Experiment No.

1
To investigate the Fourier’s Law for the linear conduction of heat for circular bar using
conduction heat transfer unit.

Theory
Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is a study of the exchange of thermal energy through a body or between bodies
which occurs when there is a temperature difference. When two bodies are at different
temperatures, thermal energy transfers from the one with higher temperature to the one with
lower temperature. Heat always transfers from hot to cold. Thermal energy is related to the
temperature of matter. For a given material and mass, the higher the temperature, the greater
its thermal energy.i

Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

Any energy exchange between bodies occurs through one of these modes or a combination of
them.

Conduction

It is the transfer of heat through solids or stationery fluids by direct contact within bodies by
molecular vibration or particle collision as electrons move from one atom to another.

For example

When we touch a hot object, the heat we feel is transferred through our skin by conduction.
Also when we place a fry pan to cook an omelet and toaster, the heat is actually transferred by
conduction .

It obeys the Fourier law of Conduction which states that

“Heat flux is directly proportional to temperate gradient”

𝑞 𝑑𝑇
α
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
 𝑞 𝑑𝑇
=k
𝐴 𝑑𝑥

Here
𝑞
( ) is the heat flux
𝐴
𝑑𝑇
is the temperature gradient
𝑑𝑥

K is the constant known as thermal conductivity. It depends on the type of material.

Good conductors have high thermal conductivity and it is a function of temperature.

Convection

In this case heat is transferred by bulk movement of particles between a solid surface and the
fluid.

For Example

As we boil the milk, the heat transferred from pot to milk and then to upper layers is through
convection.

There are two types of convection

 Natural or Free Convection

 Forced Convection

Natural or Free Convection

Natural convection refers to a case where the fluid movement is created by the warm fluid
itself. The density of fluid decrease as it is heated; thus, hot fluids are lighter than cool fluids.
Warm fluid surrounding a hot object rises, and is replaced by cooler fluid. The result is a
circulation of air above the warm surface.

Forced Convection

Forced convection occurs when the streams and currents in the fluid are induced by external
means—such as fans, stirrers, and pumps creating an artificially induced convection current .It
should be considered as one of the main methods of useful heat transfer as significant amounts
of heat energy can be transported very efficiently.ii
Radiation

Radiative heat transfer does not require a medium to pass through as it is the only form of heat
transfer present in vacuum. It uses electromagnetic radiation (photons), which travels at the
speed of light and is emitted by any matter with temperature above 0 degrees Kelvin (-273 °C).
Radiative heat transfer occurs when the emitted radiation strikes another body and is
absorbed.

Heat Conduction Transfer Unit

The Heat Conduction Study Bench consists of two electrically heated modules mounted
on a bench support frame. One module contains a cylindrical metal bar arrangement for a
variety of linear conduction experiments while the other consists of a disc for radial conduction
experiment. Both test modules are equipped with an array of temperature sensors. Cooling
water, to be supplied from a standard laboratory tap is fed to one side of the test pieces in
order to maintain a steady temperature gradient.

Observation and Calculations

Type of material = Brass

Heat
No of
supplied T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Obs.
Q
Watts Centigrade
1 5 40.6 39.4 38.8 39.8 39.1 36.4 32.1 31.9 31.7
2 10 48 46.5 45.5 46.4 45.1 41.3 32.6 32.1 31.8
3 14.9 51.5 48.7 47.2 49.2 48.8 44.5 38.7 37.6 34.3

Temperature Profile
60

50
Temperature dT

40

30 Heat Supplied at 5 watts

20 Heat Supplied at 10 watts

Heat Supplied at 14.9 watts
10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Displacement dx
Experimental Data:
Thermal conductivity for Brass = 109 W/m ͦC

