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Faculty
D N Roopa
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
JSSATE, Bangalore
Module 1 Syllabus
Module-1MACHINE TOOLS(10 hours)
Machine tools
Introduction to Metrology: Definition, objectives and concept of metrology,
Need of inspection, Principles, process, methods of measurement, Classification
and selection of measuring instruments and systems. Accuracy, precision and
errors in measurement. System of measurement, Material Standard, Wavelength
Standards, Subdivision of standards, Line and End standards, Classification of
standards and Traceability, calibration of End bars (Numerical Problems),
standardization.
Linear Measurement and angular measurements: Slip gauges- Indian standards
on slip gauge, method of selection of slip gauge, stack of slip gauge, adjustable
slip gauge, wringing of slip gauge, care of slip gauge, slip gauge accessories,
problems on building of slip gauges (M87, M112). Measurement of angles- sine
bar, sine center, angle gauges, optical instruments for angular measurements,
Auto collimator-applications for measuring straightness and squareness.
• We routinely read the temperature of an
outdoor thermometer to choose
appropriate clothing for the day.
• We expect to have exactly 10 gallons or
liters of fuel added to our tank when that
volume is indicated on a fuel pump.
• We expect measuring cups to yield correct
quantities of ingredients in cooking.
specific measurements.
instruments.
3. Thorough evaluation of newly developed products, to ensure that components are within the
specified dimensions.
6. To reduce the cost of rejections and rework by applying statistical quality control techniques.
7. To reduce the cost of inspections by effective and efficient utilization of available facilities.
itself.
Need of inspection
Inspection (Defn): Checking the dimension of parts which has already being produced and
to identify defects.
• Static calibration – The values of the variable involved remain constant (not
standard one at certain time interval (may be once in a year once in every 6
months).
If the above procedure is not followed the instrument may give erroneous
6.Parallax error occur when line of vision is not directly in line with measuring scale
PA= parallax error
7.Error due to dust:
Presence of dust in the atmosphere change reading in the order of fraction of
micron. When high accuracy in measurement is required dust should be cleaned
by clean chamois.
ACCURACY PRECISION
It is closeness with the true It is a measure of the
value of the quantity being reproducibility of the
measured. measurement.
The accuracy of measurement The term precise means clearly
means conformity to truth. or sharply defined.
Accuracy can be improved. Precision cannot be improved.
Accuracy depends upon simple Precision depends upon many
techniques of analysis. factors and required many
sophisticated techniques of
analysis.
Accuracy is necessary but not Precision is necessary but not a
sufficient condition for sufficient condition for accuracy.
precision.
FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY OF A MEASURING SYSTEM
S - Standard
W - Workpiece
I - Instrument
P - Person
E - Environment
1. Standard
Normally the measuring instrument is calibrated with a standard
are at regular interval.
The standard may be affected by
o Coefficient of thermal expansion
o Stability with time
o Elastic properties
o Geometric compatibility
o Position etc
2. Work piece:
The following factors affect the accuracy
Cleanliness surface finish etc.
Surface defects
Hidden geometry
Thermal equalization etc
3. Instrument
The inherent characteristics of the instrument which affect the
accuracy are
Inadequate amplification
Scale error
Effect of friction backlash hysteresis etc
Deformation while handling heavy w/p
Calibration error
Repeatability & readability
4. Person
The factors responsible for accuracy are
Training skill
Sense of precision appreciation
Ability to select measuring instrument & standard
Attitude towards personal accuracy achievement
Planning for measurement technique to have minimum just
with consistent in precision.
5. Environment
The environmental factor are:
Temperature press humidity
Clean surrounding and minimum vibration
Adequate illumination
Temperature equalization between standard w/p &
instrument
Higher accuracy can be achieved if all 5 factors are
considered & steps are taken to eliminate them.
follows:
(2) Second group consists of less accurate instruments such as tool room microscopes,
(3) The third group comprises still less accurate instruments e.g., dial indicators, verniercalipers
where
n → No. of supports
L → length of bar
For a simply supported beam, the expression becomes
D i s t a n c e b e t we e n t wo p a r a l l e l f a c e s
T h e y a re i n t wo f o r m s :
1) End/Length bars
2) Slip Gauges
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F E N D S TA N D A R D S
1. End standards are highly accurate and are well suited to
measurements of close tolerances.
2. They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension
at a time.
3. Dimensional tolerance as small as 0.0005 mm can be obtained.
4. End standards are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
5. They are not subjected to the parallax effect since their use
depends on "feel".
