Modeling, Simulation and Performance Analysis of

Wireless Communication Systems under Varying

Channel Conditions

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering

by

Aaditya Jain (0827EC151001)

Akshita Chordiya (0827EC151016)
Divisha Gupta (0827EC151044)
Jyoti Porwal (0827EC151056)

Under the guidance of

Dr. Kamlesh Gupta

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING

ACROPOLIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH, INDORE
2019
 Report Approval

The project report entitled

Modeling, Simulation and Performance Analysis of

Wireless Communication Systems under Varying
Channel Conditions
by

Aaditya Jain (0827EC151001)

Akshita Chordiya (0827EC151016)
Divisha Gupta (0827EC151044)
Jyoti Porwal (0827EC151056)

is approved for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Guide HOD

Date:
Place: AITR Indore
 DECLARATION

We declare that this written submission represents our ideas in our own
words and where others’ ideas or words have been included, we have adequately
cited and referenced the original sources. We also declare that we have adhered
to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented
or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in our submission. We un-
derstand that any violation of the above will cause disciplinary action by the
Institute and can also evoke penal action from the source which have thus not
been properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when
needed.

Date:

Aaditya Jain Akshita Chordiya

Divisha Gupta Jyoti Porwal

Abstract

We do mathematical and simulation based analysis of some technologies used in wireless com-
munication to improve the performance of wireless communication systems under different
channel impairments. Since the wireless environment is a multipath environment, therefore, we
come across various challenges such as fading, delay spread, Doppler shift, intersymbol inter-
ference (ISI), which distort transmitted signal and add noise to it. Such distortion of signal and
addition of noise are undesirable. They make it difficult for us to retrieve the appropriate trans-
mitted information from the received signal and in the worst case, possibly we may lose our
signal completely. In order to deal with such channel effects and to mitigate them to a signif-
icant extent, we use some existing techniques such as multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)
and orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). These techniques are also used in
present 3G/4G wireless systems. We implement these technologies in simulated environment
using MATLAB and analyze the performance of such systems in terms of bit error rate (BER)
with respect to signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). We do mathematical and simulation based analy-
sis of BER with respect to SNR of such systems and observed significant improvement in the
performance of the wireless communication systems.
MIMO significantly improves the BER of the system with a single link between transmitter
and receiver by implementing antenna diversity in the system whereas, OFDM enable us to use
large bandwidth to meet the demand for high speed data by removing the ISI effect which is
prominent in broadband systems. Also, in most of the wireless communication systems, we
require channel response at the receiving end but the wireless channel is of dynamic nature,
therefore we may not know the channel response. In order to estimate the channel response, we
also briefly studied techniques of channel estimation.

iii
Contents

Abstract iii

List of Tables vii

List of Figures viii

Abbreviations xi

List of Symbols xii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Basic Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Basic Elements of a Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1 Types of channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Evolution of Wireless Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Motivation for wireless channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Parameters to Measure the Performance of a Communication System . . . 5
1.7 Modeling of Wire-line Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7.1 MATLAB codes and simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Modeling of Wireless Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8.1 MATLAB Codes and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.9 Performance Analysis of Wire-line and Wireless Channel . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9.1 Mathematical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.9.2 MATLAB Simulation and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

iv
2 Challenges in Wireless Communication 17
2.1 Introdution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Multipath Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Delay Spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Maximum delay spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 RMS delay spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.3 Impact of delay spread on wireless system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Coherence Bandwidth of Wireless Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5 Mobility and Doppler Effect in Wireless Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.1 Calculation of frequency shift due to Doppler effect . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Impact of doppler effect on wireless channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 MATLAB Simulations and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3 Diversity 34
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Diversity Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 Principle of Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Multiple Antenna Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5 Maximal Ratio Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.6 Bit Error Rate of Multiple Antenna Wireless System . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.1 Numerical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7 MATLAB Simulations and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.8 Advantages and Applications of Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4 MIMO 46
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2 Model of MIMO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.1 Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.2 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3 MIMO Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.4 BER in MIMO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

v
 4.4.1 Numerical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4.2 MATLAB Simulations and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4.3 MATLAB Code and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5 OFDM 53
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2 Challenge in Broadband Wireless Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Principle of OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.1 Multi-carrier modulation system (MCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3.2 Comparison between MCM system and single Carrier system . . . . 57
5.4 FFT and Cyclic Prefix for OFDM:- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.5 IFFT/FFT Processing in OFDM systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.6 Cyclic Prefix in OFDM Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.7 BER in OFDM Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.7.1 Mathematical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.7.2 MATLAB Codes and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

6 Estimation of Channel Coefficent 70

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.3 Properties of MLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

