Unit 2 Dics and Drum Brake Operation PDF

STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
DISC AND DRUM BRAKE SYSTEM
OPERATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON ONE OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF DISC AND DRUM BRAKES .... 3
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE...............................................................................................3
ENABLING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................3
KEY TERMS .................................................................................................................4
Brake System Hydraulics ........................................................................................................ 5
Basic Hydraulic Operation................................................................................................... 7
Disc BrakeS .............................................................................................................................. 9
Disc Brake Components.................................................................................................... 11
Rear Wheel Disc Brakes ........................................................................................................ 13
Disc BrakeS ............................................................................................................................ 15
Drum Brake Operation ....................................................................................................... 17
Drum Brake Components .................................................................................................. 19
Leading-Trailing Brakes ........................................................................................................ 23
Duo-Servo Brakes .................................................................................................................. 25
Parking Brake ......................................................................................................................... 27
Self-Adjusting Mechanisms .................................................................................................. 29
One-Shot Adjusting Mechanism ....................................................................................... 30
Leading-Trailing Incremental Self-Adjuster..................................................................... 31
Duo-Servo Incremental Self-Adjuster............................................................................... 33
Trailer Brakes ......................................................................................................................... 35
Surge Type Trailer Brakes..................................................................................................... 36
Electric Brakes ....................................................................................................................... 37
LESSON TWO POWER-ASSIST UNIT OPERATION.................................................38
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE.............................................................................................38
ENABLING OBJECTIVES ..........................................................................................38
Vacuum Brake Booster.......................................................................................................... 39
Vacuum Sources ................................................................................................................ 43
Hydraulic Brake Boosters.................................................................................................. 44
LESSON THREE ABS SYSTEM OPERATION...........................................................45
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE.............................................................................................45
ENABLING OBJECTIVES ..........................................................................................45
KEY TERMS ...............................................................................................................46
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 47
Brake Lock-up Prevention .................................................................................................... 48
Driver Controlled Braking.................................................................................................. 48
Automatic Control .............................................................................................................. 50
ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM FUNCTION ......................................................................... 51
ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM HYDRAULICS .................................................................... 55
VALVES AND SOLENOIDS .................................................................................................... 56
Inlet Valve/Isolation Valve ................................................................................................. 57
Outlet/Decay Valve ............................................................................................................. 59
Build Valve .......................................................................................................................... 61
SYSTEM TYPES ..................................................................................................................... 63
Open Systems..................................................................................................................... 64
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OPERATION
Closed Systems.................................................................................................................. 66
Hydro-Boost........................................................................................................................ 67
Non Hydro-Boost................................................................................................................ 68
MASTER CYLINDER DESIGNs.............................................................................................. 70
Central Valve Master Cylinder........................................................................................... 71
Hydro-Boost Master Cylinder............................................................................................ 72
PUMP/MOTOR DESIGN...................................................................................................... 74
Dual Piston Pump............................................................................................................... 75
Single Piston Pump............................................................................................................ 77
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................ 78
Controller - Antilock Brakes (CAB) ................................................................................... 79
Wheel Speed Sensors (WSS) ............................................................................................ 81
Hydraulic Control Unit (HCU)................................................................................................ 86
ABS OPERATION ................................................................................................................... 89
Hold Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 90
Decay Cycle ........................................................................................................................ 92
Build Cycle .......................................................................................................................... 94
TRACTION CONTROL SYSTEM (TCS) FUNCTION ............................................................. 96
abs characteristics................................................................................................................. 98
Audible ABS Characteristics ............................................................................................. 98
Vehicle Handling Characteristics ..................................................................................... 98
Pedal Feel Characteristics................................................................................................. 99
Tire Noise and Marks ....................................................................................................... 100
GLOSSARY .............................................................................................................. 101
2 Table of Contents
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
LESSON ONE OPERATING PRINCIPLES

OF DISC AND DRUM BRAKES
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE ICS

Successful completion of this Unit’s enabling objectives 101
(technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Basic Physics
Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right
157
margin. Hydraulic Brake
Systems
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
158
Upon completion of Lesson One, you should be able to: Drum/Disc Brakes and
! Interpret how the laws of hydraulics apply to Power-Assist Units
automotive brake systems.

! Identify the different types of master cylinders
and explain their operation.
! Identify the components and types of parking
brakes and explain their operation.
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STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson.
You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for
definitions of these terms.
• Anti-rattle Clip
• Backing Plate
• Bleeder Screw
• Disc brakes
• Drum brakes
• Leading-trailing brakes
• One-Shot Adjusting Mechanism
• Parking Brake Mechanism
• Pascal’s Law
• Phenolic Brake Piston
• Primary Shoe
• Secondary Shoe
• Wear Indicator
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OPERATION
BRAKE SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

In all brake systems, there are factors that reduce braking efficiency.
In mechanical brake systems there is friction loss at pivot points and
where metal parts rub against each other. Mechanical linkages also
have the disadvantage of being difficult to route around other
components. Hydraulic systems have much less friction loss, and
the lines are easily routed around other components. Pressurized
fluid can be carried to all parts of a vehicle by small hoses and tubes.
The hydraulic system also makes it very easy for a driver’s foot to
create enough force to stop the vehicle simply by pressing the brake
pedal.
Although hydraulic systems are more advanced, problems still may

occur. They could have leaks in tubes and seals. Blockages of the
lines as well as contamination of the fluid may be causes for concern.
The hydraulic system can also have pressure decreases around
valves. When a fluid passes through a valve, a pressure
differential can occur as the valve opens and closes. This pressure
drop may reduce the efficiency of the system.
In some applications, engineers use this pressure drop to accomplish

another action. An example of this is found in a hydraulic boost
system, where designed pressure drops are used to control the
amount of boost added to the force traveling from the brake pedal to
the master cylinder.
Hydraulic brake systems came into extensive use in the mid 1930s.
At first, hydraulic brake systems were not very popular – at least with
automotive engineers and designers. This was due to the fear of
broken or leaking hydraulic lines. But, as technology and operating
conditions improved, hydraulic brakes gained acceptance.
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OPERATION
The theory of closed hydraulic systems first came about in the 1600s
by a French scientist named Pascal. Pascal developed a hydraulic
jack (Figure 2-001), which he used to show that liquid could be used
to transfer and multiply force. The result of his experiments is called
Pascal’s Law.
• Liquid in a confined space will not compress. However, air

in a confined space will compress.
• When pressure is applied to liquid in a confined space, the
pressure is transferred equally in all directions.
• A hydraulic system can be used to increase or decrease
force or motion.
2-001
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OPERATION
A hydraulic brake system is basically a system that uses a liquid
(brake fluid) to transmit force and motion from one component to
another. Using brake fluid, hydraulic brake systems transfer and
multiply the force and motion of the brake pedal to the individual
wheel brake assemblies.
Basic Hydraulic Operation
Suppose two cylinders of equal size (Figure 2-002) and diameter
are connected by a hollow tube and filled with a liquid. Inside these
two cylinders are equal size pistons. If one of the pistons is pressed
down, the liquid will transfer the force and motion to the other piston,
moving it an equal distance with an equal amount of force. This
happens because the liquid will not compress and the cylinders are
of the same diameter. The same amount of liquid is moved from one
cylinder to the other.
2-002
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If pistons of different sizes (Figure 2-003) are used, motion and force
can be increased or decreased. If a small piston acts upon a larger
piston, the force of the larger piston will increase, but the distance it
travels will decrease. The opposite is true if a larger piston acts upon
a smaller piston. In that case, the smaller piston will not move with
as much force as the larger piston, but it will travel a greater
distance.
2-003
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OPERATION
DISC BRAKES
To illustrate how disc brakes work, picture yourself holding a pencil
horizontally in one hand. A compact disc is placed on the pencil so it
stands vertically like a wheel on an axle. If you spin the compact disc
with your other hand it will simulate a rotating disc brake. While the
disc is spinning, pinch the disc with your thumb and forefinger until it
stops. Disc brakes on an automobile work in the same manner. Disc
brakes consist of a rotor (like the compact disc) between two pads on
either side of the rotor (like your thumb and forefinger). The rotor is
attached to the wheel and rotates with it. When the driver applies the
brakes, pressure is applied to the stationary pads and the pads rub
against the sides of the rotor, slowing or stopping its rotation.
Disc brakes have advantages over drum brakes:

