can potentially cut way down on the total
solar energy system cost, making solar a truly ubiquitous clean energy source (Bush, 2018).
Further, In the report of the Macue (23 May 2018), the U.S. Energy Information
Administration commended the work because with 15% efficiency and given a 20-year
lifetime, organic solar cells could produce electricity at a cost of less than 7 cents per
kilowatt-hour. In comparison, the average cost of electricity in the U.S. was 10.5 cents per
kilowatt-hour in 2017
One issue about organic solar cells has been their lack of durability, especially in
high temperatures. In a study by Macaire et al. (2013) comparing the ageing processes of
standard P3HT:PCBM bulk heterojunction solar cells upon exposure to a temperate
(Belgium) and an equatorial (Benin) climate revealed that the differences in degradation of
non-encapsulated systems are attributed to humidity differences between the European and
African environments. The decrease in the power efficiency is shown to be related to two
processes: degradation of the optical absorption and charge transport in the active layer.
The decrease of the absorption can be further accelerated upon light exposure. But rigid
encapsulation tackles efficiently the degradation process under both climates. Hence, the
problem can be addressed.
Another issue is on the conversion efficiency rate of the device. Nagata (2016)
reported that a organic single solar cell manufactured by Mitsubishi Chemical has an 11.7
percent conversion efficiency rate, but that plummets to about 5 percent when it is turned
into a module. Further investigation should be made to maintain its efficiency turn outs.
Overall, the organic photovoltaic cells technology has a bright future given its
potentials in terms of application. But it is also a fact that this development has just began
and clearly, everything is still on the ‘potential” stage and its impact on large scale is still
drawn on the horizons but the best thing about this is that humans have arrived to a new
frontier of this kind of technology and people can just hope for the best.

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