NEW TANK PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

General:

Surveying is an art of plotting the natural terrain on a plane. There is no civil engineering
without surveying. Though the individual use of various surveying equipment’s are taught
to us in the lower semester, it is, in this extensive survey project, we get to learn the inter-
dependability and collective usage of all the equipment’s at a given location. This
enhances our understanding of the design, execution or implementation and maintenance
of a given project.

Here the survey is conducted for the New Tank Project, Old Tank Project, Highway
Project, Water Supply & Sanitary Project, and to prepare the Key plan of the village. This
project ensures the survey work is done to construction of New Earthen Bund, for the
maintenance of Old Earthen Bund, for the construction of Final Alignment of the
highway, to provide the Water Supply & Sanitary Work for the village.

New tanks are constructed to provide water for multipurpose. Tanks and reservoirs requires
planning, design, and operation for which certain observations relating to selection of site,
relative merits of different types of tanks, storage capacity, coordinated use of storage for
different purposes etc. are studied in detail.

OBJECT OF NEW TANK PROJECT

The main object of the new tank is to construct an earthen dam across the steam for the
purpose of irrigation. Since the land to be irrigated is very small and population of the town is
very less, it is not necessary to construct a major work but it is sufficient to provide minor tank
project.

The new tank project (NTP) involves three major operations.

 The Selection of site for proposed dam

 The selection of site for waste weir
 The selection of site for canal alignment

RESERVOIR

A storage structure for irrigation is formed by an embankment or dam across a natural water
course or river and the water collected on the upper side of the structure. Water is drawn by
 means of the sluices in the dam, through the channels which supply water to the irrigation
land.

Necessity:

Storage reservoirs are very much necessary for the following reasons;

 When in an area, the usual rainfall is not enough for the crops, water is stored in
reservoirs and allowed to lands whenever necessary.
 In some areas, the rainfall may be confined to certain parts of the year, and even here
water will have to be first stored and then distributed to the lands during the other periods
of the year.
 In the places like Baluchistan and Rajasthan, where the streams flow like torrents for
only a few days in the year, storage is a necessity to endure the proper water supply to
the crops.

1. REQUIREMENTS OF A STORAGE RESERVOIR

An ideal reservoir should satisfy the following conditions:

 It should have a channel bringing down an ample supply of water

 There should be a board expense of nearly level ground in front of embankment or dam
to form the bed of the reservoir, having a slight dip towards the bund.
 The land to the rear or the downstream side of the bund should be much greater extent
than the bed and slightly lower in level, in order that every portion of it may be
commanded by the tank and the water to the fields..
 The soil for the construction of earthen dam for the reservoir should be retentive nature.
 Valuable garden lands or wells or village sites submerged under the reservoir contour.
 The site selected should give the required storage with the shortest length of the dam.
 The site should be favourable to locate the waste weir preferably in a saddle, so as to pass
off all the flood water into the natural drainage steam without artificial ones and protects
the embankment.

DAM

A Dam is an impregnable and impervious barrier thrown across a natural drainage line to
impound water up to a certain limiting height which is usually lower than the top of the dam
on its upstream side. Its main function is to store water either for irrigation or water supply
or produce power.

Choice of the type of the dam: -

6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS

Dams are usually classified as

 Rigid dams.
 1. Gravity dam
2. Arched dam
3. Arched buttress dam
4. Steel dam
5. Timber dams
6. Reinforced cement concrete panel and buttress dams.

 Non – rigid dams

1. Earthen dams.
2. Rock fill dams.

EARTHEN DAMS

Earthen dams and earthen embankments are the most ancient type of embankments as
they can be built with the natural materials with a minimum of processing and with
primitive equipment.

Earthen dams are classified as follows:

Type A – Homogeneous embankment type

Type B – Zoned embankment type

Type C – Diaphragm type

Homogeneous embankment: The simplest type of earthen embankment consists of a

single material and is homogeneous throughout sometimes a blanket of impervious
material may be placed on the upstream face. A purely homogeneous section is used
when only one type of material is economically or locally available such sections is used
for low to moderately high dams and for large dams are designed as homogeneous
embankment.

Zoned embankment:Zoned embankments are usually provided with a central previous

core, covered by a comparatively previous transition zone which is finally surrounded by
much more previous outer zone. The outer zone gives stability to the central impervious
fill and also distributes the load over a layer area of foundation.

Diaphragm embankment: - Diaphragm type embankment have a thin impervious core,

which is surrounded by earth or rock fill. The impervious core called diaphragm is made
up of an impervious soil, concrete, steel, timber or any other materials. Its acts as a water
barrier to prevent escape through the dam. The diaphragm may be placed either at the
central or at the upstream face as a blanket.

The commonly adopted standards used for finding the dimension of tank bund in the
south India.
 Depth of deep bed Width of top

Sl No level below F.T.L(m) Free board(m) of bund (m)

1 1.5 to 3.0 0.9 1.2
2 3.0 to 4.5 1.2 1.5
3 4.5 to6.0 1.5 1.8
4 Over 6.0 1.8 2.7

The favourable soil, such as red and white gravel, red and black looms, etc… the slide slope
of the bund may be kept as 1.5:1 fir smaller tanks with water depth not exceeding 2.5 and
2.1 for larger ones above 5m depth. In tight sandy soil pr black cotton or clay soil however
the slope may be kept between 2.1 and 2.5:1. The upstream face of the tank bund is
generally lives bed against stone apron or so as to protect it against erosion and if this is
done then the upstream face is generally adopted and .1.5:1 even up to 6m depth for inferior
soils are greater depth however the riveted slope may be flatter, say 2:1

Need for Irrigation:

“Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificially supplying water to soil for rising
crops”. India is a tropical country of climate, topography and vegetation. Rainfall varies
considerably in its place of occurrence, as well as in its amount. Crops cannot therefore
be raised successfully over the entire land, without ensuring artificial irrigation of fields.

