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Erotophobic or erotophilic: What are

young women’s attitudes towards
BDSM?
a a a
BJ Rye , Toni Serafini & Tynan Bramberger
a
Departments of Psychology and Sexuality, Marriage, and Family
Studies, St. Jerome’s University at the University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, Canada
Published online: 16 Feb 2015.

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erotophilic: What are young women’s attitudes towards BDSM?, Psychology & Sexuality, DOI:
10.1080/19419899.2015.1012108

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 Psychology & Sexuality, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2015.1012108

Erotophobic or erotophilic: What are young women’s attitudes

towards BDSM?
BJ Rye*, Toni Serafini and Tynan Bramberger

Departments of Psychology and Sexuality, Marriage, and Family Studies, St. Jerome’s University
at the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 19:46 26 April 2015

(Received 3 October 2014; accepted 22 January 2015)

This study is an empirical investigation into some of the determinants of attitudes

towards BDSM. The methodology was mixed: a between-subjects’ factor was included
along with correlational variables. Additionally, there was a longitudinal element to
this methodology. Ninety-four university women read a passage which contained
information about BDSM with a manipulation such that identical content was pre-
sented either positively or negatively. Erotophobia–erotophilia, a sexual dimension of
personality (i.e. avoidance–approach to sexuality), was assessed with different instru-
ments at two times. Results indicated (1) attitudes were generally neutral or slightly
positive towards BDSM; (2) reading a negative or positive passage had little impact on
BDSM attitudes and (3) erotophobia–erotophilia was a correlate of attitudes towards
BDSM both several weeks before (i.e. predictively) and at the time of attitude assess-
ment. Implications of these findings are that attitudes towards topics such as BDSM
are probably not easily amenable to change as a function of a mild intervention – such
as reading a positive or negative depiction of the topic. Underpinnings of attitudes
towards sexual topics such as BDSM are probably more likely determined by pre-
existing sexual liberalism/conservatism in personality. Thus, attitudes towards sexual
topics such as BDSM are not likely to be easily changed.
Keywords: BDSM; attitudes; young women; erotophobia–erotophilia

BDSM is a recent acronym representing bondage/discipline/domination/submission/sado-

masochism. At the risk of over-simplifying a diverse and complex practice, the term
BDSM is used to collectively describe a variety of sexual behaviours which, depending
upon the individual practitioner, may involve a combination of the following: the admin-
istration of pain (e.g. use of clothes pins/clamps, hot wax, spanking), deliberate humilia-
tion (e.g. use of a gag, face-slapping), physical restriction (e.g. handcuffs, chains, ropes)
and hypermasculine activities (e.g. cockbinding, watersports, rimming) that are experi-
enced as pleasurable by partners (Alison, Santtila, Sandnabba, & Nordling, 2001; Frantz,
2012; Sandnabba, Santtila, & Nordling, 1999; Santtila, Sandnabba, & Nordling, 2006). A
BDSM ‘scene’ typically involves fetishistic elements such as leather clothing and whips,
and ritualistic activity such as bondage. BDSM has been characterised as fantasy-oriented
and role-playing scripted behaviour (Moser & Kleinplatz, 2006; Weinberg, 2006). The
difference between actual sexual violence and what might appear to be sexual violence in
the BDSM activities is the consensual aspect. In BDSM activities, partners agree to and
communicate about the activities; this includes a means of ceasing the activity if/when

*Corresponding author. Email: bjrye@uwaterloo.ca

Parts of this manuscript were presented at the 35th Annual Guelph Sexual Conference, Guelph,
Ontario (June 2014).