7 Conclusion 74

vi
List of Tables

1.1 Evolution of wireless technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1 Gain and delay of ith path component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2 Delay time, respective gain and gain in dB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

vii
List of Figures

1.1 Basic communication system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Basic wire-line communication system model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 AWGN channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Multipath scenario with a base station (BS) and multiple scatters S1, S2,
S3 and S4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Basic wireless communication system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Rayleigh channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.1 Multipath propagation environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.2 Multiple signal component at receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Power profile and delay spread of components of a signal . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Power profile of signal component received at mobile station with respect
to time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Power profile of the given signal components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 BPSK modulated transmitted signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.7 Received copies of signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.8 Ψabove fig have frequency domain representation of transmitted signal,
channel and received signal, which shows that as BW of tx signal Bs is
greater than channel’s BW Bc, as a result received signal lost information
present outside channel’s BW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.9 A base station and mobile station(in motion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.10 A mobile station making a θ angle with the base station and mobile is in
motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.11 Vector representation of velocity of MS with respect to position vector
between MS and BS and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

viii
2.12 Geometry of the scenario considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.13 Doppler spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1 System with single link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.2 System with multiple links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Two antenna receiver system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Performance analysis for SIMO system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4.1 MIMO system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.2 Block diagram representation of the MIMO technology . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3 Performance analysis of MIMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.1 Broadband signal with the carrier frequency at the center . . . . . . . . . . 54

5.2 Broadband signal with BW B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3 Broadband signal with BW B is divided in N sub-bands of equal length . . 55
5.4 This is a signal send by single carrier system in which each symbol have
symbol time 1/B and symbols are send in sequence one after the other . . 57
5.5 In MCM system each symbol have symbol time N/B which are being send
using different carrier concurrently. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.6 asddf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.7 OFDM schematic at transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.8 OFDM schematic at receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

ix
Listings

1.1 AWGN Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2 Rayleigh Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Doppler spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1 Main Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Code used to generate signal received after being transmitted through the
channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Monte Carlo Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1 MIMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1 OFDM System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

x
Abbreviations

BER Bit Error Rate

SNR Signal to Noise Ratio

AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise

PDF Probability Density Function

IID Independent and Identically Distributed

BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying

LOS Line of Sight

NLOS Non Line of Sight

MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output

SIMO Single Input Multiple Output

ISI Inter Symbol Interference

OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

MCM Multi Carrier Modulated

FFT Fast Fourier Transform

IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transform

IBI Inter Block Interference

xi
List of Symbols

γ SNR

σn2 Noise variance

στ Delay spread

στmax Maximum Delay spread

xii
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Basic Communication Systems

Communication is the process of transferring information from one place to another. Com-
munication system is a system model which describes the communication exchange between
transmitter and receiver. We aim for an efficient and reliable communication system in order to
send the information from one end to another.

1.2 Basic Elements of a Communication System

1. Information Source: The source which produces the information is known as infor-
mation source. The information produced can be in the form of words, sound signals,
images, audio etc.

2. Transmitter: Transmitter transmits the information which is produced by the information

source. There are several blocks in the transmitter which process the information and
convert it into the transferable form of signal. Modulation of message is done to transmit
signal over long distance. This all processing is done to just ease the transmission of
signal through the channel.

3. Channel: Communication channel is a media by which information is sent. The main

function of channel is the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter
to receiver. The point to point (wired) or broadcast channel (wireless) are used as a
medium.

1
 Figure 1.1: Basic communication system

4. Noise: Noise can be defined as random, unwanted interference on transmitted signal.

There are many sources of noise like receiver, channel, unwanted signals etc. however,
channel is the major source of noise.

5. Distortion: Distortion is the process of changing the shape of the communicating signal
which may mislead the destination about the content of the message.

6. Receiver: Receiver process the distorted and noisy received signal in order to reproduce
the appropriate message signal.

Our main emphasis is on the type of channel we are using in our communication system.
Therefore, we must understand thoroughly what is a channel, what is the behavior of the channel
towards our message signal and how the channel is affecting our message signal.

1.3 Channel
Channel is a physical medium through which our signal travels from transmitter to receiver.
Channel acts partly like a filter that attenuates the signal and distort the waveform of the signal.

2
As the channel length increases, signal waveforms are distorted because of various physical
phenomenon such as multipath effects, frequency-dependent gains and Doppler Shift. There
are two types of distortions possible in any channel:

1. Linear Distortion

2. Non Linear Distortion

In a practical environment, along with the distortion, the signal also experiences interference of
undesired disturbances called noise. Noise is one of the underlying factors that limits the rate
of telecommunications. Noise can be of two types

1. Internal noise : Due to electronic components of the communication system circuitry(thermal

motion of charge carriers). Effect of internal noise can be reduced but can’t be eliminated.

2. External Noise : External noise includes interference signals transmitted on nearby chan-
nels, human made noise etc. External noise can be minimized or even eliminated in some
cases.

Thus, the channel distorts the signal and noise accumulates along the path. Not only this,
the signal strength also decreases with the noise level remains constant regardless of the distance
from the transmitter. So in this way the channel affects our message signal.
We aim to make our communication system more efficient and reliable by reducing the
channel effect by thorough understanding of the channel that we are dealing with.