Diameter of the specimen = 25mm

X –sectional Area of the Bar= 4.91*10-4 m2

Change in Temperature =40.6-31.7= 8.9 ͦC

Change in Displacement=90-10=80mm

∆𝑇
Q’ =k 𝐴
∆𝑥

Putting values we get the value of heat transferred

8.9
Q’exp= 109*4.91*10-4*( )
0.08

Q’exp=5.95 Watts

X- sectional Area of the bar=4.91*10-4 m2

Thermal Conductivity= 109 W/m C ͦ
Heat
Heat Initial Final Change in Change in
No Calculated
supplied Temperature Temperature Temperature Displacement Error
of Experimentally
Q' T1 T2 ∆T ∆x
Obs. Q'exp
Watts C
ͦ C
ͦ ͦC m Watts
1 5 40.6 31.7 8.9 0.08 5.95 19.08
2 10 48 31.8 16.2 0.08 10.84 8.38
3 14.9 51.5 34.3 17.2 0.08 11.51 22.77

Conclusion

 Heat Calculated experimentally is nearly equal to heat supplied. Some error may occur
due to different value of thermal conductivity at room temperature.
 Some heat may also be transferred though convection and radiation.
 Temperature reading should be taken when apparatus is completely stable.
 As we increases temperature gradient more heat flows across the bar.
Experiment No. 2
To study conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall heat transfer
coefficient using conduction heat transfer unit.

Theory

;
 Experimental Data

X- sectional Area of the bar=4.91*10-4 m2

Thermal Conductivity for Steel = 50 W/m Cͦ
Thermal Conductivity for Brass = 109 W/m C ͦ
Change in Change in Overall Overall
No Heat overall overall Heat Heat
of supplied T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 Temperature Displacement Transfer Transfer
Obs. Q' ∆T ∆x U=Q'/A UTheo
∆T
Watts ͦC ͦC ͦC ͦC ͦC ͦC ͦC ͦC ͦC ͦC m Watts
1 9.2 42.5 41.3 40.5 39 37.5 36.7 31.8 32 31.2 11.3 0.08 1658.17 869.22
2 5 40.8 38.8 38.5 36.95 35.4 34.7 31.9 31.5 30.4 10.4 0.08 979.16 869.22

Graphical Representation

44

42

40
Temperature

38 Brass at Hot side

36 Stainless Steel
34 Brass at Cold Side

32

30
0 20 40 60 80 100
Displacement

Conclusion
 As we can clearly analyze that heat flow is the material property so maximum heat is conducted
in brass as compared to steel.
 Thermal conductivity of brass is also high than stainless steel.
 Overall heat coefficient is calculated when different mode of heat or different composite
materials is used.iii
Experiment No. 3
To investigate the effect of change in cross sectional area on temperature profile along a
thermal conductor using conduction heat transfer unit.

Theory
Consider a composite bar of certain length in which there are two region having same material
but different cross sectional area.

Let

QL = Heat transferred in larger cross section

QS= Heat transferred in smaller cross section

According to Fourier Laas for same material

Heat transferred in larger cross section = Heat transferred in smaller cross section

QL = QS

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
-KBAL ( )L = -KBAs ( )s
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
(𝐴)𝐿 (𝑑𝑥)𝑠 (𝑚)𝑠
= =
(𝐴)𝑠 (𝑑𝑇)𝐿 (𝑚)𝐿
𝑑𝑥
Observation and Calculation
Diameter of the large cross section=25mm

Diameter of the smaller cross section=13mm

Area of the large cross section=490.87mm2

Area of the smaller cross section=132.73mm2

Theoretical

(𝑚)𝑠 25²
(𝑚)𝐿
= =3.698
13²

Experimental Data

Distances (mm) 10 20 30 40 50 60
No of Heat T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Obs. supplied
Q
Watts Centigrade
1 5 46.1 44 43.6 38.5 32.34 32
Thus

32−38.5
(m)s=
60−40

(m)s= -0.325

Also

43.6−46.1
(m)L= Temperature Profile
30−10
50
(m)L= -0.125
45
Temperature

(𝑚)𝑠 −0.325
= 40
(𝑚)𝐿 −0.125
35
(𝑚)𝑠
(𝑚)𝐿
=2.5 30

25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Displacement
Experiment No. 4
To study the temperature profile and calculate heat transfer rate for steady state condition
though a cylindrical wall