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

 2 BJ Rye et al.

consent is withdrawn (Moser & Kleinplatz, 2006; Weinberg, 2006). It may be difficult
for non-practitioners to appreciate fully the role of consent in BDSM – consent is
co-constructed, negotiated, boundaried and an essential, core aspect of BDSM practices.
While BDSM practitioners are often stigmatised (Stiles & Clark, 2011), research suggests
that they are psychologically healthy and demonstrate positive psychological character-
istics (Alison et al., 2001; Hébert & Weaver, 2014; Moser & Levitt, 1987; Sandnabba
et al., 1999; Wismeijer & van Assen, 2013).
Given the popularity of the erotic novel, 50 Shades of Grey (James, 2011), and
consequent sequels, the sexual topic of BDSM may have recently gained some accept-
ability and respectability in mainstream society. However, some authors argue that this is
not the case – that media such as 50 Shades of Grey actually stigmatise BDSM (see
Kleinplatz & Diamond, 2014). A feminist analysis of 50 Shades of Grey might character-
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ise the book as negative as well (i.e. BDSM is a sexual subjugation of women), whereas
other forms of feminism might view BDSM as sexually liberating (see Deckha, 2011).
While BDSM has been gaining visibility, especially in mainstream media, what everyday
people think of BDSM is relatively unknown.
The research literature regarding BDSM is nascent. Much of this literature focuses on
areas such as BDSM practices and the psychological health of BDSM practitioners; myths
suggest that BDSM practitioners are psychologically unhealthy, research supports the
opposite (Kleinplatz & Diamond, 2014; Kleinplatz & Mosher, 2007). As well, there are
theoretical, historical, clinical, legal and personal writings regarding BDSM and related
practices (e.g. Langdridge & Barker, 2007). To date, there is a small body of literature
assessing BDSM practitioners’ perceptions of and experiences of others’ attitudes towards
BDSM. Studies discuss how members of the BDSM community perceive stigma attached
to the practice or endorsement of this sexual activity (e.g. some express fear that they
would lose their jobs if their BDSM proclivities were made public; Bezreh, Weinberg, &
Edgar, 2012; Kolmes, Stock, & Moser, 2006; Stiles & Clark, 2011; Wright, 2006).
With very few exceptions (e.g. Kelsey, Stiles, Spiller, & Diekhoff, 2013; Stockwell,
Walker, & Eshleman, 2010; Yost, 2010), little is known about attitudes towards BDSM by
non-practitioners. Kelsey et al. surveyed PhD-level psychotherapists through the internet
and found that attitudes were generally favourable towards BDSM. Stockwell et al.
investigated attitudes using only eight graduate psychology students with a goal of
validating an implicit attitude methodology. Yost conducted a psychometric investigation
to develop and validate a measure of attitudes towards sadomasochism. A direct exam-
ination of attitudes towards BDSM in non-practitioners has yet to occur. Are BDSM
practitioners’ fears of stigmatisation warranted? Do people view BDSM as negatively
(e.g. as a pathology) or positively (e.g. an alternative sexual expression)?
A second question in terms of perceptions of BDSM is: what role might popular
media have on attitudes towards BDSM? Currently, people speak about BDSM and other
sexual topics perhaps because of increased social acceptability via media. For example,
Akass and McCabe’s (2004) collection of essays demonstrate how a television show, Sex
and the City, is reflective of sexual attitudes and mores. The bi-directional influence of
media on sexual attitudes and mores is also possible. Relationships between media
consumption and attitudes, beliefs and/or behaviours have been well established in the
academic literature (e.g. cosmetic surgery reality shows and body image; Ashikali,
Dittmar, & Ayers, 2014; pornography consumption and attitudes towards affirmative
action; Wright & Funk, 2014). Popular media is one macro institution that may have an
impact on sexual scripts (i.e. what is or is not ‘sexually okay’; Motuz, 2007 discusses
script theory as applied to alternative sexuality such as BDSM).
 Psychology & Sexuality 3

A third question regarding general attitudes towards BDSM that warrants investigation
is: what kind of individual has more positive versus more negative views of BDSM? What
is particularly relevant to perceptions of sexual topics such as BDSM is the personality
dimension of erotophobia–erotophilia – which is defined as an approach–avoidance to
sexual content (Fisher, Byrne, White, & Kelley, 1988). We hypothesise that those who are
more erotophilic or sexually liberal in their erotic orientation would be most favourable
towards less typical or ‘more spicy’ sexual practices such as BDSM (Rye & Meaney,
2007; Rye, Meaney, & Fisher, 2011).

Introduction to the study

In order to address these aforementioned questions, an empirical investigation into
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attitudes towards BDSM was undertaken. The methodology includes a between-subjects’

experimental factor along with predictor variables. This study allowed for documentation
of level of attitudes towards BDSM. In terms of the second research question (i.e. does
media presentation impact attitudes?), a between-subjects’ independent variable was
included in the research design in the form of a short ‘newspaper’ or ‘magazine’ article.
Participants received one of two versions of this newspaper article. The BDSM articles,
written specifically for this study, contained factual information about BDSM; however,
the writing of the two versions differed such that the facts were presented from a sex-
negative perspective in one (i.e. erotophobic depiction) and from a sex-positive perspec-
tive in the other (i.e. erotophilic depiction).
After reading the article, participants responded to items designed to assess attitudes
towards BDSM. In order to address the third research question, a number of erotophobia–
erotophilia instruments were included as predictors of attitudes towards BDSM.

Method
Participants
The participants were 94 female undergraduate students enrolled in psychology courses
who participated as part of a Research Experience Group whereby students may earn
‘bonus’ grades for research experience, administered through the psychology department
at the University of Waterloo (identifying information removed). After reading a brief
description of the study through an online database, students self-selected to participate in
this study. Because of gender differences in erotophobia–erotophilia (Rye et al., 2011), we
chose to study one gender only. Typically, fewer men are enrolled in psychology courses
and fewer participate in the research credit exercise. Consequently, grossly unequal ns
often result which violates many assumptions underlying comparative tests. Hence, only
females were recruited for participation in this study.

Materials
Media article
The between-subjects’ variable was a passage written for this study formatted to mimic a
magazine or newspaper article. There were two versions of this approximately 830-word
piece. Both versions contained the same facts and statistical information about BDSM
adapted from Hyde, DeLamater, and Byers’ (2006) introductory sexuality textbook. The
passage differed in terms of the delivery of the material – either framed positively or
 4 BJ Rye et al.

framed negatively (see Appendix). These passages also included statements made by
members of the BDSM community under the pseudonym ‘Mary’ to protect the privacy of
the contributors. These statements were collected via e-mail interviews with two local
members of the BDSM community.

Dependent measures
Twenty-two individual items were used to create five aggregate dependent measures.
Participants were asked to assess each statement on the same seven-point strongly
disagree-to-strongly agree scale. Some items were phrased positively regarding BDSM
while some were negatively worded (e.g. ‘I am comfortable with the topic of BDSM’;
‘People who have “kinky sex” are disgusting’). The items were coded such that higher
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scores represented more favourable ratings in relation to the BDSM content. Sixteen of
the items immediately followed the BDSM passage and the other six items were
embedded later in another instrument.
The five aggregate dependent measures were (1) perceptions of the passage author and
the author’s stance on BDSM (five items), (2) perceptions of the passage (five items), (3)
comfort with discussing BDSM (three items), (4) feelings about BDSM as a result of the
passage (three items) and (5) personal feelings about BDSM (not in the context of the
passage; six items). Table 1 presents dependent measure descriptive information and
sample items.