1.3.1 Types of channel

1. Wired Channel: In wired channel transmission of data is done over a wire-based commu-
nication technology. Examples include telephone networks, cable television or internet
access and fiber-optic communication.

2. Wireless Channel: In wireless channel transmission of data is done through free space.
Frequencies in the VHF/UHF bands and slightly above are used for wireless applications.

1.4 Evolution of Wireless Technology

The evolution of wireless technology has brought a huge advancement in present era. With each
new technology, effective features have been introduced. Wireless technology has improved the

3
mobile communication in terms of speed, efficiency, reliability etc. The changes and improve-
ments from 1G to 5G are drastic. The brief evolution of the wireless technology is shown in
Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Evolution of wireless technology

Generation Standard Rate Services

1G Analog Cellular technology 2 Kbps Mobile Telephony(Voice)

2G Digital Cellular Technology 64 Kbps SMS and Voice Calls

3G CDMA 2000, UMTS, EDGE 2 Mbps HD Audio Video and Data

Dynamic Information Ac-

4G Wi-Max LTE WiFi 1 Gbps
cess, Wearable Devices

Dynamic information ac-

WWWW(world wide wire- Higher than
5G cess, wearable devices with
less web ) 1 Gbps
AI capabilities

1.5 Motivation for wireless channel

Wireless communication involves transfer of information without any physical medium be-
tween two or more receiving and transmitting points. Because of this absence of any ’physical
medium’, wireless communication has numerous advantages. Wireless communication enabled
us the facility of mobile communication. There is great network reliability in the wireless com-
munication. The installation and set up of the system is less expensive and easy. The transfer
of information is very fast and secure. More area is covered by wireless base stations which are
connected to one another and provide network coverage extension. More number of users can
be served. Thus we have numerous advantages of wireless channel. But when we use wireless
channel we face several challenges. In the subsequent chapters we will discuss the challenges
that we face in wireless communication channel in the form of different channel impairments.

4
1.6 Parameters to Measure the Performance of a Communi-
cation System
There are various parameters to judge the performance of a communication system on the basis
of which we say that the performance of the communication system is good, better or best. We
analyze the performance of the communication system on the basis of these parameters and
try to implement the best technique. In order to have an efficient and reliable communication
system these metrics play an important role. Some of these parameters are as follow

1. Bit error rate: BER is the average rate of occurrence of bit error. We always try to
minimize the BER to improve the performance of communication system.

2. Signal-to-noise ratio: SNR is the ratio of signal power to the noise power. We want SNR
to be as high as possible.

3. Data rate: Data rate is the rate by which data is transmitted from source to destination.
We want desire for a communication that provides high data rate.

1.7 Modeling of Wire-line Channel

In this section, we consider a scenario of a single wire-line communication system, we have a
transmitted signal x which is corrupted by the noise n at the receiver and a received signal y.
The channel is a AWGN channel thus the noise is AWGN.

Figure 1.2: Basic wire-line communication system model

The above system can be modeled as

y =x+n (1.1)

5
 Noise PDF is given by Gaussian Distribution. Thus, noise is AWGN noise with zero mean and
variance σ 2
1 n2
fN (n) = p e− 2σ2 (1.2)
(2πσ 2 )
Signal to Noise Ratio(SNR) of the received signal is given by γ which is the ratio of transmitted
signal power and noise power
P
γ= (1.3)
σ2
BER(BER) in AWGN channel for BPSK modulated transmission of average power P is given
by
√
BER = Q( γ) (1.4)

1.7.1 MATLAB codes and simulations

1 f u n c t i o n [ ] =AWGN( n )
2 [ f , x ] = h i s t ( randn ( n , 1) , 50) ;
3 % sum ( f ∗ dx ) i s t h e i n t e g r a l o f PSD ( i t i s d i v i d e d t o n o r m a l i s e t h e h i s t o g r a m
)
4 dx = d i f f ( x ( 1 : 2 ) ) ;
5 b a r ( x , f / sum ( f ∗ dx ) )
6 x l a b e l ( ’ Random V a r i a b l e ’ )
7 ylabel ( ’ P r o b a b i l i t y Density Function ’ )
8 t i t l e ( ’PDF o f Wired C h a n n e l (AWGN) ’ )

Listing 1.1: AWGN Channel

6
 PDF of Wired Channel (AWGN)
0.4

0.35
Probability Density Function

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Random Variable

Figure 1.3: AWGN channel

In the above we simulation we depicted the probability density function of the wire-line channel
via MATLAB. The distribution is Gaussian distribution.