More than 70% of our population directly depends agriculture and remaining depends
indirectly onagriculture. Only about 50% of total geographical area is cultivable in our
country. In order to sow this area from the complete wishes of nature, and to ensure full
growth of crops, it is necessary that adequate artificial irrigation facilities be ensured.
The need for irrigation can be summarized in the following four points:-

Inadequate rainfall:When the total rainfall is less than that needed for the crop, artificial
supply of water is necessary. In such a case, irrigation system should be developed at the
place where more water is available, and then, the means to convey this water to the area
where there is deficiency.

Uneven distribution of rainfall:The rain in a particular area may not be uniform

throughout the crop period. During the early periods of the crops rains may be there, but
water may not be available at the end, with the result, that either, the yield may be less or
the crop may wither. But the accumulated or stored water during the excess rainfall
period may be supplied to the crop during the period when there may not be rainfall, but
there is a need for watering.

Commercial crop with additional water: The rainfall in a particular area may be just
enough to raise the usual crops, but more water may be necessary for raising commercial
or cash crops in addition to increasing the annual output by adopting multiple cropping
pattern distributed throughout the year.

Controlled water supply: By constructing a proper distribution system, the yield of crop
may be increased.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Increase in food production: Irrigation helps in increasing crop yield and hence
to attain and hence to attain self-sufficient of food.
2. Optimum benefits: Optimum utilization of water is made possible by irrigation.
By optimum utilization, we generally mean, obtaining maximum crop yield with
any amount of water.
3. Elimination of mixed cropping: By mixed cropping we mean, sowing together
2 or more crops in the same field. If irrigation is ensured mixed cropping may be
eliminated.
4. General Prosperity: Revenue returns are sometimes quite high and help in all-
round development of the country and prosperity of the entire nation and
community.
5. Generation of hydroelectric power: Canal falls can be used for power
generation. So cheaper power generation can be obtained on projects, primarily
designed for irrigation.
6. Domestic water supply: Irrigation helps in augmentation of the town water
supply, where water is available with great difficulty.
7. Facilities of Communication: The inspection path of irrigation channels provide
is a good roadway to the villagers for walking, cycling or sometimes even for
monitoring.
8. Afforestation: Trees are generally grown along the banks of the channels, which
increase the timber wealth of the country and also help in reducing soil erosion.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION:

1. Duty:Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit volume of water. It is the

relation between the area of a crop irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water
required during the entire period of growth of that crop.
2. Delta:Delta is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period
from the day of sowing of seeds to the harvesting. It is denoted by ‘∆’.
3. Crop period:Crop period is the time, in days, that a crop takes from the instant of
sowing to that of its harvesting.
4. Base period:Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from
the time of first watering for preparation of soil for sowing the seeds to the last
watering before harvesting.

Data for Principal Crops of India

Crops Sowing time Harvesting time Average delta

in mm
a)Kharif crops

Early Rice July-June September-October 900

Transplanted Rice July November 1250

Maize June September-October 450

Bajra (Spiked Millet) July-August October- November 300

Jowar(Great Millet) June-July September-October 300

Arhar July-August March-April 300

Pulses(Moong,Moth,Urd)
July-August October-November 300
Groundnut May November- 450
December
 Till July-August October-November -

a) Rabi crops

wheat October-November March-April 375

Gram September-October March-April 300

Barley October – March-April 450

November
Peas October-November March-April 500

Mustard October February-March 450

Potato October February 750

Tobacco February-March June -

C) eight month crops

Cotton May- June December-January 450

D)perennial crops

Sugarcane February-March December-March 900

Next year

Types of Crop:

The duty varies from crop to crop. The various types of crops may be classified as
follows

1 Wet Crop: A wet crop is that which requires water for irrigation.
2 Dry Crop: A dry crop is that which does not require water for irrigation.
3 Kharif Crop:Kharif crops are sown by the beginning of the southwest monsoon and
are harvested in autumn i.e. from 1st of October to 31st of March.
4 Rabi Crop: Rabi crop are sown in autumn and are harvested in spring i.e. from 1st of
April to 30th September. Base Period of the Crop: If the base period of the crop is
more, the amount of water required will be high; hence duty will be low and vice-
versa.
Concept of New Tank Project:

To minimize the benefits of new tank project, it is necessary to consider Engineering,

Agricultural and Management Aspects.

a) Engineering aspect: The engineering aspect involves the development of a

source of water and arrangements to convey water to the agricultural fields. The
flow rate of a natural canal or stream may vary during different periods of a year.
As such it is necessary to create a tank across it which can retain the excess water
during rainy season.
b) Agricultural aspect: The agricultural aspect of an irrigation project involves the
timely and systematic applications of irrigation water to the agricultural fields by
choosing suitable irrigation methods.
c) Management aspect: The management aspect of an irrigation project deals with
the successful implementation and efficient management of both the
engineering well as the agricultural aspect of the project.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR THE RESERVOIR