• Disc brakes dissipate heat more effectively than drum
brakes
• Disc brakes apply braking force quicker than drums
• Disc brakes disperse water more effectively
A typical disc brake assembly includes the caliper assembly, piston,

piston seal, dust seal, bleeder screw, brake pads, and special
hardware such as anti-rattle springs, and wear indicators.
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2-004
2-005
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Disc Brake Components

The caliper housing bolts to the vehicle's wheel spindle, and has
piston bore(s) machined into it. The caliper anchor point uses a pin
or rail sliding design that allows the piston cylinder section to move
as the brake is applied.
The caliper piston is made of heavy gauge stainless steel to help

resist corrosion. Its surface must be smooth and free of scratches or
grooves.
Some vehicles use phenolic brake pistons. These pistons are

composed of a resin reinforced with glass fibers. The advantage of
these pistons is that they are lighter, stronger and resist heat and
corrosion better than steel pistons.
The piston seal not only prevents brake fluid from passing between
the piston and caliper housing, but it also acts as a return spring.
When the piston moves forward as the brake is applied, the piston
seal is twisted where it contacts the piston. When hydraulic pressure
is released behind the piston, the elastic action of the seal retracts
the piston back into the piston bore.
The boot keeps road dirt off the caliper piston and wall of the piston
bore. The dust boot ends are fit into grooves in the piston and
caliper housing, and the boot moves with the piston during brake
application.
The bleeder screw is threaded into the caliper housing. It allows

brake system hydraulic pressure to be used to force brake fluid and
air out of the hydraulic system.
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OPERATION
Disc brake pads consist of steel shoes on which friction linings are
riveted. Just about all friction linings used on vehicles today are
semi-metallic which contain non-asbestos organic material
impregnated with metal.
Anti-rattle clips are used on most vehicles to keep the brake pads
from rattling or vibrating. These attach to the brake pad and force fit
the pad into the caliper.
Wear indicators on the outer pad create noise when the friction
lining is worn beyond a specific point. This noise calls the driver's
attention to the brakes, with the hope that they will have the brakes
serviced to prevent further brake damage from occurring.
Disc brake rotors attach to the lug bolts on the wheel spindles. They
are made of cast iron and come in two types:
• The solid type, which is a single disc of machined metal.
• The internally vented type, which consists of a hollow disc of
machined metal which has internal cooling fins running down
the middle.
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OPERATION
REAR WHEEL DISC BRAKES

Rear wheel disc brake assemblies are basically the same as front
disc brakes. However, rear wheel disc brakes incorporate a parking
brake mechanism. The parking brake mechanism is actuated
mechanically through the parking brake lever or pedal inside the
vehicle. When applied, the lever, or pedal, pulls on the parking brake
cable, which is attached to the actuator lever on the parking brake
mechanism. The actuator lever rotates the operating shaft, which
has three indentations that contain small balls.
As the operating shaft rotates, these balls move out of their

indentations, forcing the thrust screw toward the piston. This moves
the piston out of its bore, forcing the brake pads against the rotor.
When the parking brake is released, the balls move back into their
indentations and the piston retracts, allowing the pads to release the
rotor.
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OPERATION
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DISC BRAKE OPERATION

Disc brake operation begins when fluid pressure from the master
cylinder forces the pistons to move in, applying pressure to the pads
and forcing them tightly against the rotor to slow or stop the vehicle.
The action of a disc brake caliper can be compared to the operation

of a "C" clamp. When you apply a "C" clamp, turning the handle
clockwise moves the inner clamping surface towards the object and
the clamp body moves in the opposite direction. This forces the
outer clamping surface against the opposite side of the object. With
a "C" clamp, you can apply very high clamping force easily and
uniformly.
When the brake pedal is applied the brake fluid flows into the caliper
cylinder. This fluid flow creates pressure behind the piston, which
presses outward. This presses the inner brake pad, which is
attached to the piston, against the rotor. Since the caliper is
designed to slide (float), this action forces the caliper to move away
from the inner surface of the rotor. As the caliper housing slides it
forces the outer brake pad, which is attached to the caliper housing,
to press against the outer surface of the rotor.
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Drum Brake Operation

Drum brakes utilize a drum that is attached to, and rotates with the
wheel. Inside the drum is a pair of stationary brake shoes that
spread apart and rub against the inside of the drum when the brakes
are applied.
Usually drum brakes are used only on the rear wheels. There are
two basic types of drum brakes:
• Leading-trailing
• Duo-servo
Drum brakes use many of the same principles already covered for
disc brakes. However, drum brakes have a large drum that
surrounds the brake shoes and wheel cylinder.
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2-010
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Drum Brake Components

The backing plate holds the shoes, springs, wheel cylinder, and
other hardware inside the brake drum. The backing plate bolts to the
axle housing or spindle, and also helps keep dirt and water off the
brakes.
The wheel cylinders use master cylinder pressure to force the brake
shoes against the drums.
2-011
The housing forms the enclosure for the other parts of the assembly.
It has a precision hole or cylinder in which the piston, cups, and
spring ride.
The boots keep water and dirt out of the cylinder.
Special rubber seals (cups) prevent fluid from leaking past the
pistons.
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OPERATION
Springs hold the rubber cups against the pistons when the pistons
are not pressurized.
The bleeder screw threads into a hole in the back of the wheel
cylinder. Hydraulic pressure can be used to force air and fluid out of
the system through the bleeder screw.
Return springs pull the brake shoes away from the brake drums,
which also forces the wheel cylinder pistons toward the center of
their bores. One end of the return spring fits into a hole in the brake
shoe. The other end either attaches to the other brake shoe or to an
anchor pin on the backing plate.
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OPERATION
The hold down pins fit through the backing plate and the brake
shoes. The hold down springs then fit over the pins and are held in
place by a retaining cup.
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As previously mentioned, the brake shoes rub against the inside of
the rotating brake drum to produce braking action. Most drum brake
shoes consist of friction material that is riveted to steel shoes.
2-014
The brake drum is a cast iron drum that fits over the lug bolts of the
wheel. It will also have a large hole in the middle of the drum to
center the drum on the axle flange. The drum completely encloses
the rest of the brake assembly.
2-015
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OPERATION
LEADING-TRAILING BRAKES
Leading-trailing brakes have the brake wheel cylinder attached to
the top of the backing plate and an anchor point at the bottom. The
brake shoe at the front is called the "leading" shoe, while the shoe
towards the rear of the vehicle is the "trailing" shoe. The brake self-
adjuster is located just below the brake wheel cylinder.
If the vehicle is moving forward and the driver steps on the brake
pedal, the brake shoes are forced apart by the wheel cylinder. As
the leading shoe makes contact with the rotating brake drum, friction
forces the shoe to press harder into the drum. This is because the
shoe pivots off the anchor plate, causing it to rotate in the same
direction as the brake drum. This is called self-energizing action
because it causes the shoe to apply more braking force than the
wheel cylinder alone applies. The opposite is true of the trailing
shoe. When the brake is applied the shoe is forced away from the
brake drum by the rotation of the drum. These actions mean that the
leading shoe performs almost all the braking, while the trailing shoe
has minimal effect. It also means that the leading shoe wears faster
than the trailing shoe, since it does most of the work. When the
vehicle is driven in reverse, the roles of the brake shoes are just the
opposite, causing the trailing shoe to perform the majority of the
braking.
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DUO-SERVO BRAKES
Typically the most common type of drum brakes used on vehicles are
the duo-servo type (Figure 2-018). This type of drum brake has a
fixed anchor point at the top of the backing plate, above the wheel
cylinder. The self-adjuster connects the two brake shoes at the
bottom. In the duo-servo system the front brake shoe is called the
primary shoe, while the rear is called the secondary shoe.
2-018
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OPERATION
If the vehicle is moving forward (Figure 2-019), and the brake pedal is
applied, the primary shoe is forced against the rotating brake drum.
Like the leading shoe (in leading-trailing type brakes), friction forces
the shoe to move more tightly against the drum, causing self-
energizing action. There is no fixed anchor point at the bottom of the
backing plate, so the primary shoe transfers rotation to the secondary
shoe. Since the secondary shoe is held by the anchor point at the
top of the backing plate, the bottom of the shoe pivots into the brake
drum. This transfers the thrust of the primary shoe to the secondary
shoe, causing it to self-energize as well.
2-019
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OPERATION
PARKING BRAKE
The parking brake system uses a mechanical system to apply the
rear brake shoes. A parking brake lever or pedal connects to a steel
cable that runs through a housing to an equalizer. The equalizer
connects to two individual cables, each of which connects to a rear
brake assembly. These cables attach to a parking brake lever on the
rear brake shoe. When the driver applies the parking brake lever or
pedal, the cable transmits its force to the rear brake shoes. This
presses them against the drum, which prevents the drum and wheel
from turning.
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SELF-ADJUSTING MECHANISMS
As the brake linings wear they must be adjusted closer to the drums.
Older cars had adjusters that required periodic manual adjustment.
Modern vehicles have self-adjusters. Typically there are three types
of self-adjusters:
• One-shot adjusting mechanism
• Leading-trailing incremental self-adjuster
• Duo-servo incremental self-adjuster
2-022
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OPERATION
One-Shot Adjusting Mechanism