Predictor variables
The measures of erotophobia–erotophilia included the following:

The sexual opinion survey (SOS). The SOS is a 21-item instrument created by Fisher and
Byrne in the early 1980s (see Rye et al., 2011, for a more recent psychometric review).
Participants responded to items on a seven-point strongly disagree-to-strongly agree scale
(e.g. ‘Masturbation can be an exciting experience’). Items were coded/reverse-coded such
that high scores represented greater erotophilia. The items were averaged to produce an
erotophobia–erotophilia score ranging from 1 to 7. Descriptive information about the SOS
is presented in Table 1.
In this study, we included an extra item whereby we split one item (i.e. ‘The thought
of having long-term sexual relations with more than one sex partner is not disgusting to
me’) into two (i.e. ‘The thought of having long-term sexual relations with more than one
sex partner over the course of my life-time is not disgusting to me’ and ‘. . .at the same
time. . .’). Based on past experience with the scale, the single item had raised many
questions by participants – creating two items resulted in greater item clarity and less
participant frustration (hence, the score was based on 22 items).

Comfort with sexual matters for youth and adolescents. This is a seven-item scale created
by the first author for use with younger participants (identifying information removed). As
with the SOS, participants responded to items on a seven-point strongly disagree-to-
strongly agree scales (e.g. ‘It is OK for two women to have sex with each other’). Items
were coded/reverse-coded such that higher scores represented the erotophilic response,
and then an average was calculated, producing a score ranging from 1 to 7. Table 1
presents additional information about this scale.
 Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 19:46 26 April 2015

Table 1. Descriptive information regarding the five aggregated dependent measures.

Multivariate test:
Pillai’s trace; F(5,
88) = 47.36, p < .0001,
Passage condition ηp2 = .73

Positive Negative Total

Dependent variable (assessed in this (n = 43–44); (n = 48–50); (n = 91–94); Univariate test
order) Sample item 0 (SD) 0 (SD) 0 (SD) F(1, 92) (ηp2)

Perceptions of the author’s opinion The author thinks very highly about BDSM 5.23 (.72) 2.42 (1.07) 3.74 (1.68) 216.22*** (.70)
(∞ = .90; 5 items)
Perceptions about the passage (∞ = .77; . . . presented a well-rounded argument 4.30 (1.02) 3.68 (1.18) 3.97 (1.15) 7.20** (.07)
5 items)
Comfort discussing BDSM (∞ = .65; 3 I would feel nervous discussing BDSM in a 4.54 (1.52) 4.30 (1.29) 4.42 (1.40) .72ns (.01)
items) classroom/academic setting
Personal feelings about BDSM in the The passage I read has influenced me to think 5.15 (1.09) 4.32 (1.16) 4.71 (1.20) 12.73*** (.12)
context of the passage (∞ = .64; 3 about BDSM favourably
items)
Ratings of feelings about BDSM (not in It would upset me to see someone being whipped in a 4.48 (1.37) 4.44 (1.41) 4.46 (1.39) .03ns (.00)
context of the passage; ∞ = .83; 6 sexual way; I would not object to being restrained
items. Embedded in the sexual in some way and/or restraining someone during
liberalism scale) sexual activities
Erotophobia–erotophilia: multivariate Univariate test F(1, 89)
test: Pillai’s trace; F(7, 83) = .84, ns, (ηp2)
ηp2 = .07
Sexual opinion surveyb (post-test Seeing an erotic movie would be sexually 4.24 (.97) 4.30 (.96) 4.27 (.96) .10ns (.00)1.18ns (.01)
∞ = .90; 22 items) arousing to me 4.76 (.95) 4.54 (1.01) 4.64 (.98)
Comfort with sexual matters for youth It is OK for a person to masturbate if it 5.26 (1.30) 5.07 (1.36) 5.16 (1.33) .45ns (.01).51ns (.01)
and adolescents (post-test ∞ = .86; 7 makes him/her feel good 5.62 (1.23) 5.43 (1.30) 5.52 (1.26)
items)
Sexual anxiety scale (post-test ∞ = .97; Comfortable level with: Seeing two people 4.32 (1.09) 4.36 (1.13) 4.34 (1.11) .03ns (.00).89ns (.01)
55 items)a kissing or fondling each other 5.00 (1.05) 4.78 (1.13) 4.88 (1.09)
Psychology & Sexuality

Sexual liberalism scale (post-test only If I knew others were watching me have sex, 3.37 (.40) 3.37 (.43) 3.37 (.42) .00ns (.00)
∞ = .81; 29 items) I would become excited
5

Notes: Scores could range from 1 (least positive rating) to 7 (most positive rating); ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05.
a
This instrument is supposed to have 56 items but the second-to-last item was inadvertently dropped from the questionnaire.
b
The pre-test erotophobia–erotophilia tests between positive and negative passage conditions would be expected to not differ. This would be a check on the success of random assignment to
groups.
 6 BJ Rye et al.