The final selection if site for a reservoir depends upon the following factors;

1. The geological conditions of the catchment area should be such that percolation losses are
minimum and maximum runoff is obtained.
2. The reservoir site should be such that quantity of the leakage through it is minimum,
reservoir site having the presence of the highly permeable rocks reduce the tightness of
the reservoir.
3. Suitable dam sit must exist. The dam should be founded on water tight rocks base and
percolation below the dam should be minimum. The cost of the dam is often a
controlling factor in selection of the site.
4. The reservoir basin should make narrow opening in the valley so that length of the dam is
less.
5. The cost of the real estate for reservoir including road, soil, road welling, etc.., must be
less as for as possible.
6. The topography of the reservoir site should be such that it has adequate capacity without
submerging excessive properties.
7. The reservoir site should be such that it avoids as excludes water from these tributaries
which carry high percentage if the silt in the water.
8. The reservoir should be such that the water stored in it suitable for the purpose for which
the project is undertaken.

Total available catchment area

The determination of catchment area for the proposed new tank project using top sheet of
that area consists of the following points: Mark the approximate position of the proposed
site of the earthen bund. Mark the flow direction of stream or river. Search and mark for
the ridge points on the top sheet on the upstream side of the proposed bund. Search and
mark the beginning point of tributaries or hallas which contribute flow to the stream. Join
the consecutive points by a curve parallel to the nearest contour. After marking check
whether the boundary is water dividing line at some zone, readjust the boundary by
repeating steps 3 and 4. The area so formed is called catchment area or water shed area.
The catchment area is determined either by using planimeter or by construction of
squares.

Selection of probable site for barrage/dam:

When the source of water is available, the suitable site for the barrage or dam should be
found out considering the following points, the course of the river should be straight at
least for a distance of about one kilometre both on the upstream and downstream side of
the site. The width of the river should be minimum and the selection of the river should
be well defined. A suitable basin should be available for the storage reservoir. The
elevation of the site should be higher than that of the cultivable command area. The
storage reservoir should not submerge much valuable land. The capacity of the reservoir
should fulfil the total water requirement.

Basis For Formation Of Tank

Area of the catchment basin: The catchment area for the proposed tank should be
determined accurately. If the catchment is large, it could be traced from the Survey of
India contour map. However, if the area is small, the watershed has to be traced by a
compass and the area is to be determined by running a closed traverse.

Nature of the catchment: The nature of the catchment has to be examined to check
whether it is good, average or bad for purposes of computing runoff. Generally,
catchment with vegetation gives good yield. Those with porous soils give poor yield. If
there are already some tanks with their ayacuts in the catchmentof the proposed tanks, the
details of storage capacities and the ayacuts they irrigate have to be gathered and noted.

Storage capacity of the tanks:

If the tank has more than one irrigation sluice, then the useful storage capacity, i.e. the
live capacity of the tank, is the volume of water it can hold between the full tank level and
the lowest sluice level. If the tank has more capacity below the lowest sill of the sluice,
the water stored below that level (dead capacity) is useful in trapping silt during the years
of operation. Once this dead capacity of the tank is completely filled up with silt, further
silting of tank will encroach on the useful storage of the tank. So, it is always better to
leave a sufficient dead storage while proposing new tanks. Thus, the capacity of the tank
fixes the F.T.L (Full Tank Level), which is also the top of the surplus weir of the tank.
After fixing the alignment of the tank bund, contours at ½ meter intervals are to be
plotted. Then the areas between the successive contours are determined. From these areas
and contour intervals, the capacity of the tank at various contours is determined.

Advantages of gravity dams:

There are no dams more permanent than one of the solid concrete, nor does any other
type require less for maintenance. As compared to earthen and rock filled dams, gravity
dams have the following advantages: - Gravity dams are essentially stronger and stable
than earthen dams. They are particularly suited across gorges having very steep side slope
where earth dams, if constructed, might slip. Gravity dams are well adapted for the use as
an overflow spillway rest. Earth dams cannot be used as overflow dams. Due to this, a
gravity overflow dam is often used for spillway feature of earth and rock fill dams.
Gravity dams can be constructed of any height provided suitable foundations are available
to bear the stresses. The height of an earth dam is usually limited by the stability of its
slope requiring a very wide base. Highest dams in the world are gravity dams only.
Gravity dams are specially suited to such areas where there is likelihood of downpour.
The slopes of earth dams might get washed away in such a situation. A gravity dam
requires least maintenance. The failure of a gravity dam, if any, is not sudden. It gives
enough warning time before the area to downstream side is flooded due to the damage of
gravity dam.
Disadvantages of gravity dams:

Gravity dams can be constructed only on sound rock foundation. They are unsuitable on
weak foundations or on permeable foundations on which earth dams can be constructed
with suitable foundation treatment. The initial cost of a gravity dam is always higher than
an earthen dam. Hence where funds are limited and where suitable materials are available
for construction on an earth dam, earthen dams may be preferred.

Gravity dams require skilled labours or mechanized plants for its construction. It is very
difficult to allow subsequent rise in the height of a gravity dam unless specific provisions
have been made in the initial design.

Dependable Yield or Design Yield

Normally 50% or 75% dependable flow is design for a reservoir since both the critical
values (100% or 1%) of inflow cannot be taken for design. If we consider the least value,
the surplus water will be more and if we consider the highest value, the reservoir will be
empty for most of the year. Hence, the optimum value of yield called Design Yield is
designed. The value depends on the type of project. It is computed based on past record of
inflow for about 30 to 50 years.