As the name indicates, the one-shot adjusting mechanism (Figure
2-023) only makes one adjustment and then becomes a fixed strut
between the brake shoes. Consisting of a knurled pin, adjuster
quadrant, and adjuster strut, the one-shot adjuster will make a one-
time adjustment when the clearance between the brake lining and
drum reaches a specific limit. This type of adjuster is used on certain
types of leading-trailing type brakes.
2-023
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OPERATION
Leading-Trailing Incremental Self-Adjuster

On leading-trailing type brakes the incremental self-adjuster rides
between the brake shoes just below the wheel cylinder. This type of
self-adjuster consists of an adjuster screw retracting spring, adjuster
lever, and a two-piece adjuster assembly with a star wheel. The star
wheel is part of a threaded screw, which when turned increases or
decreases the length of the adjuster assembly. This type of self-
adjuster is actuated when the driver moves the vehicle forward for
about ten feet, then in reverse, and applies the brake until the vehicle
is completely stopped. This action causes the adjuster screw
retracting spring to pull the adjusting lever up over the end of the
tooth of the star wheel.
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When the linings have worn a certain amount, the adjuster lever
engages the star wheel tooth as it tries to move past it. When the
brakes are released, the adjuster assembly pushes the adjuster lever
out. The lever pivots downward, rotating the star wheel and
lengthening the adjuster assembly. As the adjuster assembly
lengthens, it spreads the brake shoes, and moves the linings closer
to the brake drum.
2-024
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Duo-Servo Incremental Self-Adjuster

On duo-servo brakes a similar type of self-adjusting mechanism is
used. Like the leading-trailing design, the duo-servo has a two-piece
adjuster assembly with a star wheel screw to increase and decrease
its length. There is also an adjuster lever to rotate the star wheel,
and the brakes automatically adjust themselves as the vehicle is
operated in reverse.
2-025
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OPERATION
There are some notable differences in the leading-trailing and duo-
servo incremental self-adjusters. As previously mentioned, the
adjuster mechanism is located at the bottom of the brake shoes, and
the duo-servo self-adjuster uses a cable and cable guide which
attaches from the adjuster lever to the anchor pin. The adjustment
occurs when the vehicle is moving backward and the brakes are
applied. This causes the upper end of the primary shoe to be forced
against the anchor pin by frictional drag. At the same time, the
secondary shoe and cable guide are forced away from the anchor pin
by the wheel cylinder. This causes the cable to pull the adjuster
lever upward, over the end of the tooth of the star wheel. If there is
excessive clearance between the brake lining and the brake drum,
the lever will engage the tooth of the star wheel as it passes over it.
When the brakes are released, the adjuster spring pulls the lever
downward, rotating the star wheel, which in turn lengthens the
adjuster assembly. This forces the brake shoes farther apart,
removing the excess clearance from between the lining and the
drum, keeping the brakes in adjustment.
2-026
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OPERATION
TRAILER BRAKES
Many people purchase a light truck for the express purpose of towing
a trailer or boat. Trailer towing not only increases the load on the
vehicle's powertrain and cooling system, but it can dramatically
increase the requirements of the brake system. It also changes the
weight and balance of the vehicle, which can have an adverse affect
on traction.
Trailers under 1500 lbs. usually do not have any type of auxiliary
brake system. This means that a trailer in this weight class depends
entirely on the vehicle's brake system for stopping. Under normal
driving conditions this has little effect on the brake system, but when
extended downgrades are encountered, brake system overheating
could result. Another consideration is a trailer that does have
auxiliary brakes, but the brakes operate poorly or not at all.
Whenever dealing with a braking concern, a trailer hitch installed on
the vehicle may be a clue to the cause of the concern.
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OPERATION
SURGE TYPE TRAILER BRAKES

Surge brakes operate just as their name implies. When brakes are
applied in a vehicle, which is towing a trailer, the trailer surges
forward trying to overrun the towing vehicle. This forward surge of
the trailer during braking is what applies surge type trailer brakes.
On surge brake equipped trailers, the trailer tongue fits into a sleeve,
which attaches to the trailer hitch. During braking the trailer tongue
slides forward into the sleeve. The trailer tongue has a brake
cylinder attached to it. The sleeve connects to the brake cylinder
piston. As the tongue slides forward into the sleeve, the piston is
forced into the brake cylinder. This movement of the piston into the
brake cylinder creates hydraulic pressure. This pressure is sent to
the trailer wheel brake cylinders, which in turn apply the brake shoes
(most trailer brakes are drum type).
With surge brakes, the faster the deceleration of the tow vehicle the
greater the braking force generated. This makes a correctly
functioning surge brake system a very effective auxiliary brake
system.
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ELECTRIC BRAKES
Another common type of trailer braking system is electric brakes.
This system is activated by electrical signals that are sent from the
towing vehicle's electrical system. Typically, this system has an
electromagnet that attaches to a brake activating lever. When
activated, magnetic force rotates the lever, which moves a piston in a
brake cylinder. This creates hydraulic pressure, which is then sent to
the wheel brake assemblies, applying the brakes.
There are some advantages of electric trailer brakes over surge

trailer brakes.
• Electric controllers apply the trailer brakes slightly before the
tow vehicle's brakes are applied.
• Using a hand or foot lever, the driver can apply the trailer
brakes independently of the tow vehicle's brakes.
• Electric brakes can be fine-tuned to respond effectively to
the specific loading of the trailer.
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OPERATION
LESSON TWO POWER-ASSIST UNIT
OPERATION

(technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Basic Physics
Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right 158

margin. Drum/Disc Brakes and
Power-Assist Units
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of Lesson Two, you should be able to:
• Explain atmospheric pressure and identify the
relationship to the term vacuum.
• Identify components and types of power assist
units and explain their operation.
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OPERATION
VACUUM BRAKE BOOSTER