Theory

Consider the infinite hollow cylinder with dimension dr, dz, ds= rdƟ

For unsteady state condition

Heat inflow = qr,qƟ,qz

Heat outflow= qr+dr, qƟ+dƟ,qz+dz

Thus

Using Taylor Expansion Theorem and neglecting higher terms

So we get

As we know
Putting these values and dividing by V we get

Here

For One Dimensional steady state heat flow along radius we have

After Integration we get

𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
T= lnr +
𝐤 𝒌

Appling boundary conditions

a) At r=r1 , T=T1
b) At r=r2, T=T9
Simultaneously solving and we get constants as

(𝑇1−𝑇9) (𝑇1−𝑇9)
C1= 𝑟1 and C2=T1- 𝑟1 lnr1
𝑙𝑛( ) 𝑙𝑛(𝑟9)
𝑟9

Putting the values of constant we get the Temperature Equation as a function of logarithmic
radius
 Experimental Data
No Radius R1 R2 R3 R7 R8 R9 Theoretical Heat
of Distances 4 14 24 34 44 54 Supplied Q
Obs. k2πL(T1-T9)/ln(R9/R1)
Heat T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
supplied Q

Watts Centigrade Watts

1 15 39 36.8 35.3 30.9 33.3 32.1 63.55

Theoretical Temperature Calculation

No. of Radius Theoretical
Observations Temperature
1 4 39.000
2 14 35.679
3 24 34.250
4 34 33.326
5 44 32.643
6 54 32.100

Temperature Profile along Radius

41
39
Temperature

37
35
33
Experimental Profile
31
29 Theoritical Profile

27
25
0 20 40 60
Displacement along Radius

 As there is no proper insulation so heat can move in some other direction as well thus
experimental and theoretical profile has little bit variation.
Experiment No. 5
To study the effect of surface contact on thermal conduction between adjacent slabs

Theory
In the previous experiments we coated the connecting ends of each bar with a highly
conductive fluid to eliminate the effects of surface resistance. Now we are going to coat only
one of the interfaces and leave the other clean. After plotting the temperature profile along the
length of the bar, we will be able to see the effects of surface contact on thermal conduction
between surfaces.

If we were to look at the surfaces where these structures connect under a microscope, we
would find a very rough and jagged surface. When two structures are connected, the total
contact between the surfaces is not going to be 100 percent; and therefore, heat will not be
transferred as effectivelyiv. Because of this very reason we define a new resistance called
contact resistance which is given by

The value of thermal contact resistance depends on the

 Surface roughness
 Material properties
 Temperature and pressure at the interface
 Fluid type that is trapped between interfaces
Observation and Calculation
Thermal conductivity for Brass = 109 W/m ͦC

Diameter of the specimen = 25mm

X –sectional Area of the Bar= 4.91*10-4 m2

No of Heat T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Obs. supplied
Q
1 Watts Centigrade
10 35 34.1 33.7 33.2 33.125 32.1 32.1 31.1 31
Distances 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

No of Heat Temperature Temperature Change in Change in Thermal

Obs. supplied T3 T4 Temperature Displacement conductivity
Q' for for for fluid
conducting conducting
fluid ∆T fluid ∆x

Watts C
ͦ C
ͦ C
ͦ m k
1 10 34.3 33.2 1.1 0.01 185.150898

36
35
34
Temperature

33
32
31
30
0 20 40 60 80 100

Displacement

 Place a thin soft metallic foil made of copper, nickel, silver or aluminum would
minimize contact resistance
 Experiment No. 6
To investigate the influence of thermal insulation on conduction between adjacent slab

Theory
Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer between the objects of differing
temperatures which are in thermal contact with each other. Heat flow must occur when two
bodies of differing temperatures are in contact with each other. However, the thermal
insulation causes a reduction in the heat flow between such bodies and is responsible for
reduced thermal conduction between the bodies and for such a case the thermal radiation is
rather reflected than absorbed by the cooler body. The thermal capability of a material is
measured in terms of thermal conductivity (k). Materials having low thermal conductivity have
higher tendency of thermal insulation.