Safe or Firm Yield:

The yield, which corresponds to the worst or most critical yield of the year.

Secondary Yield:

Water available in excess of firm yield during years of higher inflow.

Average Yield:

It is the arithmetic average of firm and secondary yield.

Optimum Storage of a Reservoir:

It depends upon the type of project, initial cost of construction for storage capacity,
probability of exceeding its storage capacity in any year. It is the storage for which the
benefit is maximum for minimum cost of construction.

EARTHEN DAM

Earth dams are built of locally available soils and gravels with less skilled labours, and
hence they are cheap. They can be constructed on earthen foundation but they are more
susceptible to failure as compared to rigid dams. If the properties of soil used in the dam
are properly controlled then this dam can be designed with a fair degree of accuracy.
Continuous filed observations regarding the pore water pressures and deformations are to
be made during construction and design should be modified according to them. Therefore
is the most common type dams used up to moderate height. Their construction involves
utilization of materials in the natural state, requiring a minimum processing. With the
advancing knowledge of soil mechanics and with the advent of more sophisticated earth
moving equipment, earthen dams are now becoming more common, even for higher
heights. The foundation requirements of earth dams are less stringent than for other
types.Earthen dams are of three types as follows:

Homogeneous Embankment Earthen Dam: It is made of single material throughout.

They are preferred for low dams. They have the problem of seepage and hence require
huge sections for protection against stability piping hence drainage filters are provided to
keep the phreatic line (top flow line) well within the dam body. This internal system
provided helps in reducing the section of the dam and providing steeper slopes.

Zone Embankment Earthen Dam: The central core checks the seepage. The transition
zone prevents piping through cracks, which may develop in the core. The other previous
zones give stability to the central core and also distribute the loads over larger area of the
foundation. Clay with fine sand or gravel is used for the central core. Coarse sand or
gravel is used for outer shell. The transition filters are provided when there is an abrupt
change in the permeability from zone to another.

Diaphragm Embankment Dams: The diaphragm is an impervious core made up of

impervious soil, concrete, steel, timber, etc. It acts as a water barrage to prevent seepage
through dams. It is normally connected to bed rocks.

Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is the one in which the external forces such as water
pressure, silt pressure, uplift pressure etc. are resisted by the weight of the dam itself.
Thus the forces disturbing the stability of the dam are resisted by the gravity forces of the
dams. A gravity dam may be either of masonry or of concrete. Masonry gravity dams are
nowadays is constructed of small height. All major and important dams are now
constructed by concrete only. It may be straight or curved in plan.
DETAILED EXPLANATION OF SURVEY WORK CARRIED OUT IN THE
FIELD

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEVELING

 Direct levelling
 Indirect levelling

DIRECT LEVELING

1) Simple levelling: When the difference of the level between two points is
determined by setting the levelling instrument between the points. This process is
called as simple levelling.
Suppose it is required to know the difference of level between A and B. The
instrument is setup at O exactly mid where between A and B. After proper
adjustment. The staff reading on A and B are taken. The difference of these
reading gives the difference of points between A and B.

2) Differential levelling: This is adopted when

 The points are at a great distance part.
 The difference of elevation between the points is large.
 There are obstacles between the points.

This method is also known as a compound levelling or continuous levelling. In

this method, the level is setup there at several suitable positions and staff readings
are taken at these points.

3) Fly levelling: When the differential levelling is done in order to connect a

benchmark to the starting point of alignment of any project is called as fly levelling.
In such levelling only back sight and fore sight readings are taken at every setup of
the level and known distances are measured along the direction of levelling. The
level should setup just mid where between back sight and fore sight.
4) Longitudinal or profile levelling : The operation of taking levels along the centre
line of any alignment (Roadway, Railway, Central) at regular intervals is known as
longitudinal levelling or profile levelling.
 In this operation, the back sight, intermediate and fore sight readings are taken at
regular intervals at every setup of the instrument. The chain age of points are noted
in the level book. This operation is carried out in order to determine the undulation
of the ground surface along the profile line.
5) Cross – sectional levelling: The operation of taking levels transverse to the
direction of the longitudinal level is known as cross – sectional levelling.
The cross – sectional are taken at regular intervals along the alignment.
Cross - sectional levelling done in order to know the nature of the ground across the
centreline of any alignment.
6) Check levelling: The fly levelling is done at the end of the day’s work to connect
the finishing point with the starting point on that particular day is known as check
levelling.
It is undertaken in order to check the accuracy of the day’s work.
Procedure:

The dumpy level is set up near permanent bench mark and perfectly leveled A
reconnaissance survey is done to align the route for the fly leveling, from the
existing permanent benchmark to the proposed temporary benchmark keeping in
mind the inter-visibility and the terrain on either side of proposed route for
positioning dumpy level. Back sight is taken on the permanent benchmark from the
first position of dumpy level. The level staffs are then shifted to the first location on
proposed fly leveling route determined earlier. Care is taken to ensure that linear
distance between position of dumpy level and the two level staff positions are
approximately same if not the exact measurement. The level staff should be held
vertically plumb With level staff still in place in new position P1, the dumpy level
is shifted and set up in a new location P2 on the other side of proposed fly leveling
route. Back sight is taken on the level staff. Level staff is shifted to a new position
on proposed route, ensuring conformity with the standards enlisted above. The
process is continued till temporary benchmark is reached. The above procedure has
been adopted to have zero tolerance level or to minimize all the error usually
prevalent in leveling, like manual, instrumental error, due to curvature etc.