Power brakes are used to reduce the force required from the driver
when applying the brake pedal. This is accomplished through the
use of a brake booster. Three types of power assist systems are
used on most vehicles:
• Vacuum power assist
• Hydraulic boosters
• Anti-lock brake system booster
Vacuum power assist may draw vacuum from the intake manifold of
the engine on gasoline engine vehicles. Diesel vehicles use a
separate vacuum pump to create vacuum for use by the booster.
Hydraulic boosters use fluid pressure generated by the power
steering pump.
2-027
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Most vacuum boosters now in use are vacuum-suspended units.
The term vacuum-suspended describes the condition of the unit
when the car engine is running and the brakes are released. When
in that condition equal vacuum is present on both sides of a
diaphragm so that the diaphragm is suspended in a vacuum. All
booster components are combined in a single assembly, a vacuum
booster consists of two subassemblies. These are the power
chamber and the control valve.
The power chamber applies the force to the master cylinder piston.
The chamber consists of a front shell, a rear shell, a supported
diaphragm, a diaphragm return spring, and a push rod.
The control valve determines the amount of force the power chamber
applies to the master cylinder piston. It does this by opening and
closing two ports: the vacuum port and the atmospheric port. The
control valve is a spool type valve built into the hub of the control
valve through the valve rod, which is connected to the brake pedal
arm.
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Vacuum Sources
On vehicles with gasoline-powered engines, vacuum is constantly
available and can be renewed very quickly. However, diesel engines
do not create enough intake manifold vacuum to operate a vacuum
booster. Therefore, diesel-powered vehicles require a vacuum pump
when they utilize a vacuum boosted brake system. Since a vacuum
pump does not have the capacity of a gasoline engine, it cannot
create vacuum as quickly.
On a diesel-powered vehicle, it takes longer for the vacuum pump to

recover after the brakes have been applied. If the brakes are applied
repeatedly in a short period of time, there may be a lack of boost,
causing the brake pedal to feel high and hard. If the driver then
maintains foot pressure on the brake pedal, the pedal will begin to
sink as the vacuum pump recharges the booster. This may be
mistaken as a problem by a person unfamiliar with diesel vehicle
vacuum brake systems.
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OPERATION
A vacuum boost system also contains a reservoir to store vacuum.
Since availability of vacuum will vary with the activity of the throttle,
the reservoir stores vacuum so a consistent supply is always
available. The reservoir also provides a vacuum source in the event
there is an interruption in the vacuum supply. This can occur if the
vehicle's engine stalls or a failure of the vacuum pump occurs.
There is a check valve between the reservoir and the intake manifold
or vacuum pump. This check valve prevents atmospheric pressure
from entering the vacuum reservoir when the vehicle is at wide open
throttle, or if a leak develops between the reservoir and its supply.
The vacuum reservoir provides enough vacuum to provide boost for
at least one application of the brakes.
Hydraulic Brake Boosters
Hydraulic brake boosters are another method for providing power
assist to brake systems. They are especially effective on diesel-
powered vehicles and vehicles that need extra boost to handle the
demands of 4-wheel disc brakes.
Two types of hydraulic brake boosting systems are Hydro-Boost and

Hydro-Max. Both systems use hydraulic pressure to assist the
application of the brakes. While the specifics of the two systems are
different, each uses the same principles to provide power assist.
A hydraulic brake boost system receives pressure from the power

steering pump. The pump circulates hydraulic fluid through the
booster freely at minimal pressure. The booster contains a brake
booster valve. The movement of this valve acts upon the fluid
moving through the booster, causing the valve to control fluid flow in
such a manner that it creates boost.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
LESSON THREE ABS SYSTEM OPERATION

Microprocessor
(technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Systems and Interfaces
Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right
margin. 101
Basic Physics
ENABLING OBJECTIVES 159

Upon completion of Lesson Three, you should be able to: Antilock Brake Systems
• Identify the components of an antilock brake

system (ABS) and explain system operation.
• Describe the function and basic operation of a
microprocessor. Describe the types of
automotive computer input and output signals.
• Explain the operation of a wheel sensor.
• Identify and differentiate between the wheel
sensors used by antilock brake computers.
• Describe the uses of the scan equipment in
communicating with ABS computers.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson.
You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for
definitions of these terms.
• Build Cycle
• Build Valve
• Central Valves
• Closed Hydraulic System
• Decay Cycle
• Directional Stability
• Hold Cycle
• Hydro-Boost System
• Hydraulic Control Unit
• Inlet Valve
• Modulate
• Non Hydro-Boost System
• Open Hydraulic System
• Outlet Valve
• Tone Wheel
• Wheel Speed Sensor
• Wheel Slip
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
INTRODUCTION
Antilock Braking Systems (ABS) have been around for decades,
though in different forms than found in today's vehicles. In the past,
there was not much of a demand for these systems. ABS was
usually restricted to exotic sports cars and only a few passenger
vehicles. One early example of ABS is Chrysler's first use of it on the
1969 Imperial. The system used was the Bendix Sure Brake system.
Customer demand caused increased development of antilock braking
systems throughout the eighties. Since then, ABS has become one
of the most popular and reliable safety features available.
ABS is optional on many vehicles today. In fact, ABS is standard

equipment on several vehicles. ABS is a reliable, fully automatic
system that helps prevent dangerous driving situations. As a
Technician, you may encounter several different types of antilock
braking systems. Whether it is a Bendix, Kelsey-Hayes, or Teves
system, all operate on the same fundamental principles.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
BRAKE LOCK-UP PREVENTION

You have probably heard before that you should pump the brakes to
avoid losing control of the vehicle when in the following situations:
• Hard, or panic, braking
• Braking on slippery road surfaces
The prevention of brake lock-up can be accomplished in one of two

ways:
• By the driver manipulating the brakes (pumping them)
• Automatically by an Antilock Braking System (ABS)
Driver Controlled Braking
Though it may not be thought of this way, the purpose of pumping
the brakes is to maintain directional stability and a degree of
steering control. The following actions occur regarding the applied
braking pressure when the brakes are pumped:
• Pressure holds
• Pressure decreases
• Pressure increases
In other words, the first thing that happens is the brakes are applied
and the pedal is held down. At this instant the brake pressure is
being maintained, or held, at its current pressure.
When it is sensed that the vehicle is losing directional stability, or that

the brake pedal has dropped too low, the brake pedal is released. At
this instant the brake pressure decreases and the brake pedal rises.
The fluid pressure that was being applied to the brakes is relieved
back through the brake lines.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
When it is felt that control of the vehicle is being regained, the brakes
are re-applied. At this instant the braking force, or pressure, is
increasing. This process (apply, release, apply, release, etc.)
continues until the vehicle has decelerated to a safe rate. When this
happens, the brakes can be held steady until the vehicle comes to a
complete stop.
More than likely, if you have ever had to brake your vehicle by
pumping the brakes, you probably have not considered the actions
that were just described taking place. When people pump their
brakes, it usually happens so fast that not much attention is given to
the hydraulic actions taking place.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Automatic Control
The key to understanding an antilock braking system is to realize that
ABS does the exact same thing as described for pumping the brakes.
An ABS performs the following functions during a hard stop:
• Holds pressure (brakes held)
• Decreases pressure (brakes released)
• Increases pressure (brakes applied or re-applied)
With ABS, there is nothing that the driver needs to do except keep
the brake pedal applied and steer the vehicle. All of the pumping
actions (apply pressure, release pressure, etc.) are performed
automatically by the system.
Recall from the previous description that we can sense when to apply
and release the brakes (though not be completely aware of it). The
ABS has components that perform this for us. ABS can detect when
braking pressure needs to be applied, held constant, or released.
ABS can calculate the percentage of wheel slip during braking. If a
wheel begins to lock, ABS activates because it has detected a high
degree of wheel slip.
All of the factors that affect normal braking, such as coefficient of

friction, tire conditions, etc., also affect the way in which the ABS
activates.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM FUNCTION

During a hard, sudden stop (panic stop), the wheels (Figure 2-030) of
a vehicle can lock. With the wheels locked, the driver can lose
control of the vehicle. This presents a dangerous driving situation.
The degree of lockup is called wheel slip and is expressed as a
percentage. Wheel slip occurs when the rotational speed of the
wheel is slower than the speed of the vehicle. The percentage of
wheel slip is directly proportional to the degree of lockup. Zero
percent wheel slip means the wheel is rotating freely. One hundred
percent wheel slip means the wheel is completely locked. The ABS
maintains enough wheel slip (approximately 15 to 30 percent,
depending on vehicle) to effectively decelerate a vehicle while
preventing total wheel lockup.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-030
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
An electronic control unit, typically called the Controller-Antilock
Brakes (CAB), monitors the antilock components, and when it
detects a wheel locking tendency, activates the antilock system. The
CAB applies modulating signals to a Hydraulic Control Unit (HCU).
The Hydraulic Control Unit (Figure 2-031) controls brake fluid
pressure to the wheels during an antilock stop. The HCU maintains,
decreases, or increases the braking force at each affected wheel.
The rear wheels operate together.
2-031
If a wheel starts to lock, braking pressure is reduced and the wheel is

prevented from locking. When the locking tendency decreases,
brake pressure to the affected wheel is increased until the wheel
starts to lock again.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Antilock braking maintains directional stability and provides improved
steering capability during hard braking conditions on just about any
road surface. Antilock braking does not necessarily mean a
shortened stopping distance. Stopping distance is dependent on:
• Coefficient of Friction
• Tire Conditions
• Road Conditions
• Vehicle Speed
• Size and Weight of Vehicle
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