6. Groups of blocks are "wringing" together to build up any
length, faulty wringing leads to damage.
7. The accuracy of both End and Line standards are affected by
temperature change.
Comparison between Line and End standards
Characteristic Line standard End standard
Principle Length is expressed as the Length is expressed as the distance
distance between two lines between two flat parallel faces
Accuracy Limited up to ± 0.2 mm Upto ± 0.005 mm
Ease and Quick and easy Requires skill and time consuming
time of measurement
Effect of wear Scale marking are not They are subjected to wear on
subjected to wear. measuring surfaces
Alignment Cannot be aligned with axis Can be aligned with axis of
of measurement measurement
Manufacturing and Manufacturing is easy and Manufacturing is complex and cost
cost cost is less comparatively is less comparatively
Error They are subjected to They are not subjected to parallax
parallax error error
Eg Steel rule Slip gauges, end bar, micrometer
anvils, vernier caliper jaws
Disadvantages of Material standard
1. Material length standards vary in length over the
years owing to molecular changes in the alloy.
2. The exact replicas of material length standards
were not available for use somewhere else.
3. If these standards are accidentally damaged or
destroyed then exact copies could not be made.
4. Conversion factors have to be used for changing
over to metric system
WAVELENGTH STANDARD (1960)
† Because of the problems of variation in length of
material length standards, the possibility of using light
as a basic unit to define primary standard has been
considered.
† The wavelength of the selected radiation was measured
and used as the basic unit of length.
† Since wavelength standard is not a physical one, it need
not be preserved.
† Further, it is easily reproducible and the error of
reproduction is in the order of one part in 100 million.
D e f i n i t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o wa v e l e n g t h s t a n d a r d
† The Meter is defined as 16,50,763.73 wavelengths of the
orange radiation in vacuum of the krypton-86 isotope.
1. Primary Standards
2. Secondary Standards
3. Tertiary Standards
4. Working standards
PRIMARY STANDARDS
L = L1 + b + c
The four different ways in which the two end blocks can be arranged using all
possible combinations and then compared with the primary line standard are :
L = L1 + b + c
L = L1 + b + d
L = L1 + a + c
L = L1 + a + d
Summation of these four measurements gives
4L = 4L1+ 2a + 2b + 2c + 2d
OR
L = L1+(c + d)- ½x
calibration of End bars
Therefore,
LX = (L ± e1 ± e2)/2
and LY = LX ± e2
Ans: LA = 500.00025 mm
LB = 499.99985 mm
PROBLEM 2
Three 100 mm end bars are measured on a level
comparator by first wringing them together and
comparing with a 300 mm bar. The 300 mm bar has a
known error of + 40 μm and the three bars together
measure 64 μm less than the 300 mm bar. Bar A is 18
μm longer than bar B and 23 μm longer than bar C.
Find the actual length of each bar.
Ans: LA = 100.0056 mm
LB = 99.9876 mm
LC = 99.9826 mm
Linear measurements
Some of the instruments used for the linear
measurements are:
• Rules (Scale)
• Vernier
• Micrometer (Most widely used, Working Standard)
• Height gauge
• Bore gauge
• Dial indicator
• Slip gauges or gauge blocks (Most accurate, End
Standard)
Vernier Caliper
• A vernier scale is an auxiliary scale that slides along the
main scale.
• The vernier scale is that a certain number ‘n’ of divisions on
the vernier scale is equal in length to a different number
(usually one less) of main-scale divisions.
nV = (n −1)S
where n = number of divisions on the vernier scale
V = The length of one division on the vernier scale
and S = Length of the smallest main-scale division
• Least count is applied to the smallest value that can be read
directly by use of a vernier scale.
1
• Least count = S − V = n S
Vernier Caliper
The vernier reading should not be taken at its face value before an actual check has
been taken for :
(a) Zero error
(b) Its calibration
(c) Flatness of measuring jaws
(d) Temperature equalization
The least count of a metric vernier caliper having 25 divisions on vernier scale,
matching with 24 divisions of main scale (1 main scale divisions = 0.5 mm) is
(a) 0.005 mm (b) 0.01 mm
(c) 0.02 mm (d) 0.005mm
The gap between the two pieces is observed to be 0.00635 microns which
is negligible
One gauge is placed perpendicularly on the other gauge and it is slide first
followed by the twisting motion which fits the gauges together
The overall thickness of the wrung gauges is equal to the sum of individual
gauges
Manufacturing of Slip Gauges
Most of the slip gauges are produced from high grade steel,
hardened and stabilized by heat treatment process to give a high
degree of dimensional stability.