1.8 Modeling of Wireless Channel

Consider a wireless communication scenario as shown in the Fig 1.4. There is a mobile sta-
tion receiving direct wave signal from base station directly and reflected waves caused due to
reflection of receiving signal by building or various obstacles coming in its path, so at receiver
we have multipath signal component, which is a superposition of multiple radio waves and this
superposition can be constructive or destructive in nature. Our goal is to develop a model for
this multipath propagation channel, i.e. we have to develop a relation between transmitted sig-
nal say x(t) and received signal y(t) or we can say we have to develop a response h(t). As we
can see their are multiple path from transmitter to receiver let us assume there are L paths, each
having their own attenuation (a) and delay (τ ). We can write:

h(t) = a0 δ(t − τ0 ) + a1 δ(t − τ1 ) + a2 δ(t − τ2 ) + ............ (1.5)

7
Figure 1.4: Multipath scenario with a base station (BS) and multiple scatters S1, S2, S3 and S4

L−1
X
h(t) = ai δ(t − τi ) (1.6)
i=0

So the received signal y(t) is

y(t) = h(t) × s(t) (1.7)

where s(t) is the transmitted signal

L−1
X
y(t) = Re[ai s(t − τi )e−j2πfc (t−τi ) ] (1.8)
i=0

L−1
X
y(t) = Re[ai s(t − τi )e−j2πfc τi ]e−j2πfc t (1.9)
i=0

In the above equation exponential term outside the bracket is our carrier and the remaining part
is received complex baseband signal. Employing narrow-band assumption, i.e., fm << fc

s(t − τi ) ≈ s(t) (1.10)

L−1
X
y(t) = Re[ai e−j2πfc τi s(t)] (1.11)
i=0

In above equation the content written in the bracket is our fading coefficient (h) which depends
on attenuation (a) and delay (τ ) offered by the channel

8
 L−1
X
h= ai e−j2πfc τi (1.12)
i=0
L−1
X
h= ai [cos(2πfc τi ) − j sin(2πfc τi )] (1.13)
i=0

Let
L−1
X
x= ai cos(2πfc τi ) (1.14)
i=0
L−1
X
y=j ai sin(2πfc τi ) (1.15)
i=0

We can write above equation as

h = x + jy (1.16)

These x and y are sum of large number of random components by central limit theorem, there-
fore, they follow Gaussian distribution. Here we consider that x and y are normally distributed.

p
| h |= x2 + y 2 (1.17)

Assuming x and y as independent Gaussian random variable with 0 mean and variance 21 .
X ∼ N (0, 12 )
Similarly Y ∼ N (0, 12 )
1 2
fX (x) = √ e−x (1.18)
π
1 2
fY (y) = √ e−y (1.19)
π
Since X and Y are independent random variable, we have
Joint distribution = Product of marginal distribution

fX,Y (x, y) = fX (x) × fY (y) (1.20)

1 −(x2 +y2 )
fX,Y (x, y) = e (1.21)
π
Now, characterizing h in terms of magnitude and phase

h = x + jy = aejφ (1.22)

where
p
a= x2 + y 2 (1.23)

9
 y
φ = tan−1 ( ) (1.24)
x
x = a cos φ (1.25)

y = a sin φ (1.26)

Applying variable transformation

fX,Y (x, y) −→ fA,Φ (a, φ) (1.27)

1 −(x2 +y2 )
fA,Φ (a, φ) = e | JXY | (1.28)
π
where | JXY | is a Jacobian Matrix
 
cos(φ) sin(φ)
| JXY |=  
−asin(φ) acos(φ)
a −a2
fA,Φ (a, φ) = e (1.29)
π

fA,Φ (a, φ) (1.30)

is the joint distribution in terms of magitude and phase component .

h = aejφ (1.31)

From joint distribution we can derive marginal distribution

2
fA (a) = 2e−a (1.32)

fA (a) is the magnitude distribution which is Rayleigh in nature.

Thus, we have a fading coefficient h whose nature is like multiplicative noise, and a ad-
ditive white is also getting added at the receiver, thus the system is shown in Fig 1.5 and the
simple model of this system is given in (1.33)

10
 Figure 1.5: Basic wireless communication system

y = hx + n (1.33)

Signal-to-noise ratio(SNR) γf of Rayleigh Fading Channel is given by

a2 P
γf = (1.34)
σ2
where a2 is magnitude of fading channel coefficient, P is the power of the transmitted signal
and σ 2 is the power of AWGN noise. Bit error rate(BER) of Rayleigh fading wireless channel
is given by
 
1 γf
r
BER = 1− (1.35)
2 2 + γf
The above expression is the exact expression for BER in wireless fading channel. But there is
an approximated version of this expression, which is given by

1
BER = (1.36)
2γf

1.8.1 MATLAB Codes and Simulation

1 f u n c t i o n [ h ]= f a d i n g c h a n n e l ( n , v )
2 a= s q r t ( v ) . ∗ r a n d n ( 1 , n ) ;
3 b= s q r t ( v ) . ∗ r a n d n ( 1 , n ) ;
4 h = ( a+b∗ j ) / s q r t ( 2 ) ;
5 [ f , x ]= h i s t ( abs ( h ) , 5 0 ) ;
6 % sum ( f ∗ dx ) i s t h e i n t e g r a l o f PSD ( i t i s d i v i d e d t o n o r m a l i s e t h e h i s t o g r a m
)