There are two types of hydraulic systems that are used in different
antilock braking systems. One is an open system and the other is a
closed system. In order to have a good understanding of the two
types of systems, you must first know about the common control
valves that are used in ABS.
The valves used in ABS perform the pumping action that has been
described earlier. Though they may have different names,
depending on the specific system used, they work together to control
brake fluid during ABS stops.
The important thing to remember is that no matter which system it is,

ABS operation depends on the ability to trap (hold) pressure, release
(decay) pressure, and apply (build) pressure at the brakes.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
VALVES AND SOLENOIDS

Listed below are the three types of control valves that you may find in
various antilock braking systems:
• Isolation, or Inlet Valves - Normally open, energize to block
pressure
• Build Valves - Normally closed, energize to apply pressure
• Decay, or Outlet Valves - Normally closed, energize to
relieve pressure
Some antilock systems may have all three types of valves, while
others may not. These valves work together to maintain (hold),
decrease (decay), or increase (build) hydraulic pressure to the wheel
brakes during antilock activation.
During ABS braking, the CAB modulates the valves by energizing the
solenoids that control the valves. Modulate means that the valves
are shifted very rapidly. The three hydraulic cycles (hold, decay, and
build) occur through valve modulation. Typically, a valve will not be
modulated over fifteen times per second.
Depending on the manufacturer, the nomenclature and operations of

the various valves may be slightly different. Most manufacturers,
however, use similar operations.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Inlet Valve/Isolation Valve

The inlet valve, or isolation valve (Figure 2-032), is a normally open,
solenoid-operated valve. During normal braking, the inlet valve
allows brake fluid pressure from the master cylinder to enter the
HCU. During antilock braking, the solenoid energizes and de-
energizes as commanded by the CAB. When the solenoid
energizes, the valve shifts up against spring pressure and prevents
fluid from entering the HCU as shown in Figure 2-033. When the
solenoid de-energizes, spring pressure returns the valve to its
normally open position.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-032
2-033
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OPERATION
Outlet/Decay Valve
The outlet valve (Figure 2-034), also called a decay valve, is a
normally closed, solenoid-operated valve. During normal braking
(Figure 2-034), this type of valve allows hydraulic brake fluid to flow
from the HCU to the wheel brake assembly. During antilock braking,
the solenoid energizes and de-energizes, as commanded by the
CAB. The valve shifts against spring pressure when the solenoid
energizes. The fluid from the affected wheel then flows into a return
line as shown in Figure 2-035. This causes the braking action at the
affected wheel to decrease, or decay. When the solenoid de-
energizes, spring pressure shifts the valve back to its normally closed
position. In this state, hydraulic pressure within the HCU applies to
the brakes.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-034
2-035
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UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Build Valve
A build valve is similar to the outlet valve. It, too, is a normally closed
solenoid-operated valve within the HCU as shown in Figure 2-036.
The main difference is that this valve energizes to allow pressurized
fluid from a booster to be applied to an affected wheel (Figure 2-037).
This valve opens in order to build pressure, while the decay/outlet
valve opens to relieve pressure.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-036
2-037
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
SYSTEM TYPES
In this section, two types of ABS hydraulic control systems are
covered:
• Open systems
• Closed systems
During ABS activation, fluid pressure is modulated in three cycles:

• Hold, or maintain pressure
• Decay, or release pressure
• Build, or increase pressure
This modulation of fluid is similar to pumping the brakes. During a

build cycle, there must be a source for the rapid pressure increase
required to apply braking action to a wheel. By understanding the
two types of hydraulic systems, you can determine where the fluid
pressure comes from.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Open Systems
The main characteristic of an open hydraulic system is as follows:
• The primary and secondary ports of the master cylinder
provide pressure required during antilock operation.
During ABS activation, the driver applies the brake pedal. The
master cylinder provides the source for fluid pressure.
During a hold cycle, the closed inlet valve blocks brake fluid from
reaching the affected wheel brake. This results in a stiff pedal feel
because movement of the pistons in the master cylinder (and the
pressure developed) is restricted during a hold cycle.
2-038
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
The lines from the outlet valves are connected to a reservoir. During
a decay cycle, the outlet valves open, and pressure at the wheel
brakes is released. The released fluid flows into the reservoir.
During the build cycle, the inlet valves open and the outlet valves
close so that fluid from the master cylinder can be applied at the
affected wheel brake. At this time the brake pedal can lower rapidly.
In some systems the brake pedal is prevented from lowering to the

floor by pressurized fluid supplied from a pump. The pump runs
when ABS detects that the brake pedal has dropped. In the open
system, the pump does not supply the braking pressure, the master
cylinder does. The fluid pressure from the pump is applied to the
master cylinder, causing it to return to its previous position. The fluid
supply to the pump is a reservoir.
The actions just described result in a great deal of brake pedal

feedback. The brake pedal pulsates rapidly as the fluid is modulated
because the master cylinder (the source of pressure) shifts back and
forth rapidly during an antilock stop.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Closed Systems
The main characteristic of a closed hydraulic system is as follows:
• Pressure required during antilock operation is provided by a
pump and accumulator arrangement.
There are two types of closed systems:

• Hydro-boost
• Non hydro-boost
2-039
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Hydro-Boost
During ABS activation in the hydro-boost system, the master
cylinder is isolated from the braking system by the closed isolation
valves. The source for fluid pressure is from a boost servo circuit.
The boost servo is supplied fluid from a pump/motor and
accumulator.
During a hold cycle, the build valves are closed and the fluid
pressure developed by the pump is stored in the accumulator.
During a decay cycle, fluid released from the brakes flows back to
the master cylinder reservoir. The following actions take place during
a build cycle:
• The build valve opens
• Fluid pressure is released from the accumulator and
pumped through the boost servo to the wheel brakes
The source of fluid during ABS activation comes from the pump and
accumulator.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Non Hydro-Boost
In the non hydro-boost system, the source for fluid pressure is still
the accumulators. In this system, one accumulator supplies the
primary circuit, the other supplies the secondary circuit. There is no
boost circuit in this system.
Fluid pressure from the pump/motor is blocked from the wheel

brakes during a hold cycle by the closed inlet valves. During the
decay cycle, fluid released from the brakes is directed back to the
accumulators. During the build cycle, the inlet valves open, the outlet
valves close. Now fluid pressure generated by the pump is applied to
the brakes and the accumulator is emptied until the next hold cycle.
Once again, you can see that the source for fluid pressure is the
pump and accumulator arrangement.
The master cylinder primary and secondary ports provide initial fluid
pressure when the ABS first activates. The initial volume of fluid is
maintained throughout ABS operation. During the decay cycle, the
volume of fluid decreases as the accumulators fill. The pump serves
to replenish fluid loss during a decay cycle and this is also what
maintains pedal position.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-040
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
MASTER CYLINDER DESIGNS

The purpose of all master cylinders is to develop fluid pressure and
apply it to the appropriate hydraulic circuits. There are two different
types of valves used with master cylinders:
• Standard master cylinder
• Central valves
A standard master cylinder uses a lip seal on the piston to open and
close the passage to the master cylinder bore from the reservoir. As
the brakes are applied, the lip seals block fluid from flowing back to
the reservoir. When the brakes are released, the compensating
ports open and allow fluid to return to the reservoir.
2-041
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Central Valve Master Cylinder