The sexual anxiety scale (SAS). The SAS is a 56-item instrument assessing erotophobia–
erotophilia created by Fallis, Gordon, and Purdon (2011) as an alternative to the SOS such
that it covers a broader range of sexual topics (e.g. sample item: ‘Being exposed to
information about sexually transmitted infections’). This instrument differs from the
others used, in that the seven-point response scale assessed respondent comfort level
with the sexual topics listed whereby the anchors ranged from extremely discomforting-to-
extremely comfortable. Further, all of the items were worded in the same direction –
meaning that this instrument was not balanced in terms of positively and negatively
worded content (which is a technique recommended to reduce acquiescence bias; Ray,
1983). Items were averaged producing a total score ranging from 1 to 7 where high scores
represented greater comfort with the list of sexual topics. In the current study, one item
from the SAS was inadvertently omitted (question 55 of the published instrument). See
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Table 1 for descriptive and psychometric information.

Sexual liberalism scale. This scale is a novel 29-item instrument created uniquely for the
current study. The items on this measure were more expansive in topic area relative to the
SOS and SAS. For example, this scale focuses approximately one-third of items on erotic
media such sex toys, fetishes and cybersex. Some of these sexual areas were simply not in
existence when the SOS was first created. Participants responded to items on a seven-
point strongly disagree-to-strongly agree scale (e.g. ‘Using a webcam with someone in a
sexy way is fun’). Items were coded/reverse-coded such that high scores represented
greater erotophilia and an average score was calculated (as above). Descriptive and
psychometric data are presented in Table 1.

Procedure
As part of a university departmental procedure called ‘mass testing’, participants com-
pleted the SOS, comfort with sexual matters scale and SAS as part of a larger survey,
anywhere from 4 to 10 weeks prior to participating in the main study. These were time 1
or pre-test measures of erotophobia–erotophilia. Female university students who chose to
participate in this particular study (time 2) then read one of two BDSM passages –
randomly assigned – containing the same content, but presented in either a more positive
or a more negative manner. Participants rated their perceptions of the passage/author and
rated the impact of the passage on their attitudes. They then completed the measures of
erotophobia–erotophilia (i.e. the SOS, comfort with sexual matters, SAS and the sexual
liberalism scale – in this order). The BDSM dependent measure items that were unrelated
to the content of the passage were embedded in the final scale.

Results
The first research question of interest involved documenting the level of support or
disdain for BDSM by this sample of women. Three of the dependent measures addressed
this: comfort discussing BDSM and personal feelings about BDSM – both in the context
of having just read a passage about BDSM – as well as the six-item dependent measure
about personal feelings about BDSM activities (i.e. not in the context of the passage). In a
way, this last dependent variable is the ‘purest’ in that the items that comprise this
measure were embedded within 29 other sexually related items. Thus, these items may
not have been as salient as the others. Regardless, Table 1 presents descriptive statistics
for these three dependent measures. Collapsing across the two passages (see the column
 Psychology & Sexuality 7
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Figure 1. An overarching aggregated measure regarding feeling about BDSM.

‘Total’ in Table 1), participants were generally neutral or slightly positive regarding these
three dependent variables, averaging slightly above 4.5 on the seven-point scale.
As these three dependent measures were intercorrelated (r(94)s = .30–.63, ps <. 01),
an overarching aggregate was constructed to address level of support/disdain for BDSM.
A mean of these three was calculated for each participant. This overarching measure of
support for BDSM or feelings about BDSM had an average of 4.53 out of a possible 1
(complete disdain) to 7 (complete support) with a standard deviation of 1.04 (see
Figure 1). Across the 94 participants, this aggregated dependent variable was approxi-
mately normally distributed (skewness = –.32 and SE(skewness) = .25; kurtosis = –.09
and SE(kurtosis) = .49; Shapiro–Wilk statistic (df of 94) = .98, ns). This indicates that, in
this sample, there is a broad range of personal opinions of and comfort with BDSM.
Another aim of this study was to question the role of media in attitudes towards BDSM.
To address this, we presented participants with an ‘article’ which was either positively or
negatively framed by the author. Then, participants were asked to make judgements about
the passage they had read as well as rate statements that reflect their opinion of BDSM.
Those who received a positive passage were compared to those who received a negative
passage on the five dependent measures; collectively, there was a difference as a function of
passage read (Pillai’s trace multivariate F(5, 88) = 47.36, p < .0001). Generally, BDSM
ratings were more favourable for participants who read the positive depiction. Table 1
presents the descriptive and inferential statistics that address each univariate comparison.
The dependent variable, perceptions of the author, might serve as a ‘manipulation
check’; that is, we would expect that the positively framed piece would be judged as
having an author that was favourable towards BDSM and the opposite for a piece that was
written in a negative tone. Inspection of Table 1 indicates that participants who read the
positive passage judged the author as favouring BDSM (average 5.23/7) significantly
 8 BJ Rye et al.