Slip gauges can be made from tool steel, chrome plate steel.
Stainless steel, chrome carbide, tungsten carbide etc. Tungsten
carbide is an extremely hard, wear resistant, and most expensive
material than steel.
steps gives a brief of method of manufacturing of
slip gauges:
Total 112
Steps
Range (mm) Pieces
(mm)
S p e c i a l s et ( M 8 7 ) 10 to 90 10 9
1.0005 - 1
Total 87
Numerical Problems on Building of Slip Gauges
PROBLEM 1
Build 58.975 mm using M 112 set of gauges.
Steps
Range (mm) Pieces
(mm)
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
ANSWER = 1.005, 1.47, 24.5, 25, 7
1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 24.5 0.5 0 49
25,50,75,100 25 4
1.0005 - 1
Total 112
PROBLEM 2
List the slips to be wrung together to produce an
overall dimension of 92.357 mm using two protection
slips of 2.500 mm size. Show the slip gauges
combination.
M87 OR M112 – 10 to 90
1.0005
10
-
9
1
PROBLEM 4
It is required to set a dimension of 58.975 mm with the
help of slip gauge blocks. Two sets available for the
purpose are M 45 and M 112
A master gauge is
(a) A new gauge
(b) An international reference standard
(c) A standard gauge for checking accuracy of gauges used on shop floors
(d) A gauge used by experienced technicians
H
sin
L
• The maximum angle that can be set using a
sine bar is 45°. Sine bars provide most reliable
measurements for angles less than 15°
• At higher angles, errors due to the distance
between the centers of the rollers and gauge
block gets magnified.
Angle to Length of Height of Actual Errors in
be set sine bar slip gauges angle measurement
(Degrees). (mm) (mm) (degrees) (degree)
30 200 100 30 0.03
100.1 30.033
45 200 141.42 45 0.04
141.52 45.0404
60 200 173.205 60 0.06
173.305 60.057
Sine center
Sine center is basically a sine bar with block holding centers which
can be adjusted and rigidly clamped in any position.
Used for the testing of conical work, centered at each end as shown.
Extremely useful since the alignment accuracy of the centers ensures
that the correct line of measurement is made along the workpiece.
• The centers can also be adjusted depending on the length of the
conical work piece, to be hold between centers.
Angle Gauge
• Angle gauges are made of hardened steel and
seasoned carefully to ensure permanence of
angular accuracy, and the measuring faces are
lapped and polished to a high degree of
accuracy and flatness like slip gauges.
• Angle block gauges provide a range 0 to 90 degree 59
minutes 59 seconds.
• The gauges are available in sets of 6,11 and 16.
=27 ⁰
+3 ⁰
= 30 ⁰
-30 ⁰
Optical instruments for angular measurements
• Four principles govern the application of optics in metrology. The
most vital one is magnification, which provides visual enlargement of
the object. Magnification enables easy and accurate measurement of
the attributes of an object.
• The second one is accuracy. A monochromatic light source provides
the absolute standard of length and therefore, ensures high degree
of accuracy.
• The third principle is one of alignment. It utilises light rays to
establish references such as lines and planes.
• The fourth, and a significant one is the principle of interferometry,
which is an unique phenomenon associated with light.
• These principles have driven the development of large number of
measuring instruments and comparators. The most popular in
angular measurement is autocollimator.
Autocollimator
Principle of Autocollimator
Autocollimator
• It’s a special form of telescope that is used to measure
small angles with high degree of resolution.
• A beam of collimated light is projected on to a
reflector, which is tilted by a small angle about the
vertical plane.
• The reflected light is magnified and focused on to an
eye piece.
• The deflection between the beam and the reflected
beam is a measure of the angular tilt of the reflector.
• The reticle is an illuminated target with cross hair
pattern, is positioned in the focal plane of an objective
lens.
• A viewing system is required to observe the
relative position of the image of the cross
wires. This is done in most of the
autocollimators by means of a simple
eye‐piece.
• If rotation of the plane reflector by an angle θ
results in the displacement of the image by an
amount d, then, d = (2θ)f, where f is the focal
length of the objective lens.
• The sensitivity of autocollimator depends on the focal length of
the objective lens. Longer the focal length, larger is the linear
displacement for a given tilt of the plane reflector (reflector is
usually it’s a mirror).