Antilock brake systems may require a master cylinder with central
valves. Central valves are nothing more than mechanical check
valves. If the open ABS is equipped with a Pump/Motor assembly,
the master cylinder piston may shift rapidly during ABS activation.
This action would result in the lip seal being etched away at the
opening of the compensating port, causing damage to the seal. To
aid in the prevention of seal damage, the master cylinders in these
antilock systems use the steel central valve to permit fluid to enter
the master cylinder bore from the reservoir when the brakes are not
applied.
The pistons have drilled passages that allow the fluid to flow to the
central valves. With the central valves open, fluid flows through them
to the master cylinder bore. Applying the brakes closes the central
valves and fluid is prevented from flowing back into the reservoir.
When the brakes are released, the central valves open again and
fluid flows to the reservoir.
2-042
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Hydro-Boost Master Cylinder

On vehicles equipped with the hydro-boost ABS, the master cylinder
contains a boost control valve. When the brake pedal is depressed,
a push rod applies pressure to the boost control valve. When the
boost control valve moves, pressurized fluid from the accumulator is
allowed to flow into the master cylinder booster chamber. The
pressure generated in the booster is directly proportional to the force
exerted on the brake pedal by the driver.
The pressure in the booster chamber is applied to the master

cylinder primary piston. The primary piston then applies force to the
secondary piston in the master cylinder. The primary and secondary
pistons then apply the force to their respective circuits during normal
braking. The fluid that is directed to the booster chamber is also
directed to the build valve and is utilized during ABS operation. Keep
in mind that in this closed, hydro-boost system, the master cylinder is
isolated from the braking system during ABS activation.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-043
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
PUMP/MOTOR DESIGN
Some antilock braking systems have a pump/motor assembly that is
used to develop fluid pressure and deliver it through the brake lines
during ABS activation. The following is an explanation of the basic
design and operation of the Pump/Motor.
There are three different types of pumps used in ABS:

• Dual piston reciprocating pump (non hydro-boost)
• Single piston reciprocating pump (hydro-boost)
• Gear rotor pump
The dual piston pump can be found in both open and closed
systems. In open systems, the pump operates as needed to restore
brake pedal height. In a closed system, the pump runs continuously
during ABS operation only.
The single piston pump is found in closed systems only. It maintains

a constant pressure in the hydraulic system. When the pump runs,
working in conjunction with the accumulators, it charges the
accumulators with fluid under pressure. This fluid is stored until
needed.
The gear rotor pump is also found in closed systems. It performs the
same function as the single piston pump.
The following is a description of dual and single piston pump

operation.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Dual Piston Pump

The output shaft of the motor has an eccentric cam (Figure 2-044)
attached to it. There are two opposing pistons, each one held in
contact with the outer surface of the cam by spring pressure, that
alternately shift back and forth when the motor runs.
Each piston has a suction valve and a pressure valve. Movement of

the pistons creates the pumping action. When one piston is in the
suction cycle, the other piston is in the pressure cycle.
During the suction cycle, the pressure valve is closed and the suction
valve is open (incoming brake fluid overcomes spring pressure).
Brake fluid flows into the fluid chamber through the open suction
valve. The fluid is drawn from the master cylinder reservoir or fluid
accumulators, depending on vehicle.
At the same time, the motor cam pushes the other piston back
against spring pressure. This piston is in the pressure cycle. In the
pressure cycle, the brake fluid is pumped into the brake system
through the open pressure valve. The pressure of the brake fluid
leaving the chamber overcomes the spring pressure to push the ball
off of its seat. The resultant pressure is used to either push the
master cylinder back to restore brake pedal height or is delivered to
the brake that requires additional fluid pressure.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-044
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OPERATION
Single Piston Pump

The single piston pump (Figure 2-045) operates in a similar manner
to the dual piston pump. The DC motor output shaft has an eccentric
drive which, when running, causes the piston to reciprocate. Fluid is
drawn from a reservoir through the supply inlet. The output of the
pump (pressurized fluid) is delivered to the accumulator.
2-045
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
The driver can sense when to release and apply the brake pedal (as
previously explained). The first thing sensed when the wheels lock
during a hard or panic stop is that just applying the brake pedal does
not decelerate the vehicle. At that moment a person has actually
detected that a wheel has locked. Then, pumping of the brakes
occurs until the vehicle has slowed to a complete stop or to a safe
speed. We have already covered how ABS automatically controls
the fluid pressure during an antilock stop. The electrical systems
used in various antilock systems all serve the same purpose:
• To detect when a braking condition exists
• To detect when a wheel locks
• To activate the ABS
• To detect when the brakes need to be held steady (hold
cycle)
• To detect when the brakes need to be released (decay
cycle)
• To detect when the brakes need to be applied (build cycle)
• To detect when a wheel locking condition no longer exists
• To de-activate the ABS
Electrical systems vary greatly from one type of antilock system to

another. In this section, a description is given of the three electrical
components that are found on all antilock braking systems:
• Controller-Antilock Brakes (CAB)
• Wheel Speed Sensors (WSS)
• Hydraulic Control Unit (HCU)
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Controller - Antilock Brakes (CAB)

The CAB (Figure 2-046) is a microprocessor unit that monitors,
activates, and de-activates the ABS. The CAB has five main
functions:
• Detect wheel locking tendencies
• Control brake fluid modulation to the brakes during ABS
activation
• Monitor the ABS for proper operation
• Provide communication to the Scan Tool (if applicable) while
in diagnostic mode
• Store diagnostic information in either a volatile or non-
volatile memory
The CAB detects when a wheel locking tendency is present in any

wheel by way of signals transmitted by the Wheel Speed Sensor(s).
When the CAB detects a wheel locking tendency, it modulates the
appropriate solenoid(s) in the HCU. The valve in the solenoid
controls fluid pressure to the wheel brakes. In some systems the
CAB energizes a pump/motor to restore brake pedal height or
replenish fluid in the brake lines. When the CAB detects that a wheel
locking tendency no longer exists, as indicated by the Wheel Speed
Sensor(s), it de-activates the antilock system and the vehicle returns
to standard braking.
On most vehicles, if the CAB detects an ABS malfunction, it

illuminates an ABS Warning Lamp.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
TYPICAL
CAB
2-046
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Wheel Speed Sensors (WSS)

The WSS (Figure 2-047) provides the CAB with wheel rotational
speed information. The CAB uses this information to initiate the
ABS.
The wheel speed sensing system consists of a sensing device and

an actuator. The WSS is an inductive pickup sensor - a permanent
magnetic core wrapped within a coil of wire. The actuator is a
toothed gear tone wheel (similar to a standard spur gear) that rotates
with the wheel.
2-047
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
The WSS functions on the generator principle:
“When magnetic lines of force cut (move) across a conductor, a

voltage is induced (generated) in that conductor. The greater the
amount of magnetic lines of force cutting across the conductor, the
greater the voltage induced.”
Each gear tooth acts as an actuator for the sensor. The tone wheel
(Figure 2-048) consists of many actuators. As the tone wheel
rotates, the actuators are alternately going in and out of proximity
with the sensor. As a result, the air gap between the sensor and the
tone wheel is constantly increasing, decreasing, increasing,
decreasing, and so forth. The voltage is generated in the coil by
magnetic lines of force fluctuating (and as a result, cutting across the
coil) as the tone wheel teeth pass by the magnetic sensor.
2-048
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
One characteristic of an AC voltage is that it alternates between a
positive (+) and negative (-) polarity. This is represented in drawings
with a sine wave. An AC voltage starts from a zero volts point,
increases to a maximum positive voltage (point 1), then decreases
downwards to a maximum negative voltage (point 3). From its
maximum negative point it starts to increase again in a positive
(upwards) direction until it reaches zero volts (point 4). This is one
complete cycle.
The magnitude, or strength, of the signal is variable. As the