more than those who read the negative passage (average 2.42/7; F(1, 92) = 216.22,
p < .001).
The judgement about the passage (e.g. its clarity, how well it is written, that it has
had an impact on the reader) is less of a check on the manipulation and more of an
indirect measure of attitudes (i.e. a passage that is judged more positively – having more
of an influence on the reader, presenting a well-rounded argument – is likely to be one
that is consistent with the reader’s personal opinion on the topic). While the passage
was rated on average in the neutral range (4/7), participants who received a positive
depiction of BDSM rated the passage as significantly more well written, clear and
impactful relative to the negative BDSM depiction (0positive = 4.30 vs. 0negative 3.68;
F(1, 92) = 7.20, p < .01).
For the dependent measures more directly related to personal attitudes, participants
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who read a positive or negative passage did not differ in self-reported comfort with
discussing BDSM (e.g. with friends, sexual partner and in a class/academic setting) as a
function of having read the passage (F(1, 92) = .72, ns). In contrast, participants who read
the positive BDSM piece rated their personal feelings about BDSM (e.g. the passage has
made me think favourably, feel disgusted about BDSM) as significantly more favourable
as a function of reading the piece (F(1, 92) = 12.73, p < .001). Finally, with regards to the
dependent measure consisting of BDSM attitudinal items (e.g. I like sexual encounters to
be a little rough, dressing up with a partner as a master/slave is disturbing) embedded later
in the questionnaire (i.e. not put in context of the passage), those receiving a positive
versus a negative passage about BDSM did not differ – these participants were quite
neutral on these BDSM belief items (i.e. averaging 4.46/7; F(1, 92) = .03, ns). Table 1
contains associated statistics for all of these univariate tests.
These tests suggest slight support for the impact of reading a BDSM passage on
attitudes. That is, the bulk of the multivariate test significance is likely due to different
perceptions about the author and the passage. Participants seemed to differ as a function of
the passage when asked specifically about the impact of the passage on dependent variables.
In contrast, some personal feelings (e.g. out of context of the passage or comfort discussing
BDSM) were simply not impacted by the passage. That is, this media depiction did not
demonstrate particularly impressive effects on the participants’ attitudes towards BDSM.
In addition to testing the impact the different passages had on attitudes towards
BDSM, we tested the difference between measures of erotophobia–erotophilia as a
function of the passage read (bottom half of Table 1). Results indicated that the passage
had no effect on any of the erotophobia–erotophilia instruments.
The third research goal involved investigating the relationship between erotophobia–
erotophilia and attitudes towards BDSM. Table 2 presents correlations between the depen-
dent measures and different scales designed to measure the personality dimension of
erotophobia–erotophilia. In short, the erotophobia–erotophilia scales had no relation with
the judgement of the passage author’s position on BDSM or with participants’ perceptions
of the passage (either prospectively or at the same time as attitude assessment). This
suggests that the participants are not influenced by their pre-existing perspective on
sexuality when they are assessing the passage itself or the author’s position on BDSM.
In contrast, all measures of erotophobia–erotophilia correlated significantly with
comfort discussing BDSM as a function of reading the passage (rs = .24–.55), self-
reported feelings about BDSM as a consequence of reading the passage (rs = .29-–.59)
and ratings of feelings about BDSM that were not in the context of the passage
(rs = .33–.68). Of particular note is the fact that measures of erotophobia–erotophilia
completed weeks prior to the study (time 1) were predictive of ratings of BDSM; while
 Psychology & Sexuality 9

Table 2. Correlations between erotophobia–erotophilia scales and ratings of BDSM.

Comfort Comfort
with sexual with sexual Novel
Sexual matters for Sexual matters for sexual
opinion youth and Sexual opinion youth and Sexual liberalism
survey adolescents anxiety survey adolescents anxiety scale time
time 1 time 1 time 1 time 2 time 2 time 2 2 (only)

Perceptions of the .06 .05 .01 .09 .08 .12 .03

author’s opinion
(∞ = .90; 5 items)
Perceptions about .02 .09 .01 .01 .09 .01 .03
the passage
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(∞ = .77; 5 items)
Comfort discussing .29** .24* .45*** .48*** .31*** .55*** .36***
BDSM (∞ = .65; 3
items)
Personal feelings .36*** .33*** .30** .59*** .46*** .46*** .29**
about BDSM in
the context of the
passage (∞ = .64;
3 items)
Ratings of feelings .44*** .40*** .33*** .68*** .52*** .52*** .51***
about BDSM (not
in context of the
passage; ∞ = .83;
6 items)
Notes: Correlations did not differ significantly between those who received negative versus positive passage BDSM
depictions. ns were 91 for comfort with sexual matters for youth and adolescents and 94 for all other correlations.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

measures of erotophobia–erotophilia at the time of the survey (time 2) appear to be

stronger than those taken at time 1, the differences are not significant when tested
statistically. The exception to this statement is for the traditional SOS which was statis-
tically significantly more strongly correlated with the more personal dependent measures
at time 2 compared to time 1 (i.e. r = .44 vs. .68; Fisher z = −2.41, p < .01).
Using the overarching dependent measure depicted in Figure 1 (i.e. the comfort
discussing BDSM, personal feelings about BDSM in the context of the passage and
feelings about BDSM not in context of the passage), a multiple regression was performed
whereby this overarching BDSM feelings measure was regressed upon the seven time 1
and time 2 erotophobia–erotophilia instruments. Only the time 1 (β = –.36) and time 2
(β = .79) SOS scores were predictive of this overarching BDSM dependent variable –
accounting for 58% of the variance. This finding should be interpreted with caution as the
seven erotophobia–erotophilia predictor variables were strongly intercorrelated
(rs = .59–.80; hence a problem of multicollinearity).