11
 7 dx = d i f f ( x ( 1 : 2 ) ) ;
8 b a r ( x , f / sum ( f ∗ dx ) )
9 xlabel ( ’ Wireless channel c o e f f i c i e n t ’ )
10 ylabel ( ’ P r o b a b i l i t y Density Function ’ )
11 t i t l e ( ’PDF o f W i r e l e s s C h a n n e l C o e f f i c i e n t ’ )
12 end

Listing 1.2: Rayleigh Channel

PDF of Wireless Channel Coefficient

0.9

0.8

0.7
Probability Density Function

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Wireless channel coefficient

Figure 1.6: Rayleigh channel

In the above simulation we depicted the PDF of magnitude Wireless Fading Coefficient, which
shows Rayleigh distribution via MATLAB

1.9 Performance Analysis of Wire-line and Wireless Channel

In this section we do performance analysis of a wire-line channel and wireless channel in terms
of BER with respect to SNR via Mathematics and Simulations. We always want to minimize
the BER and maximize the SNR for better performance of the communication system.

12
1.9.1 Mathematical Analysis

Example 1. Calculate BER of an AWGN communication system with BPSK Modulation at

SNR of 10 dB.
Solution 1.

SNR = 10 dB

10 log10 (SNR) = 10

SNR = 10
√
BER = Q( SNR)

√
Since, there is no closed calculate Q function the value of Q( 10) can be obtained from data
table of Q function.
BER = 7.82 × 10−4

Thus, the BER for the above wire-line AWGN channel is 7.82 × 10−4 for the SNR of 10 dB.
Example 2. Compute the bit error rate of a wireless communication system for SNR,γf value
of 10 dB.
Solution 2.

10 log10 SNR = 10

log10 SNR = 1

γf = 101

from equation(1.35)
 
1 γf
r
BER = 1−
2 2 + γf
 r 
1 10
BER = 1−
2 12
BER = 4.35 × 10−2

13
Thus, the BER in an Wireless fading channel for 10 dB of SNR is 4.35 × 10−2 In Example.1
we obtain the BER of AWGN channel for the SNR of 10 dB which is found to be 7.82 × 10−4 .
While in Example.2 we calculated the BER for an Rayleigh fading channel or wireless channel
which is 4.35 × 10−2 . Thus, from the above two examples we can infer that the BER of wireless
channel is way higher than the BER of the wire-line channel for the same value of SNR
Example 3. Compute the SNR in dB required for BER = 10−6 for an AWGN wire-line
channel.
Solution 3.
√
BER = Q( SNR)
1 1
BER = e− 2 SNR
2
Since the required BER is 10−6
1 1
10−6 = e− 2 SNR
2
SNR = −2 ln(2 × 10−6 )

SNR = 26.24

SNR in dB is
SNRdB = 10 log10 26.24

SNRdB = 14.19 dB

Thus the required SNR to achieve the BER of 10−6 is 14.19 dB in an AWGN wire-line channel.
Example 4. Compute the SNR in dB required for BER = 10−6 for a wireless channel.
Solution 4. From (1.35)  
1 γf
r
BER = 1−
2 2 + γf
Since the required BER is 10−6
 
1 γf
r
−6
10 = 1−
2 2 + γf
γf
= (1 − 2 × 10−6 )2
2 + γf
γf = 4.95 × 105

SNR γf in dB is given by
γf dB = 10 log10 γf

γfdB = 56.98 dB

14
 Thus the required SNR to achieve the BER of 10−6 is 56.98 dB in a wireless channel.
From Example 3 and 4 we observe that for an AWGN channel the corresponding SNR
required to achieve the BER = 10−6 is 14.19 dB, whereas the required SNR to achieve the
BER of 10−6 is 56.98 dB in a wireless channel. For wireless channel we need the extra 43
dB of SNR, i.e., if noise power is same at the receiver in both the channels we need 104 times
more transmitted power in case of wireless channel. This is because of the deep fade events that
occur in the wireless environment because of destructive interference between the multipath
components of the transmitted signal.

1.9.2 MATLAB Simulation and Analysis

1 f u n c t i o n []= performanceanalysisofAWGNandwireless
2 SNR = 1 0 : 1 0 : 4 0 0 ;
3 f o r j =1:40
4 f o r i =1:1000
5 p1 ( j , i ) = b p s k (SNR ( 1 , j ) , 1 0 0 0 0 ) ;
6 p2 ( j , i ) = w i r e l e s s (SNR ( 1 , j ) , 1 0 0 0 0 ) ;
7 end
8 end
9 f o r j =1:40
10 avgp1 ( 1 , j ) =mean ( p1 ( j , : ) ) ;
11 avgp2 ( 1 , j ) =mean ( p2 ( j , : ) ) ;
12 end
13 p l o t ( 1 0 ∗ l o g (SNR) / l o g ( 1 0 ) , avgp1 , ’ l i n e w i d t h ’ , 2 )
14 h o l d on
15 p l o t ( 1 0 ∗ l o g (SNR) / l o g ( 1 0 ) , avgp2 , ’−∗ ’ )
16 hold off
17 x l a b e l ( ’SNR ( i n dB ) ’ )
18 ylabel ( ’ Bit Error rate ’ )
19 l e g e n d ( { ’ W i r e l e s s c h a n n e l ’ , ’AWGN c h a n n e l ’ } )
20 t i t l e ( ’BER v s SNR p l o t f o r w i r e d and w i r e l e s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m ’ )