magnitude of the AC voltage increases, the high and low points of
the sine wave increase and decrease proportionately. The number of
cycles that an AC voltage completes in one second is referred to as
the frequency, and is represented in Hertz (HZ). For example, the
typical household in the U.S. is supplied with 120 VAC 60 HZ
voltage. This means that the magnitude is 120 volts and one
complete cycle of the sine wave output occurs 60 times per second.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
As the tip of the tone wheel passes by the tip of the sensor (point 1),
the magnetic field is disturbed and causes current flow and voltage to
increase in a positive direction. When the tip of the tone wheel
reaches dead center (point 2), current flow and voltage has
decreased. As the tone wheel continues to rotate, the tip of the
sensor passes the valley of the tone wheel (point 3). The magnetic
field is disturbed again but this time causes current to flow in the
opposite direction and a voltage of negative polarity is induced in the
coil. When the WSS reaches dead center of the valley (point 4),
current flow and voltage are at a zero potential (the voltage and
current values at any instant last for only hundreds or thousandths of
a second).
All voltages (signals) are transmitted to the CAB. One complete

cycle represents the passage of one gear tooth. The CAB receives
the inputs from all four sensors and converts the AC frequency to
digital signals. The CAB continuously compares the WSS signals
and when a locking tendency is detected in any wheel, the CAB
activates the antilock system.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
The outputs of the Wheel Speed Sensors (Figure 2-049) can vary
from wheel to wheel and vehicle to vehicle. This is due to the
following variables:
• Magnetic strength
• Air gap
• Wheel speed
• Winding efficiency (manufacturing of the coil)
• Total circuit resistance
2-049
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
HYDRAULIC CONTROL UNIT (HCU)

The Hydraulic Control Unit (HCU) as shown in Figure 2-050 is a
component that is made up of a combination of hydraulic and
electrical components. As described previously, the valves that are
modulated to control fluid pressure to the wheel brakes are located in
the HCU. It has also been mentioned that the valves shift from open
to closed positions.
The valves within the HCU are shifted open and closed by control
solenoids. Each valve has its own solenoid that controls it. A
solenoid is an electromagnetic component that acts like a magnet
when a current is applied to it. A solenoid consists of a coil of wire
wrapped around an iron core. When current flows through the wire,
the iron becomes magnetized through magnetic induction. When this
happens, the valve is pulled in the direction of the iron core.
2-050
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
In the HCU some valves are pulled up (Figure 2-051) when the
solenoid energizes and some are pulled downwards when the
solenoid energizes. When the current is removed from the coil of
wire, the iron demagnetizes instantly. At this time the valve that has
been shifted moves back to its normal, or de-energized, condition by
spring pressure.
On some systems, the solenoids are supplied with B+ voltage on one

side of the coil, and supplied ground by the CAB on the other side.
On other systems, the coil is grounded at all times and receives
switched B+ as needed.
Recall that this energizing and de-energizing of a solenoid can occur

up to fifteen times per second (through modulation). ABS can have
anywhere from 2 to 10 individual solenoids and associated valves.
Combine this with the fact that each valve can be independently
modulated during the hold, decay, and build cycles, and you can see
that the HCU is the heart of any ABS.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-051
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OPERATION
ABS OPERATION
During an antilock stop, the CAB controls braking pressure by
modulating the HCU in three different cycles:
• Hold
• Decay
• Build
Depending on the braking situation, these cycles can occur in various

sequences. Each solenoid is independently controlled, though each
one operates in the same way.
Though there is an inlet/outlet valve combination for each rear brake

circuit, the valves are modulated identically during an ABS stop that
affects the rear wheels. This is to maintain directional stability.
Therefore, the base brakes are 4-channel (RF, LF, RR, and LR) but
during an ABS stop, the brakes operate as 3-channel (RF, LF, and
rear wheels together). Note that a front/rear split system is 3-channel
braking under normal and antilock conditions.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Hold Cycle
The hold cycle (Figure 2-052) functions to maintain current braking
pressure at the wheel. This cycle occurs first to give the CAB ample
time to determine that a wheel-locking tendency is actually
developing.
The CAB initiates the hold cycle when the deceleration rate of the
wheel increases to an unacceptable level.
During the hold cycle, the inlet valve is energized by the CAB. When
the solenoid energizes, the valve is shifted closed against spring
pressure. This action prevents any further build up of pressure in the
brake line.
The outlet valve solenoid remains de-energized and in its closed

position by spring pressure.
With the outlet valve closed and the inlet valve closed, fluid pressure
is held steady at the wheel brake.
The purpose of the check valves in the inlet valve channels is to

release pressure if the brakes are released during ABS activation.
During ABS activation, pressure from the master cylinder holds the
check valve closed against its seat. If the driver releases the brake
pedal, pressure between the Inlet and outlet valve pushes the check
valve open. Pressure is then released from the wheel brake and
back to the master cylinder reservoir.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-052
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Decay Cycle
The decay cycle (Figure 2-53) is initiated when a wheel locking
tendency exists for a predetermined length of time.
The inlet valve solenoid remains energized during the decay cycle.
The CAB energizes the outlet valve by providing ground for the
solenoid. When the outlet valve solenoid energizes, the outlet valve
shifts against spring pressure to close the outlet line of the HCU and
open the return line. Flowing through the return line to the HCU
reservoir reduces fluid pressure at the wheel brakes.
The combination of the closed inlet valve and the open outlet valve
results in reduced braking action to prevent wheel lockup.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-053
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Build Cycle
The CAB initiates the build cycle (Figure 2-054) when the
deceleration rate reaches a predetermined value. The purpose of
the build cycle is to restore fluid pressure to the wheel brake.
The outlet valve solenoid is de-energized and held in the closed

position by spring pressure.
The inlet valve solenoid is de-energized and held in the open position
by spring pressure. This allows fluid to enter the HCU.
With the inlet valve open and the outlet valve closed, fluid pressure
from the master cylinder flows through the HCU and to the wheel
brake. This increases braking action at the affected wheel.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-054
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
TRACTION CONTROL SYSTEM (TCS)

FUNCTION
When a vehicle is traveling over a slippery surface such as ice, a
snow covered road, or gravel, the driven wheel(s) can lose traction
and start spinning. The Traction Control System (Figure 2-055)
functions to apply braking pressure to a wheel that spins.
Many ABS vehicles can be equipped with or without traction control,

but traction control is not available by itself. The traction control
system can activate at speeds below 40 mph, though it is most
effective below 25 mph. The primary difference between ABS and
traction control is that the system activates when a wheel spin
tendency develops. When this happens, the CAB modulates the
HCU to apply braking pressure to the spinning wheel.
During traction control activation, the rear (non-driven) wheels and

the master cylinder primary and secondary circuits are isolated by
isolation valves. Isolation valves are normally open, solenoid-
operated valves and are very similar in operation to the inlet valves.
When the CAB detects loss of traction between a driven wheel and
the road surface, it initiates the build cycle to apply braking force to
the spinning wheel. The traction control valves (or isolation valves)
are closed to block pressure to the non-driven rear wheels and the
master cylinder primary and secondary circuits. At this time, the CAB
also energizes the pump/motor. The inlet valve for the non-spinning
wheel is energized to the closed position. The inlet valve for the
affected wheel remains in its normally open condition. This allows
the braking pressure to be delivered to the wheel, causing it to
decelerate.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
2-055
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
ABS CHARACTERISTICS
Due to the characteristics of ABS (as compared to a standard
braking system), customer concerns may revolve around the unusual
sounds produced, the action of the brake pedal, and overall vehicle
performance. It is important that the Technician be able to explain
why certain conditions exist with regards to the ABS. The following
descriptions address some common characteristics of the antilock
system.
Audible ABS Characteristics
The CAB conducts a self check of all solenoids. This may be heard
as a series of popping noises.
The CAB conducts a dynamic check of antilock hydraulic

components when initial vehicle speed reaches approximately 5-10
mph. This check involves pump/motor activation. The dynamic
check is conducted for approximately 2-3 seconds. The pump/motor
makes a groaning sound when it runs. This sound is not audible
under most braking conditions, though it should be considered
normal when heard during an antilock stop.
In hydro-boost systems, the pump runs any time pressure in the

system drops below a predetermined value. The pump pressurizes
the fluid and stores it in an accumulator. The pump not only runs
during an ABS stop, but also runs to develop pressure for hydraulic
assisted power brakes.
Vehicle Handling Characteristics
During activation of the ABS, the driver may experience a slight
"jerking" of the vehicle in a fore and aft motion as the wheel braking
action is modulated.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Pedal Feel Characteristics