Discussion
Summary of the findings
The current study had three goals; the first was to document university women’s attitudes
towards BDSM. For this sample, BDSM attitudes were neutral to ever-so-slightly
 10 BJ Rye et al.

positive. These attitudes spanned the full range of potential scores and were normally
distributed. This indicates that, at least for this sample of young university women who
chose to participate in a sexuality study, BDSM is neither a universally denounced nor
embraced phenomenon. This finding is quite consistent with Yost’s (2010) reporting of
male and female undergraduate student attitudes towards sadomasochism and Kelsey et
al.’s (2013) documentation of psychotherapists’ favourable attitudes towards BDSM. It is
possible that this ‘normal distribution’ of attitudes towards BDSM is a function of the
greater visibility of BDSM practices in popular media (e.g. 50 Shades of Grey; and two
books, Bonds of Desire and Bonds of Courage, were the first ‘Harlequin romances’ to
feature BDSM themes as discussed in Raphel (2014)) and greater integration of ‘spicier’
sexuality into mainstream society (Weiss, 2006). It is also noteworthy that the way BDSM
activities are presented in the current study could fall under what Weiss (2006) might
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describe as somewhat sanitised or more acceptable BDSM activities and this may explain
the overall neutrality of attitudes. These statements need to be qualified by the fact that the
participants in this study were a very select sample (e.g. females, homogenous, volunteers,
well-educated university students, exposed to human development through psychology)
and may not apply to the more general population.
The second goal of this study was to investigate the role media might play on attitudes
towards BDSM while the third goal was to examine the role of personality in attitudes
towards BDSM. The results suggested that the media used here played a very minor role
in attitudes towards BDSM. Collectively, the analyses suggest that an individual’s pre-
existing personality vis-à-vis sexuality has a greater impact on BDSM ratings than a
media depiction would. Again, this statement has to be qualified because of many features
of this study (e.g. only one ‘article’ was presented; a video depiction or a different source
such as Time or MacLean’s magazines may produce different results). In particular, actual
media representations tend to use BDSM to explain deviance or sexual extremity (e.g. the
Jian Ghomeshi case). In the current study, the negative BDSM passage did not discuss any
crime, accident or scandal but rather sought to be uniform in content with the positive
passage. This may have limited the perceived authenticity and consequent impact of the
negative passage.
On the positive side, the experimental manipulation allows for more causal statements
to be made. The manipulation did appear to ‘work’ in the way it was intended – that is,
participants rated the author of the piece consistent with the way in which it was written
(e.g. negatively toned BDSM depictions were rated as written negatively). However, with
regards to their personal feelings, participants did not differ in comfort level with
discussing BDSM as a function of reading the passage, but they did differ in their self-
reported feelings about BDSM as a consequence of reading the passage. This effect was
not maintained throughout the experiment; later in the questionnaire, after completing a
variety of erotophobia–erotophilia items, the participants completed some items about
feelings about BDSM. There were no differences in their feelings about BDSM as a
function of the type passage read. It is possible that the passage had only immediate
effects on feelings about BDSM (i.e. not sustained throughout the time to complete all the
instruments ~ 15 min) or that the participants engaged in effort justification (i.e. ‘I just
read a negative passage about BDSM; indeed, it should have a concurrent impact on my
feelings about BDSM.’ Then, they respond to those particular, immediate items accord-
ingly). While this may be a plausible explanation, it does not address why there were
differences in feelings (e.g. disgust, comfort) but no differences in ease with discussing
BDSM with others. In short, the findings suggest that a singular media depiction has little
effect on attitudes towards BDSM.
 Psychology & Sexuality 11

However, pre-existing sexuality-related traits are likely very predictive of BDSM

attitudes. Similar to our results, Yost (2010) found that scores on sexual conservatism
were correlated with her sadomasochism scale such that those who were sexually con-
servative were more negative towards sadomasochism. Although not sexuality-related,
Kelsey et al. (2013) also found that therapists who were more sociopolitically conserva-
tive were more negative towards BDSM. In the current study, across different measures
and at different time points, erotophobia–erotophilia predicted comfort with and feelings
about BDSM. Demonstrating the discriminant predictive validity of erotophobia–eroto-
philia, SOS scores were not related to perceptions of the author or the quality of the
passage – which suggests that participants were able to make judgements about the
passage without their personal proclivities towards sexual content influencing their rat-
ings. In short, if we want to predict how a person is likely to feel about BDSM, knowing
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their level of erotophobia–erotophilia would be quite helpful.

Theoretical implications
This study has implications for the theory surrounding erotophobia–erotophilia. Many
researchers use the SOS – the instrument originally developed to measure the construct –
as a marker of sexual attitudes (see Rye et al., 2011). Attitudes are thought to be malleable
relative to personality traits (Ajzen, 2005). So, those researchers who use the SOS as a
measure of attitudes may need to be mindful of the fact that this construct – as measured
by this instrument – was not particularly amenable to change as a function of an
experimental manipulation in the current study. When created, the SOS was defined as
assessing an individual difference or a personality-type trait (Fisher et al., 1988). Of
course, there is some flexibility in all personality dimensions but likely within a relatively
small range of the dimension (see Ajzen, 2005). Erotophobia–erotophilia, as measured by
the SOS, is not as transient as some attitudes may be (e.g. less important attitude objects,
attitude objects with which people have less experience; Erber, Hodges, & Wilson, 1995).
The SOS – as a manifest measure of erotophobia–erotophilia – is predictive of and likely
relevant to the formation and maintenance of sexual attitudes (see Haugtvedt & Petty,
1992, who demonstrated how a relevant personality trait can play a role in attitude
persistence and resistance to change). However, this latter point is speculative and is an
area for further investigation.