On reaching the temporary benchmark, which is necessarily, be a permanent object

on the site of work. Its reduced level is marked on its surface.

DETERMINATION OF THE CENTRE LINE OF THE BUND:

The appropriate and usual width of the top of the bund is four meters and the imaginary
line passing along the middle of the top of the bund length. It separates the upstream side
and downstream side. Determining the center line of the bund is to fix the two points of
the same reduced levels on the either side of the valley.

Procedure:

From the temporary benchmark the fly leveling is done towards one side of the valley to
get the RL of the given top-level bund. On getting the point with required RL of the top
bund the point is marked prominently. Then theodolite is set up and the temporary
adjustments are done. The readings on the vertical circular plate is made zero. The upper
clamp crews and lower clamp screw are clamped. The H.I of the theodolite is determined.
Then another point on the other of the valley is located at the same R.L as that of the
point near the theodolite, by making a person a hold leveling staff and move back and
forth till reading on the staff is same as H.I.

Longitudinal and Cross Section of the Bund:

Longitudinal section of the bund is necessary to set the profile along the bund. It is by the
use of longitudinal section and cross section that we can calculate the volume of earth and
all other materials require for the construction of the bund.

CAPACITY CONTOURING:

A contour is the line of level surface or it is an imaginary line joining points of equal
reduced levels or elevations. It is the method of taking measurements in the field so that
contour lines can be drawn on a map to give a complete picture of earth’s surface. The
vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called contour interval. The
contour interval depends on the nature of ground, scale of map, purpose and extent of
survey etc.

Characteristics of Contours:

A contour line is always uniformly spaced, while a plane is indicted when they are
straight and equally spaced.

Contour lines cross ridgelines or valley lines at right angle. A ridgeline is shown when the
higher values are inside the loop and or bend in the contour, while in the case of a valley
line the lower values are inside the loop. The same contour appears on either side of a
ridge or valley. Valley contours are convex toward the stream.

Contours lines cannot merge or cross one another on the map, except in the case of
overhanging cliff. Contour lines cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either
within or without the limits of the map. A series of closed contours on the map indicates a
depression or a summit, according as the lower or higher values are inside them. An
irregular contour indicates rough, rugged terrain, where as smooth contours denote
gradual slopes.

Uses of Contours:

By inspection of a contour map, information regarding the character of the tract of the
country is obtained; whether it is flat, undulating or mountains, etc.

The most economical or suitable site for engineering works such as a reservoir, canal,
sewer, road, or railway may be approximately selected.

Quantities of earthwork may be computed from the contour maps. Contours may be used
to determine the area of the drainage basin and the capacity of the reservoir.

The sections may be easily drawn in any direction from the contours. Intervisibility of
two given points can be ascertained from the map. A route of the given grade line can be
traced on the map.

Methods for Locating Contours

Direct Method:

In this method the contours to be plotted are actually located on the ground with the level
by marking various points on each contour. These points are then surveyed, and plotted
on the plan. Though this method is very slow and tedious it is the most accurate, and is
used for contouring small areas.

To begin with, fly levels are taken from the nearest permanent benchmark near the site of
survey. The level is then set up in a commanding position and accuracy leveled. The
height of the instrument (H.I) is determined by taking a back sight on the benchmark.
From the known elevations of the contours and the H.I., the required staff readings to fix
points on the various contour lines are obtained to the first place of a decimal by
subtracting the elevation of each of the contours from the H.I.

Indirect Method:

By squares:

This method is suitable if the area is not very extensive. In this method, area is divided
into a series of squares, and the corners of the squares are marked with the pegs. The
squares need not be of same size throughout. Each separate square is pegged out and the
elevations of the ground of the corners of the squares are determined with a level.
Intermediate points within the squares may be taken when required and may be located on
the diagonals of the squares, or by the measurement from the corners. The system of
squares is plotted and in each corners its elevation is written. The contour lines are then
interpolated in the usual way.

Tachometric method:

This method is suitable when the contour map of a hill is required. A number of lines are
set out radiating at a given angular interval from each of the transverse stations, and the
representative points on these lines are located in the field by observing the vertical
angles and the staff readings of the bottom, middle and the top wire, with a tachometer.
The elevations and the distances of these points are calculated. The survey is plotted and
the contour lines are then interpolated.

Objectives:

 To fix the capacity of the tank bund

 To fix full tank level
 To fix the maximum water of the tank
 To fix sill level of the sluice

Equipment Required:
 Dumpy level with stand
 Leveling staff
 Plane table with stand and its accessories

Procedures:
The plane table and the theodolite were set up as close together as possible at a suitable
position from where all the points of the given contour could be seen. Both the plane table
and the theodolite were leveled and temporary adjustments were made like leveling using
spirit level, and making theodolite’s vertical plate reading zero so as to function as a level
etc. The station point ‘P’ was located on the sheet by sighting the two-bund end points
using alidade. The height of instrument was found out by back-sighting the temporary
benchmark. The theodolite readings were set to zero on the horizontal scale. From the
height of instrument, the particular reading to be made on the leveling staff to get the
points on the ground having the given R.L was marked. With clamp screws tightened one
person was directed to move along the line of sight back or forth to bisect the marked
reading. When the bisection is done the intercept is noted to compute the distance of that
point from the instrument station. Simultaneously the staff is bisected through the alidade
and plotted on the sheet to the scale in use. Next in the theodolite is rotated through an
angle 20o and staff men was made to move along the new line of the theodolite till the
mark on the staff was bisected and also by alidade and plotted on the sheet to the scale.
Above procedures were repeated for every angular interval of 20o till all the points of
same R.L on the upstream side were plotted.