Listing 1.3: Performance Analysis

15
 BER vs SNR plot for wired and wireless communication system
0.45
Wireless channel
0.4 AWGN channel

0.35

0.3
Bit Error rate

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
SNR (in dB)

1.10 Summary
In this chapter, we briefly studied the basic elements of a communication system and their
functions. And since our main emphasis is on the wireless channel, we modeled the wireless
channel. From the MATLAB Simulation analysis and mathematical analysis, we compared the
performance of wireless channel with the wire-line channel and observed that the performance
of the wireless channel is poorer than the wire-line channel But the advantages for using the
wireless medium as channel in our communication system are significant. Thus, in order to
improve the performance of the wireless communication system, we need to understand the
channel thoroughly. Thus, in the next chapter we will study the challenges that we face in wire-
less channel and in the subsequent chapters we will implement some of the existing technologies
to improve the performance of our communication system.

16
Chapter 2

Challenges in Wireless Communication

2.1 Introdution
In this chapter we will study the challenges that are faced by us in the communication process
during the transmission of our signal in the wireless channel. We will study how our signal is
affected by various factors in the wireless channel under different channel conditions. Since the
wireless environment is a multipath environment, therefore, we come across various challenges
such as fading, delay spread, Doppler shift, intersymbol interference (ISI), which distort trans-
mitted signal and add noise to it. Such distortions and addition of noise are undesirable. They
make it difficult for us to retrieve the appropriate transmitted information from the received
signal and in the worst case, possibly we may lose our signal completely.

2.2 Multipath Propagation

In the multipath propagation channel, the transmitted signal arrives at the receiver from various
directions over multiple paths due to reflection, diffraction and scattering etc. We receive dif-
ferent components of transmitted signal with their own degree of attenuation and delay. Thus in
wireless channel we observe highly irregular signal strength. The time variation of the received
signal caused by the changes in the transmission path is called fading. Based on the relative
position of the receiver to the transmitter, fading is categorized in two categories.

1. Large scale fading for radio propagation over long distance: The case where a number
of weak multi-path echoes is received and no direct signal is available (non line-of-sight
(NLOS) conditions), is termed as large scale fading.

17
 Figure 2.1: Multipath propagation environment

2. Small scale fading: Small scale fading due to time-varying reflections from the surround-
ing near the receiving antenna The case where a strong direct signal is available together
with a number of weaker multipath echoes (line-of-sight (LOS) conditions) is termed as
small scale fading.

We observe a huge signal strength irregularity because of multipath environment. Along with
that we face challenges such as delay spread, Doppler shift.

2.3 Delay Spread

Delay spread can be interpreted as the time difference of the arrival of the transmitted signal
components at the receiver. In wireless communication channel there is no guiding medium
between transmitter and receiver. There can be a straight line path between transmitter and
receiver as well as multiple reflected paths. So there are multiple components of transmitted
signal at the receiver arriving at different time instances. Delay spread is the measure of these
multiple paths. It can be interpreted as the time difference of the arrival of the transmitted signal
components at the receiver. There are several metrics for characterization of delay spread.

18
2.3.1 Maximum delay spread

Here, we want an in-depth characterization of wireless channel, one way to characterize the
delay spread by using metric called maximum delay spread. There are various metric, here we
are using maximum delay spread.

Figure 2.2: Multiple signal component at receiver

Power profile of wireless channel

The model for wireless channel with L multipath components is given as

L−1
X
h(t) = ai δ(t − τi ) (2.1)
i=0

where h(t) is the channel response, ai is attenuation of ith path and τi is the delay of ith multipath
component.
Here we are characterizing the power of arriving multipath components with respect to
delay τ .
L−1
X
φ(t) = | ai |2 δ(t − τi )
i=0

L−1
X
φ(t) = gi δ(t − τi ) (2.2)
i=0

19
where φ(t) is the power of ith multipath component, gi =| ai |2 and known as gain of the ith path
and τi is the delay of the ith path component. Let us understand the power profile of wireless
channel by an example.
Example 1. Consider a multipath channel with four multipath components, analyze the delay
spread.
Solution 1. From (2.3) the power of the ith multipath component is given by
3
X
φt = gi δ(t − τi ) (2.3)
i=0

Table 2.1: Gain and delay of ith path component

S.No. Gain Delay

1. g0 =| a0 |2 τ0

2. g1 =| a1 |2 τ1

3. g2 =| a2 |2 τ2

4. g3 =| a3 |2 τ3

where g0 , g1 , g2 , g3 are the gains of the multipath components of the same transmitted
signal.