Practical implications
Aside from theoretical implications, there are practical implications of the findings of this
study. For some people, BDSM is a healing, empowering and psychologically helpful
activity (Barker, Gupta, & Iantaffi, 2007; Connan, 2010). Therapists need to be aware of
societal and personal feelings, thoughts, biases, etc., with regards to the practice of BDSM
or other sexually marginalised activities. Connan (2010) underscores the need for self-
reflection vis-à-vis sexuality by clinicians in order to maintain an ethical standard of
practice with sexual minority clients.
Therapists might also be dealing with clients who feel shame or fear as a result of their
engagement in BDSM and other marginalised sexual practices (Bezreh et al., 2012).
Therapists could use the results of this study to contextualise stigma and stigma manage-
ment. This study provides evidence that, while some people hold negative views towards
BDSM and practitioners, young, university educated women (at least in this sample) hold
generally ‘neutral’ attitudes towards BDSM; thoughts that many view BDSM negatively
 12 BJ Rye et al.

can be attenuated by this finding. Further, the sexual personality disposition of erotopho-
bia–erotophilia and how this may factor into people’s attitudes towards their practices is
worthy of discussion when talking about stigma management (i.e. if a person is eroto-
phobic, that person is likely to respond negatively to any disclosure about sexuality and
this includes BDSM; see Bezreh et al., 2012, as well). This study might also suggest that
one’s own erotophobia-erotophilia may have implications for one’s practice of BDSM.
BDSM practitioners, advocates, clinicians and sex educators can also use this research
to promote and support positive views of this activity. This study provides some support
for the idea of presenting BDSM in a positive light – although, even when the same
information was presented in a purposely negative manner, the article had little impact on
people’s attitudes. Those who wish to promote BDSM could benefit from assessing
erotophobia–erotophilia in their target audience. Those who are erotophilic are more
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likely to be predispositioned to feel positively about BDSM.

This study is simply a first step in the very small literature that questions the attitudes
of people towards BDSM. Broader samples, more extensive BDSM-specific question-
naires (e.g. Yost, 2010) and more precise investigation of the psychological underpinnings
of BDSM attitudes will aid in our understanding of how others view these practices.

Disclosure statement
The authors have no known conflicts of interest with regard to this paper.

Funding
This research was funded in part by grants from St. Jerome’s University.

Notes on contributors
BJ Rye is an associate professor in the Departments of Psychology and Sexuality, Marriage, and
Family Studies at St. Jerome’s University at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada. She received her PhD in social psychology from the University of Western Ontario with
a specialization in human sexuality. Her research focuses on attitudes toward sexual-minority groups
and sexual health education.
Toni Serafini is an associate professor in the Department of Sexuality, Marriage, and Family Studies
at St. Jerome’s University at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. She received
her PhD in family relations and human development and her MSc in couple and family therapy from
the University of Guelph. Her research interests are related to identity formation across the lifespan.
Tynan Bramberger graduated with a joint honours BA in Psychology and Sexuality, Marriage, and
Family Studies at St. Jerome’s University at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada. She currently runs her own business focused on sexual health and wellness in Toronto.

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Appendix. Passages used in the experimental manipulation

Negative experimental condition
I walked into her apartment, located in the west side of Waterloo, and I was shocked and
terrified: it looked just like mine! I was expecting grotesque depictions of animalistic acts
and distorted sculptures of deformed body parts, with some various whips and chains
paraphernalia. The fact that it looked so ‘normal’ just added an ominous presence hanging
in the air.
I am at the home of Mary Johnson, a self-proclaimed follower of the BDSM com-
munity. I asked Ms. Johnson to speak with me about her involvement in the BDSM
community for a series of articles I’m writing for my book, ‘Underground and
Unbelievable’. When she agreed to be interviewed she told me she would only do it if
her identity was masked and kept secret, and after speaking with her, I understand why.
Before the interview, I decided I should get to know the enemy. Bondage, Dominance,
Sado-Masochism (BDSM) is a very dangerous game played by adults to enhance or
heighten sexual stimulation. Ms. Johnson describes how ‘although there is sexual arousal,
there has not been any sex’. Imagine the implications: these people can get aroused
anywhere, any time, with anyone.
BDSM communities have assembled around the world because of a rare perverted
attraction to pain for pleasure. What makes BDSM so dark is the emphasis on the power-
structures between individuals involved. The people who engage in BDSM either take
power from others, give it up to other people, or perhaps the most disturbing individual is
one who can both take or give up power depending on the circumstances.
Defining characteristics of BDSM are the terrifying costumes, props, and roles.
BDSM behavior can range anywhere from mild spanking to being wrapped entirely in
 Psychology & Sexuality 15

plastic wrap, making it impossible to move, which leaves you at the mercy of the
dominatrix (the person playing the dominant role).
Perhaps the scariest characteristic about BDSM is the willingness with which some
individuals proceed, and their unbelievable depth of warped imagination. Ms. Johnson
even admitted at one point ‘if I accidently die as a result of this journey I am OK with that
because I knew it was a possibility’. Some individuals are just too far gone.
There is much disturbing evidence that suggests even the most normal individuals are
engaging in BDSM. A study conducted with New Brunswick University Students found
that 65% have sexual fantasies of being tied up and 62% have fantasies of tying someone
up. Several studies conducted also found that the majority of individuals identified as
heterosexual! Perhaps even more perplexing, is the idea that BDSM people also tend to be
well educated. How can someone so educated fall into such a dangerous and disgusting
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trap?
I can sort of understand why some people might find it appealing in be in a position of
power, especially if that person has felt disempowered most of their lives. However, as I
continued my research, I found that this was not the case for most people. In a study
conducted of BDSM people, 178 males and 52 females, only 33% of men and 28%
women preferred the dominant role. Both men (41%) and women (40%) actually preferred
the submissive role. There were even 26% of men and 32% women who said they could
be versatile with what role they choose.
Although the name of the game is power, the roles between men and women do not
appear to mimic traditional structures of power at all. As Ms. Johnson has observed ‘there
seems to be an abundance of male submissives and deficit of female [dominatrixes]’.
Sounds to me that women simply know better than to get caught up in the twisted
delusions of BDSM.
Some psychologists are rightfully concerned about how BDSM people came to
associate power and sex. One study found that many men knew since childhood of
their attraction to power-play within their sexuality, while women seemed to be lured
into the whole thing by someone who has already gone too far into BDSM. An interesting
psychological theory suggests that BDSM behavior helps the individual to take sort of
mental escape from being self-aware. High levels of self-awareness (keeping up an image,
responsibilities, etc.) can be quite stressful, but they are important not to forget, and the
BDSM person actually purposefully disconnects being conscious of their self, much like
some forms of meditation but with the added dangers and potential consequences of sex.
Why anyone “would be willing to take the risks that BDSM poses is not understood
by me.
Ms. Johnson’s story is particularly disturbing. In her ‘early childhood [her] mother
was very depressed and [she] was an unplanned late in life baby that came ten years after
[her] sister’. Her mother was very emotionally abusive, and she thinks perhaps ‘through
touching myself as a comfort, was the genesis of my need to be dominated by a woman’.
I look forward to learning and understanding more about BDSM, if only to better help
my friends and loved ones in need.