Note:

Before closing the day’s works the position of the plane table station in properly
established by bisecting three well-defined permanent objects. The next day the work is
continued by solving three-point problem. In order to get a good contour the plane table
and the instruments must be shifted a number of times depending on topography of the
region and is time the required new staff reading for particular height of instrument is
calculated to get the R.L. needed. Each time the plane table is shifted, it has to be back
oriented with reference to the previous station. The top width of the dam is fixed by
taking into consideration the minimum with of road.

BLOCK LEVELLING AT WASTE WEIR DESIGN

Weir:

Weir is a structure constructed to raise the water level on the upstream side of the
obstruction, and thus, to feed the main canals taking off from its upstream side at one or
both of its flanks. It also discharges excess water. If the major part or the entire pounding
of water is achieved by a raised crest, then this barrier is known as a weir.
Classification of Weir:

Weirs are classified into two types, depending upon the criterion of the design of their
floods.

1. Non-Gravity Weir.

2. Gravity weir

Non-Gravity Weir:

In Non-Gravity weir, the floor thickness is kept relatively less, and the uplift pressure is
largely resisted by the bending action of the reinforced concrete floor.

Gravity Weir:

A Gravity weir is the one in which the uplift pressure due to the seepage of water below
the floor is restricted entirely by the weight of the floor.

Gravity dams are further classified as:

1.Vertical drop weir.

2.Sloping weir

3.Masonry or concrete slope weir

4.Dry stone slope weir

5.Parabolic weir

The Vertical Drop weir:

The vertical drop weir consists of a vertical drop wall or crest wall with or without crest
gates. At the upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor, cut off piles are
provided. To safe guard against scouring action, launching aprons are provided both at
upstream and downstream end of the floor. A graded inverted filter is provided
immediately at the downstream end of the impervious floor to relieve the uplift pressure.
These types are suitable for any types of the foundations.
Weirs of these types are of recent origin. They are suitable for soft sandy foundations and
all generally used where the difference in weir crest and downstream riverbed is limited
to 3 m. when water passes over such a weir hydraulic jump is formed on the sloping
glacis.

Dry Stone Slope Weir:

A dry stone slope weir or a rock-fill weir consists of a body wall and upstream and
downstream rock-fills lay in the form of glacis with few intervening core walls.

Parabolic weir:

A parabolic weir is similar to the spillway action of a dam. The body wall for such a weir
is designed at the low dam. A cistern is provided at the downstream side to dissipate the
energy. The upstream and downstream protection works are similar to that of a vertical
drop or sloping glacis weir.

Objects:

To dispose of the surplus water.

Specifications:

 There should be a natural diversion to carry the surplus water.

 There should be good soil at the weir site for foundation.
 The length and height of the body wall must be minimum.
 The cost of protective works must be minimum

SELECTION OF SITE FOR A WEIR

Following are the point may be taken into consideration while selecting a site for a
tank weir.

 Tank weir performs the function of the surplusing excess flow therefore it is
preferable tolocate the weir in a natural saddle away from the tank bund.
 To carry surplus flow existence of a well-defined escape channel is very necessary
at a site selected for the construction of a weir.
 The saddle where natural surface level us approximately same as tank level [FTL]
should be given first performance.
 Hard foundation if available at the site reduces the cost of the construction.
  When a site is away from the tank bund is not available as for as possible weir
may be located on one end of the tank bund.
 Surplus weir may be hosed in the body of the tank bund only as a last resort.
 Care should be taken to see that escape channel surplusing water is not likely to
damage cultivated land.

Formula for Length of Waste Weir:

Qf= 2/3 cd (2g) LH2/3, where Qf = Flood discharge

Cd = Coefficient of discharge =0.6

H = Head over weir (MWL-FTL)

L = Length of the weir in m

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/sec2

Hence, knowing cd, Qf, g & H, ‘L’ length of the waste weir is calculated.

Qf= 2/3 cd(2g)

 CANAL ALIGNMENT
CANAL:

A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the ground

to carry water to the fields either from the river or from a tank or reservoir. Canals can be
classified in following ways:

Classification based on the nature of source of supply:

 Permanent canal.
 Inundation canal.

A canal is said to be permanent when it is fed by a permanent source of supply. The

canal is a well-made up regular graded channel. It has also permanent masonry works of
regulation and distribution of supplies. A permanent canal is also sometimes known as
perennial canal when the sources from which canal takes is an ice fed Perennial River.

Inundation canals usually draw their supplies from rivers whenever there is a high stage
in the river. They are not provided with any head works for diversion of river water to
the canal. They are, however, provided with a canal head regulator. The head of the
canal has to be changed sometimes to suit the changing pattern of river course.

Classification based on financial output:

 Productive canal.
 Protective canal.

Productive canals are those which yield a net revenue to the nation after full
development of irrigation in the area.

Protective canal is a sort of relief work constructed with the idea of protecting a
particular area from famine.
Classification based on the function of the canal:
 Irrigation canal.
 Carrier canal.
 Feeder canal.
 Navigation canal.
 Power canal.