During the self test, Dynamic Check, and an antilock stop, there may
be brake pedal pulsation or vibration (Figure 2-056) as a result of the
HCU modulating and/or going through the hold, decay, and build
cycles.
2-056
When the antilock system activates, the driver experiences brake

pedal pulsation’s as the HCU modulates fluid to the brakes. On
some systems there can be a significant pedal drop when the system
activates. This is the result of rapid fluid loss in the system prior to
the pump/motor replenishing the brake lines. When the pump/motor
energizes in these systems, the brake pedal height is restored. After
that, there are usually rapid pulsation’s of the brake pedal until the
system is de-activated.
When braking on a bumpy surface, or even one bump/chuck hole,

ABS may detect that a wheel is locking. This is due to the wheel hop
that occurs. In this scenario, the brake pedal may feel hard if
applied. There may also be a perceived loss of deceleration.
STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
Tire Noise and Marks

During an antilock stop, the ABS maintains a certain degree of wheel
slip that is necessary for deceleration. The wheel slip can cause a
chirping sound. Light, patchy tire marks are sometimes visible as a
result of wheel slip.

STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
GLOSSARY
• Anti-rattle Clip – Metal clip that attaches to the brake pad
and keeps the brake pads from rattling or vibrating.
• Backing Plate – Holds the shoes, springs, wheel cylinder,
and other hardware inside the brake drum and helps keep
dirt and water off the brakes.
• Bleeder Screw – A threaded plug that allows brake system
hydraulic pressure to be used to force brake fluid and air out
of the hydraulic system.
• Build Cycle – The time during ABS activation when brake
pressure is increased.
• Build Valve – A normally closed valve that energizes during
ABS activation in order to apply pressure to the affected
wheel brake.
• Central Valve – A mechanical check valve in the master
cylinder that helps to prevent seal damage and permits fluid
to enter the Master Cylinder bore from the reservoir when
the brakes are not applied.
• Closed Hydraulic System – A type of ABS hydraulic
configuration where pressure required during antilock
operation is provided by a pump and accumulator
arrangement.
• Decay Cycle – The time during ABS activation when brake
pressure is released from the affected wheel brake.
• Directional Stability – The tendency of a vehicle to travel in
the direction of the front wheels.

STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
• Disc brakes – Brake assembly that consists of a rotor
between two pads on either side of the rotor
• Drum brakes – Brake assembly that uses a drum that is
attached to, and rotates with the wheel. Inside the drum is a
pair of stationary brake shoes that spread apart and rub
against the inside of the drum when the brakes are applied.
• Hold Cycle – The time during ABS activation when brake
pressure is held at a steady rate.
• Hydro-Boost System – An ABS hydraulic arrangement
where, during ABS activation, the Master Cylinder is isolated
from the braking system and the source for fluid pressure is
from a boost servo circuit.
• Hydraulic Control Unit – A hydraulic valve block that
contains controlling valves for ABS.
• Inlet Valve – A normally open valve that energizes during
ABS activation in order to block pressure from an affected
wheel brake.
• Leading-trailing brakes – Brakes that have the brake wheel
cylinder attached to the top of the backing plate and an
anchor point at the bottom. The brake shoe at the front is
called the "leading" shoe, while the shoe towards the rear of
the vehicle is the "trailing" shoe.
• Modulate – To shift very rapidly.
• Non Hydro-Boost System – An ABS hydraulic arrangement
where, during an ABS activation, the source for fluid
pressure is from accumulators.

STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
• One-Shot Adjusting Mechanism – Adjusting mechanism
that makes a one-time adjustment when the clearance
between the brake lining and drum reaches a specific limit.
• Outlet Valve – A normally closed valve that energizes during
ABS activation in order to relieve brake pressure from an
affected wheel brake.
• Open Hydraulic System – An ABS hydraulic system where
pressure required during antilock operation is provided by
the primary and secondary ports of the master cylinder.
• Parking Brake Mechanism – A mechanically actuated
device that, when applied, a lever, or pedal, pulls on the
parking brake cable, which is attached to the actuator lever
on the parking brake mechanism.
• Pascal’s Law – A series of laws pertaining to the
compressibility of fluids developed by the French
mathematician, Blaise Pascal.
• Phenolic Brake Piston – A piston composed of a resin
reinforced with glass fibers.
• Primary Shoe – In the duo-servo system, the front brake
shoe.
• Secondary Shoe – In the duo-servo system, the rear brake
shoe.
• Tone Wheel – A toothed gear that functions to cause the
Wheel Speed Sensor to produce an AC voltage proportional
to rotational speed.
• Wear Indicator – Brake component, located on the outer
pad, that creates noise when the friction lining is worn
beyond a specific point.

STUDENT BOOK
UNIT TWO
OPERATION
• Wheel Speed Sensor – An inductive pickup sensor
(permanent magnetic core wrapped within a coil of wire) that
transmits an AC voltage, proportional to wheel rotational
speed, to the CAB.
• Wheel Slip – The degree of wheel during braking,
expressed as a percentage. Wheel slip occurs when the
rotational speed of the wheel is slower than the speed of the
vehicle.

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STUDENT BOOK

LESSON ONE OPERATING PRINCIPLES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE ICS

automotive brake systems.

BRAKE SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

Although hydraulic systems are more advanced, problems still may

In some applications, engineers use this pressure drop to accomplish

• Liquid in a confined space will not compress. However, air

Disc brakes have advantages over drum brakes:

A typical disc brake assembly includes the caliper assembly, piston,

Disc Brake Components

The caliper piston is made of heavy gauge stainless steel to help

Some vehicles use phenolic brake pistons. These pistons are

The bleeder screw is threaded into the caliper housing. It allows

REAR WHEEL DISC BRAKES

As the operating shaft rotates, these balls move out of their

DISC BRAKE OPERATION

The action of a disc brake caliper can be compared to the operation

Drum Brake Operation

Drum Brake Components

The boots keep water and dirt out of the cylinder.

One-Shot Adjusting Mechanism

Leading-Trailing Incremental Self-Adjuster

Duo-Servo Incremental Self-Adjuster

SURGE TYPE TRAILER BRAKES

There are some advantages of electric trailer brakes over surge

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE ICS

Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right 158

VACUUM BRAKE BOOSTER

On a diesel-powered vehicle, it takes longer for the vacuum pump to

Two types of hydraulic brake boosting systems are Hydro-Boost and

A hydraulic brake boost system receives pressure from the power

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE ICS

ENABLING OBJECTIVES 159

• Identify the components of an antilock brake

ABS is optional on many vehicles today. In fact, ABS is standard

BRAKE LOCK-UP PREVENTION

The prevention of brake lock-up can be accomplished in one of two

When it is sensed that the vehicle is losing directional stability, or that

All of the factors that affect normal braking, such as coefficient of

ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM FUNCTION

If a wheel starts to lock, braking pressure is reduced and the wheel is

ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM HYDRAULICS

The important thing to remember is that no matter which system it is,

VALVES AND SOLENOIDS

Depending on the manufacturer, the nomenclature and operations of

Inlet Valve/Isolation Valve

During ABS activation, fluid pressure is modulated in three cycles:

This modulation of fluid is similar to pumping the brakes. During a

In some systems the brake pedal is prevented from lowering to the

The actions just described result in a great deal of brake pedal

There are two types of closed systems:

Fluid pressure from the pump/motor is blocked from the wheel

MASTER CYLINDER DESIGNS

Central Valve Master Cylinder

Hydro-Boost Master Cylinder

The pressure in the booster chamber is applied to the master

There are three different types of pumps used in ABS:

The single piston pump is found in closed systems only. It maintains

The following is a description of dual and single piston pump

Dual Piston Pump

Each piston has a suction valve and a pressure valve. Movement of

Single Piston Pump