Observation and Calculation

Diameter of the specimen (Paper) = 25mm

X –sectional Area of the = 4.91*10-4 m2

Experimental Data
Distances 10 20 30 40 50
No of Obs.
Heat supplied T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Q
Watts Centigrade
1 9.8 55.3 53.5 46.1 34.1 32.1
2 11.5 60.8 57.3 56.5 34.6 33.6
3 15 79.7 77.9 76.3 36 33

Heat Change in Change in Thermal

supplied Temperature Temperature Temperature Displacement conductivity
No of Q' T3 T4 for insulation for insulation for Insulation
Obs. ∆T ∆x K
Watts ͦ C ͦ C ͦ C m J/mK
1 9.8 46.1 34.1 12 0.0001 0.04159
2 11.5 56.5 34.6 21.9 0.0001 0.03674
3 15 76.3 36 40.3 0.0001 0.31895
 Graphical Representation

Experimental Theoretical

Temperature Profile vs Temperature Profile vs

Distance Distance
80 80

70 70
Temperature

Temperature
60 60
At 9.8 Watts At 15 Watts
50 50
At 11.5 Watts At 11.5 Watts
40 At 15 Watts 40 At 9.8 Watts
30 30
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Distance Distance

Applications for Insulation

 In the case of refrigerators, thermal insulation is must for the refrigeration
compartment.
 The heat produced in the engines must be kept in control as if it reaches the nearby
battery systems it would prove to be fatal. So thermal insulators find their application in
automotive industry.
 Pipe insulation is of great importance in the case of cooling or heating of rooms or
buildings so that energy must not get into unnecessary rooms.
 Best application of thermal insulators is in the case of clothing.

Conclusion
As we can easily see sudden temperature fall between T3 and T4 which clearly depicts
that thermal conductivity of insulation is very low .
Experiment No. 7
To demonstrate working principle of concentric tube heat exchange operating under parallel
and counter flow conditions.

Theory

Heat Exchanger
Heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between one or more fluids. The fluids may be
separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or may be in direct contact. They are widely used in
heating, cooling, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants,
petroleum refineries and natural gas processing and wastewater treatment. The classic
example of a heat exchanger is in an internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid
flows through the radiator coils and air passes through the coils, which cools the refrigerant and
heats the incoming air.

Some basic types of Heat Exchangers

 Concentric tube heat exchangers

 Shell and tube heat exchanger
 Plate heat exchanger
 Plate and shell heat exchanger

Flow Arrangements
Parallel flow

The two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end and
travel parallel to each other up to the other side.

Counter Flow

Fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends and

exchange greater amount of heat.

Cross Flow

The fluids move approximately perpendicular to each other

through the exchanger.
Concentric Tube heat exchangers
Concentric tube heat exchangers (or tubes) are used in a
variety of industries for purposes such as materials processing,
food preparation and air conditioning. They create a motive
force of temperature by passing fluid streams of different
temperatures parallel to each other, separated by a physical
boundary in the form of a pipe. This induces forced convection,
transferring heat to / from the product.

Shell & Tube heat exchangers

The shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of
tubes. One set of these tubes contains the fluid that must be
heated or cooled. The second fluid flows over the tubes being
heated or cooled so that it can provide the heat or absorb the
required heat. A set of tubes is called a tube bundle and may
consist of several types of tubes: planes, longitudinal fins, etc.

Plate heat exchanger

These exchangers are composed of many thin, slightly spaced plates
having very large surface areas and small fluid flow passages for heat
transfer. Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the
plate-type heat exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC applications,
large plate heat exchangers are used for inspection and cleaning .

Plate & Shell heat exchanger

A combination of the plate heat exchanger with the shell and tube heat
exchanger technologies. The heart of the heat exchanger contains a
package of fully welded circular plates made by pressing and cutting round
plates and welding them. The nozzles carry the flow in and out of the plate
pack i.e. the plate pack.
Derivation of LMTD

Parallel Flow
Consider a parallel flow double-pipe heat exchanger having a
temperature profile in Fig 1.