Figure 2.3: Power profile and delay spread of components of a signal

20
 Thus, there are multiple components arriving over a certain time interval or over a certain
spread of time, as shown in figure Various delays are spread over an interval of time. This
spread is known as delay spread.

Characterization of delay spread

One way to characterize the delay spread by using metric called maximum delay spread. There
are various metric, here we are using maximum delay spread. Let the first component’s arriving
time be τ0 and the last component’s arriving time be τL−1 .

σmax = τL−1 − τ0 (2.4)

Maximum delay spread is the difference of the delay of the last arriving component and the
delay of the first arriving component. Thus maximum delay spread gives us an idea of time
duration over which multipath components are arriving.

2.3.2 RMS delay spread

Maximum delay spread might not be an appropriate metric because when we look at the power
profile there are some dominant profile with large amount of power but as we go towards the end
we may find large number of spurious components with negligible power and they might not be
even the signal component. They might be below the noise threshold. In such scenario we need
to characterize the delay spread by some other appropriate metric. Here we are characterizing
delay spread by RMS delay spread.

Figure 2.4: Power profile of signal component received at mobile station with respect to time

21
 Let us consider a scenario with L multipath components. Let g0 , g1 ,..., gL−1 are gains of
corresponding multipath components and τ0 , τ1 ,..., τL−1 be the corresponding delays respec-
tively.
First we want to compute Average delay(τ ).
The fraction of power in the ith path is given by bi

gi
bi = PL−1 (2.5)
j=0 gj

where gi is the power of ith path.

We can compute average delay by weighing each delay τi by the fraction of power bi in
the ith power.

τ = b0 τ0 + b1 τ1 + ..... + bL−1 τL−1

L−1
X
τ= bi τ i
i=0

From (2.6),
PL−1
gi τi
τ = Pi=0
L−1
(2.6)
i=0 gi

(2.9) gives the expression for the average delay of multipath power profile. Now, we want to
compute RMS delay spread which is given by the deviation of multipath power profile.
From statistics the RMS delay can be computed. Since RMS delay spread is given by
v !
u PL−1
| a |2 (τ − τ )2
i i
u
i=0
στ = t PL−1 (2.7)
2
i=0 | ai |

Example 2. Consider scenario with L=4 multipath components τ0 = 0µs, τ1 = 1µs, τ2 = 3µs,
τ3 = 5µs, g0 = 0.01, g1 = 0.1, g2 = 1, g3 = 0.1s. Compute average delay and RMS delay
spread.
Solution 2.

22
 Table 2.2: Delay time, respective gain and gain in dB

√
τ Gain in dB g a= g

0µs -20 dB 0.01 0.1

1µs -10 dB 0.1 0.3162

3µs 0 dB 1 1

5µs -10 dB 0.1 0.3162

Figure 2.5: Power profile of the given signal components

By using the eq(2.9), we get the average delay,

τ = 2.975µs

Now with the help of eq(2.10), we get the RMS delay spread

στ = 0.8573µs

and computing the maximum delay spread

στmax = τ3 − τ1

στmax = 5µs

23
From the above example we can see that RMS delay spread is much smaller than maximum
delay spread. This is because the RMS delay spread is actually weighing the delay of each
component with the corresponding fraction i.e. RMS delay spread weighs the delay with the
corresponding power which is much more appropriate metric to characterize the delay spread.

2.3.3 Impact of delay spread on wireless system

Maximum delay spread and RMS delay spread are two metrics for characterization of the pa-
rameter of wireless channel i.e. delay spread. To understand the impact of this delay spread let
us consider a BPSK modulated transmitted signal (symbol)

Figure 2.6: BPSK modulated transmitted signal

1
where S0,S1,S2..... are various symbols. T is the symbol time and T
is the symbol rate.
Now consider a wireless multipath channel with L = 2.

h(t) = a0 δ(t − τ0 ) + a1 δ(t − τ1 ) (2.8)

where τ0 and τ1 are delay of first and second component respectively and assuming a0 and a1
are equal to 1.
h(t) = δ(t − τ0 ) + δ(t − τ1 ) (2.9)

Let one component be line of sight(or direct path) component and other be scattered one. Now,
received signal be

24
 Figure 2.7: Received copies of signal

Here we have two copies of signal with different delays. When symbols got add up with
different symbol due to these delays, this results in ISI.
When τ1 − τ0 > T , then different symbols interfere with each other which leads to ISI
which results in distortion in original transmitted signal. Therefore ISI is undesirable.
To avoid ISI we need the symbol time larger than delay spread i.e. if symbol time is greater
than delay spread then ISI can be avoided and if symbol time is less than delay spread then it
leads to ISI.