Positive experimental condition

I walked into her apartment, located in the west side of Waterloo, and I was astonished: it
looked just like mine! I don’t know what I was expecting, but I wasn’t expecting it to look
so, well, normal.
 16 BJ Rye et al.

I am at the home of Mary Johnson, a self-proclaimed enthusiast from the BDSM

community. I asked Ms. Johnson to speak with me about her involvement in the BDSM
community for a series of articles I’m writing for my book, ‘Underground and
Underappreciated’. When she agreed to be interviewed she told me she was excited to
shine some light on something so misunderstood.
Before the interview, I decided to do some of my own research. Bondage, Dominance,
Sado-Masochism (BDSM) is an incredibly fun and exciting game played by consenting
adults to maximize sexual stimulation. Ms. Johnson describes one of her first experiences
as causing an ‘unexpected adrenaline rush’.
BDSM communities have assembled around the world in the name of safe, consen-
sual, intense pleasure. ‘One of the liberating events in my life has been the invention of
the internet’, as Ms. Johnson has found, she is definitely not alone with her Sado-
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Masochist desires. A study conducted with New Brunswick University Students found
that 65% have sexual fantasies of being tied up and 62% have fantasies of tying someone
up. It used to be believed that the majority of BDSM participants identified with the
LGBTQ community, but several studies conducted found that the majority of individuals
identified as heterosexual. Not unlike yourself, members of the BDSM community also
tend to be well educated.
But what is it that is getting everyone so excited? As Ms. Johnson describes her
experiences it becomes clearer to me how BDSM is based around an emphasis on the
power-structure between individuals involved. The overwhelming pleasure of BDSM is to
safely play within the realm of power by having power over another, allowing someone
else to have power over oneself, or both. As Ms. Johnson puts it, ‘having control and
power over [another]. . . makes me feel euphoric and giddy’.
Important characteristics of BDSM are the elaborate costumes, props, and roles the
adults discuss beforehand. BDSM behavior can range anywhere from mild spanking to
being wrapped entirely in plastic wrap (to restrict movement entirely). All you really need
to engage in BDSM is a willingness to engage in new experiences, the desire, and the
ability to communicate clearly and honestly with your partner or partners involved.
Men and women seem to share many similarities between one another when it comes
to their roles. ‘There seems to be an abundance of male submissives and deficit of female
[dominatrixes]’ says Ms. Johnson, and she’s right. Traditional ideas of gender-roles do not
seem to permeate the BDSM community. In a study conducted within the BDSM
community with 178 males and 52 females, nearly just as many men as women preferred
the submissive roles with 41% men and 40% women preferring to be dominated. Only
33% of men and 28% women preferred the dominant role. There were even 26% of men
and 32% women who said they could be versatile with what role they played. I’m starting
to think these individuals might just be the cream of the crop, as Ms. Johnson explains
how ‘[submissives] who take on [dominant] roles have insights into what and how to do
things that make them extremely effective dominatrixes’.
Although the name of the game is power, there does not appear to be any power
struggles between men and women and what roles they prefer. If anything, it appears most
people generally prefer the pleasure of submission.
After three cups of tea and some cookies, I started to wonder how did Ms. Johnson
came to the realization that she was attracted to BDSM. In one of the studies I came
across said that many men knew since childhood the beauty and intense pleasure of
BDSM, while women are lucky enough to be introduced to the BDSM by someone who is
already within the community. An interesting psychological theory suggests that the
BDSM behavior helps the individual to take a sort of blissful mental holiday from
 Psychology & Sexuality 17

being self-aware. High levels of self-awareness (keeping up an image, responsibilities,

etc.) can be quite stressful, and BDSM can help the individual disconnect being conscious
of the self, much like some forms of meditation. Who would meditate when they could
increase and intensify orgasms with a little spanking?
For Ms. Johnson, it’s hard for her to imagine a time when she wasn’t attracted to
BDSM, even if she didn’t have a name for it at the time. With a big smile and excited blue
eyes, Ms. Johnson admits ‘as far back as I can remember [I’ve] always had fantasies that
involved being locked up and/or tied up and/or punished’. Ms. Johnson is so animated and
full of passion as she talks about her experiences, it’s not difficult to see the magnificence
and beauty of BDSM. I look forward to learning more.
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