An Irrigation canal carries water to the agricultural fields. A Carrier canal

besides doing irrigation carries water for another canal. Upper Chenab canal in West
Punjab (Pakistan) is the example of one such canal. A feeder canal is constructed with
the idea of feeding two or more canals. Examples of such canals are: Rajasthan feeder
canal and Shirhind feeder.

Classification based on the discharge and its relative importance in a given network
of canals.
 Main canal.
 Branch canal.
 Major distributary
 Minor distributary
 Water course

Main canal generally carries water directly from the river. Such a canal carries heavy
supplies and is not used for direct irrigation except in exceptional circumstances. Main
canals act as water carriers to feed supplies to branch canals and major distributaries.

Branch canals are the branches of the main canal in either direction taking off at regular
intervals. In general, branch canals also do not carry out any direct irrigation, but at times
direct outlets may be provided. Branch canals are usually feeder channels for major and
minor distributaries. They usually carry a discharge of over 5 cumecs.

Major distributaries usually called Rajbha, take off from a branch canal. They may
also sometimes take off from the main canal, but their discharge is generally lesser than
branch canals. They are real irrigation channels in the sense that they supply water for
irrigation to the field through outlets provided along them. Their discharge varies from ¼
to 5 cumecs.
Minor distributaries called minors take off from branch canals or from distributaries.
Their discharge is usually less than ¼ cumecs. They supply water to the water courses
through outlets provided along them.

A water course is a small channel which ultimately feeds the water to irrigation fields.
Depending upon the size and extent of the irrigation scheme, a field channel may take off
from a distributary or minor. Sometimes, it may even take off from the branch canal for
the field situated very near to the branch canal.

Classification based on canal alignment

According to the alignment, a canal may be classified as under:

 Contour canal.
 Watershed canal.
 Side slope canal.

The characteristic features of these canals are discussed in the next article.

CANAL ALIGNMENT:

A Canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to be
irrigated, with shortest possible length and at the same time its cost including the cost of
cross drainage works is a minimum. A shorter length of canal ensures less loss of head
due to friction and smaller loss of discharge due to seepage and evaporation, so that
additional areas can be brought under cultivation.

According to alignment, the channels may be

 Ridge canal.
 Contour canal.
 Side slope canal.
1. Ridge canal

A ridge canal or a watershed canal is aligned along a watershed and runs for most of its
length on a watershed. When a channel is on the watershed, it can command areas on
both banks and so a large area can be brought, under cultivation. Also, no drainage can
intersect a watershed and, hence, the necessity of constructing cross drainage works is
obviated.
When the watershed takes a very sharp loop, the canal should be aligned straight to save
considerable idle length, as shown in Fig.13.2. The area of the loop between the
watershed and the canal cannot be irrigated by this canal as there will be higher ground
on this side and some other arrangement has to be made if the irrigation is important in
that area. The canal checks the drainage of this part and a cross-drainage work has,
therefore, to be provided. A cost analysis should, therefore, be made before aligning the
canal straight to reduce its length. The canal has also to leave watershed to by-pass towns
and villages situated at the watershed.

2. Contour canal

A channel aligned nearly parallel to the contours of the country is called a contour canal.

When the canal takes off from a river in a hilly area, it is not possible to align the canal on
the watershed as the watershed on the top of the hill may be very high and the areas
which need irrigation are concentrated in the valley. The canal is then aligned roughly
parallel to the contours of the country. The contour chosen for the alignment should be so
placed as to include all cultivable area of the valley on one side of the canal.

The contour channel can irrigate only on one side. As the ground level on the other side
is quite high, there is no necessity of a bank on this side. Hence, a contour canal is
sometimes constructed with one bank only, and is known as a single bank canal.
However, when both the banks are provided, it is known as a double bank canal.

The contour canal does not follow the same contour all along. To enable the water to
flow by gravity, some surface slope is given. The rate at which the canal alignment
leaves one contour and takes up another depends upon its surface slope. It is usual, in
highly undulated tracks to carry the channel in deep cutting across the ridges or spurs and
in high embankments across the valleys in order to reduce the unnecessary length of the
channel in long detours and sharp curves in the alignment.

3. Side Slope Canal

It is a channel aligned roughly at right angles to the contours of the country and is neither
on the watershed nor in the valley. Such a channel would be roughly parallel to the
natural drainage of the country and, hence, it does not intercept any cross-drainage.
However, it has very steep bed slope, since the direction of the steepest slope of the
ground is at right angles to the contours of the country.
General considerations for alignment:
 The alignment of the canal should be such as to ensure the most economical
way of distributing the water to the land, as high a command as possible, and
minimum number of cross drainage works.
 The alignment of a canal on a watershed, being the most economical, is
preferred. As a general rule, the entire watershed lying in a command should
be occupied by distributaries.
 The length of the main canal from the point where is takes off from a river to a
point where it mounts on a watershed should be minimum.
 The contour alignment should be changed this way or that way in order to
reduce the number of cross-drainage works to a minimum.
 The alignment should avoid villages, roads, cart tracks, cremation places,
places of worship and other valuable properties.
 The alignment should pass through the balances depth of cutting. It not, it
should involve minimum depth of cutting or minimum height of filling.
 The number of kinks and acute curves should be minimum.
 Idle length of canal should be minimum and branches etc. should be
economically planned.
 The alignment should not be made in rocky, brackish or cracked strata.