Hot fluid is flowing through inner pipe, while cold fluid is moving
through outer pipe.

The heat transferred through an element of area ‘dA’ is:

From Above equations

We know that

Taking integral both sides and applying limits we get

As we know

Substituting above relations , we get

Here

Similarly for counter flow

 Experiment No. 8
To study the effect of hot water temperature on LMTD in coil of concentric tube heat exchanger
in parallel and counter flow.

Parallel Flow Arrangement

Mass flow rate of hot water =1 lit/min

Mass flow rate of cold water =1lit/min

Cold Hot Cold Hot Water Cold Water Hot Water ∆T1 ∆T2 Overall
Heat Water water water Temp. Temp. Temp. = = LMTD Heat
supply Temp. Temp. Temp. Mid Exit Exit TH1- Tc1 TH2- Tc2 Transfer
Inlet Inlet Mid
Q' TC1 TH1 TCmid THmid TC2 TH2 U
Watts Centigrade
55 29 51 32 46 37 45 22 8 13.8394 5.9315
58 29 50 31 45 38 43 21 5 11.1491 7.7644
61 29 48 31 43 36 42 19 6 11.2780 8.0727

Graphical Analysis
 LMTD vs Heat Supplied
16
14
12
10
For 55 Watts
8
For 58 Watts
6
For 61 Watts
4
2
0
Heat Supplied

Overall Heat Transfer vs Heat

Supplied
9
8
7
6
5 For 55 Watts
4 For 58 Watts
3 For 61 Watts
2
1
0
Heat Supplied

Comments

 The graphs clearly shows that LMTD has inverse relation to heat supplied
 Also overall heat transfer would increase by increasing heat suppied.
 Counter Flow Arrangement

Mass flow rate of hot water =1 lit/min

Mass flow rate of cold water =1lit/min

Cold Hot Cold Hot Water Cold Water Hot Water ∆T1 ∆T2 Overall
Heat Water water water Temp. Temp. Temp. = = LMTD Heat
supply Temp. Temp. Temp. Mid Exit Exit TH1- Tc2 TH2- Tc1 Transfer
Inlet Inlet Mid
Q' TC1 TH1 TCmid THmid TC2 TH2 U
Watts Centigrade
55 30 46 30 43 35 42 11 12 11.4927 7.1427
58 29 45 30 42 34 41 11 12 11.4927 7.5323
61 29 44 30 41 34 40 10 11 10.4921 8.6775

Graphical Analysis
 Overall Heat Transfer vs Heat
supplied
10

6 For 55 Watts
For 58 Watts
4
For 61 Watts
2

0
Heat Supplied

LMTD vs Heat Supplied

11.6
11.4
11.2
11
10.8 For 55 Watts
10.6 For 58 Watts
10.4 For 61 Watts
10.2
10
9.8
Heat Supplied

Comments
 The graphs clearly shows that LMTD depends on inlet and outlet temperatures of the
fluid.
 During design of heat exchanger, the requirements are kept in mind that which heat
exchanger type is best suited.
Comparison of Parallel vs Counter Flow

Overall Heat Transfer vs Heat

Supplied
10
Overall Heat Transfer

4 Parallel Flow

2 Counter Flow

0
54 56 58 60 62
Heat Supplied

LMTD vs Heat supplied

16
14
12
10
LMTD

8
Parallel Flow
6
Counter Flow
4
2
0
54 56 58 60 62
Heat Supplied

Conclusions
 Heat transfer in counter flow is increased as compare to parallel flow due to counter
contact of hot and cold tubes.
 The differential thermal stresses are lower in parallel than in counter flow, on account
of almost constant mean wall temperature (MWT) of the parallel or co-current flow H.E.
References
i
http://emerald.tufts.edu/as/tampl/en43/lecture_notes/ch1.html

ii
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer

iii
http://www.engr.iupui.edu/~mrnalim/me314lab/lab02.htm

iv
http://www.engr.iupui.edu/~mrnalim/me314lab/lab01.htm