Alignment of a field channel:

Though the maintenance of a field channel is the responsibility of the farmers, its
alignment should have the following features:

 They should be laid along field boundaries.

 They should be capable of supplying sufficient water to the tail end.
 Separate field channels should be provided for high and low lands.
 The field channels should not pass through rocky, brackish, or cracked strata.
 If the provision of curve is a must, minimum radius should be provided as
shown in Table.
 Minimum radius of the curve
Capacity of channel (cumecs)
(meters)
Less than 0.3 100

0.3 to 3 159

3 to 15 300

15 to 30 600

30 to 85 900

over 85 1500

TABLE

CURVES:

Curves should not be provided except where necessary. Introduction of a curve in a

channel disturbs the regime of channel. The concave side is always under erosion and the
convex side has a tendency to slit.

UPSTREAM SLOPE AND DOWNSTREAM SLOPE

The side slopes of a tank will be stable if the soil mass is not dislodged from the
slopes. The side slopes depend upon various factors such as the type and nature of tank
and foundation materials,Height of the tank etc., the recommended values of side slopes
as given by Terzaghi’s are tabulated in the following table;
 Type of material Upstream slope(H:V) Downstream slope(H:V)

Homogenous well graded 2:5:1 2:1

Homogenous coarse silt 3:1 2:5:1

Homogenous silt clay

1. Height less than 15 meter. 2:5:1 2:1

2. Height more than 15 meter.
3:1 2:5:1

Sand or sand and gravel

3:1 2:5:1
with a central clay core.

Sand or sand and gravel

2:5:1 2:1
with RC diaphragm.

PROTECTION OF UPSTREAM SLOPE OF A TANK

The upstream slope of a tank must be protected against erosive action of waves. The usual
types of surface protection for the upstream slope are-stone pitching precast concrete
blocks, monolithic concrete pavement, bituminous paving, soil cement paving, steel
facing etc. The most commonly adopted surface protection is stone pitching .stone
pitching is of two types-random pitching and hand-placed pitching.

Random pitching consists of stones dumped in place from trucks or tossed into placed
by hand. The individual stones must b of sufficient weight to resist displacement by wave
action.

Hand placed pitching consists of stones carefully laid by hand in a more or less definite
pattern with a minimum amount of voids are filled with the smaller stones.The upstream
slope protection should extend from the crust of the tank to a safe distance below
minimum water level and it should terminate on a supporting beam.

PROTECTION OF DOWNSTREAM SLOPE OF A TANK:

The downstream slope of the tank should be protected against erosion due to wind and
rain. If the downstream portion of a tank consists of a rock or cobble fill, no surface
protection is necessary. If the downstream portion of a tank consists of fine grained soils
and gravel, it should be protected. The downstream slopes are generally stone pitching
and turfing (covering of grass).

In addition to the above, often berms (it is shelf that breaks the continuity of a slope) are
provided to minimize surface erosion of downstream slopes.

Disadvantages in the Tanks:

1. Loss of water from tank:

The loss of water from a tank may be due to evaporation, absorption and
percolation.
a) Evaporation loss:
The evaporation loss mainly depends on the water surface area of the area
tank.The other factors influencing evaporation loss are- temperature, wind
velocity and relative humidity. The various measures taken to reduce loss of water
due to evaporation in a tank are:
 By constructing the tank of less surface area and more depth.
 By growing tall trees on the windward side of the tank.
 By spraying certain chemicals or fatty acids and thus forming thin film of these
substances on the water surface in the water.
 By removing the weeds and plants from the periphery of the tank.

b) Absorption loss:
The absorption loss mainly depends on the type of soil forming the tank basin.
This loss may be quite large in the beginning but will be gradually as the pores get
saturated. As such the absorption loss is not significant is tank planning.
c) Percolation loss:
The percolation or seepage is small I most of the cases .However , it may be
significant in some cases where severe leakage may occur under the hills or under
the base of the bund through continues seams of porous strata or cavernous of
fissured rock. The tank basin should therefore be carefully checked for water
tightness during investigations and necessary remedial measures such as grouting
etc., should be taken to prevent such leakage.

2. CONTROL OF SEDIMENTATIONOF TANK

 In order to increase the useful life a tank it is necessary to control the deposition of
sediment .the various methods adopted to control the sediment in a tank are;
a) selection of tank site:
The tank sedimentation can be controlled by selecting the tank site where the
sediment inflow is low.
b) Tank design:
For a tank of small capacity on a stream having large inflow rate, the rate of
sedimentation is less than that for a tank of large capacity on the same stream .An
adequate number of outlets must be provided in the tank at different elevations, so
that the flood water which is usually heavily sediment being deposited in the bank.
c) Control of sediment inflow:
The inflow of sediment to a tank can be controlled by constructing check bunds
and by providing vegetation screens.
d) Control sediment deposition:
The deposition of sediment in a tank can be controlled to some extent by
designing and operating the outlets in such a manner that the water having higher
sediment content yes discharged to the downstream through the outlets.
e) Removal of sediment deposit: The sediment already deposited in a tank may be
removed either by excavation or by scouring through sluices in the tank.
f) Erosion control in the catchment area:

The control of erosion in the catchment area will reduce the out flow of sediment
to the stream and constituently there will be less inflow of sediment to a tank
constructed on the stream. The various methods of soil conservation are
forestation, regressing and control of grazing. Control on terrace cultivation,
provision of contour bends, checking gently formation by providing small
embankments etc.