2.4 Coherence Bandwidth of Wireless Channel

Coherence bandwidth is one more parameter for the characterization of the wireless channel.
It gives us information about the range of frequencies for which channel is uniform frequency
response where Bs is signal bandwidth, Bc is channel bandwidth.
If Bs > Bc then there will be distortion in the received signal which is called frequency
selective fading and if Bs < Bc then there will be no distortion in the received signal that results
in flat fading.
Hence, Bc is coherence bandwidth and in the given figure Bs is the flat portion of the
channel bandwidth.
Bc = στ (2.10)

25
Figure 2.8: above fig have frequency domain representation of transmitted signal, channel and
received signal, which shows that as BW of tx signal Bs is greater than channel’s BW Bc, as a
result received signal lost information present outside channel’s BW.

where στ is Delay Spread. Hence, smaller the dalay spread larger the coherence bandwidth
that is as στ increases Bc decreases.Thus frequency selective distortion occurs if Bs > Bc i.e
1 1
T
> στ
; σc > T Delay spread is greater than symbol time.That results in ISI. Frequency
selective distortion and ISI are one and the same thing.

2.5 Mobility and Doppler Effect in Wireless Channel

The Doppler effect(or Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of received signal due to
motion between transmitter and receiver. Consider a scenario in which the mobile is moving
i.e. user is in motion, there is a relative motion between base station and mobile as shown in
below figure
Thus the relative motion between base station and mobile results in the change in the
frequency of the wireless signal received at mobile and this phenomena is termed as Doppler
effect.

26
 Figure 2.9: A base station and mobile station(in motion)

2.5.1 Calculation of frequency shift due to Doppler effect

Let us consider that the mobile is moving at an angle of θ with respect to the base station with
velocity v as shown in figure 2.7.

Figure 2.10: A mobile station making a θ angle with the base station and mobile is in motion

Thus the Doppler shift is given by

v cos θ
Fd = Fc (2.11)
c
where c is the velocity of light and Fc is the carrier frequency.
Received signal frequency is given by

Fr = Fc + Fd (2.12)

27
From eq(2.14) we get
v cos θ
Fr = Fc + Fc (2.13)
c
Now if the mobile is moving towards the base station then

0≤θ≤π

⇒ cos θ ≥ 0

v cos θ
Fr = Fc + Fc (2.14)
c
If the mobile is moving away from the base station then

π
0≤θ≤ π
2

⇒ cos θ > 0

v cos θ
Fr = Fc − Fc (2.15)
c
Example 1. Consider Fc = 1.85GHz and the vehicle is moving at 60 miles/hour at θ = 30◦ .
What is the Doppler shift?
Solution 1. v=60 miles/h=26.8 m/s

v cos θ
Fd = Fc
c
Fd = 143Hz

Fr = Fc + Fd

Fr = 1.85GHz + 143Hz

Thus the Doppler shift in the above example is 143 Hz.

2.5.2 Impact of doppler effect on wireless channel

Recall that the fading coefficient is

L−1
X
h= ai e−j2πfc τi
i=0

28
Consider the ith path. So, basically the distance between the mobile and base station is chang-
ing. Therefore, corresponding delay τi is also changing.

Figure 2.11: Vector representation of velocity of MS with respect to position vector between
MS and BS and

v cos θ
τi (t) = τi − (2.16)
c
L−1
v cos θ
X
h= ai e−j2πfc (τi − c
)
(2.17)
i=0
L−1
X
h= ai e−j2πfc τi e−j2πfd t (2.18)
i=0

Therefore, the channel coefficient is time varying. Such a time varying channel is also
known as time selective channel. Now to understand how fast or how slow the channel is
changing with respect to time, we need to understand the phase factor.
1
Consider the phase factor ej2πfd t at t = 0 and t = 4fd

at t = 0, phase=0
1
and at t = 4fd
, phase= π2
1
Thus, channel has changed significantly from t = 0 to t = 4fd
.
Coherence time can be defined as the time during for which the channel is static or channel is
approximately constant for one coherence time Tc

1
Tc = (2.19)
4fd
Thus Doppler effect is one of the reasons for the dynamic or time varying behavior of the
wireless channel.

29
Example 1. Consider fd = 143Hz. What is the Tc ?
Solution 1.

1
Tc =
4fd
Tc = 1.7ms

that implies channel is constant for 1.7ms approximately or channel is changing after 1.7ms
duration of time.

2.6 MATLAB Simulations and Analysis

AIM: To obtain Doppler’s spectrum, for wireless scenario in which mobile station is in motion.
We are studying downlink scenario, illustrated by fig(2.12), initially base station(BS) is located
at distance D from the mobile station(MS) which is moving with velocity v towards base station.
As mobile station is having uniform velocity and we are also taking samples at uniform time
interval, we can define distance vector for MS and BS as following:

x1 [1] = D

x1 [2] = D − ∆x

x1 [1] = D − 2∆x

and so on ....
Distance vector for MS and reflector is as following:

x2 [1] = D

x2 [2] = D + ∆x

x2 [3] = D + 2∆x

and so on ....
We will assume that two signals arrive at the receiver: the direct and the reflected ray.
When two rays interfere with each other in space, they give rise to a standing wave, i.e., a pattern

30
of signal enhancement and partial or total cancellation which remains stationary in space. This
means that if a probe, i.e., an antenna, senses the resulting signal several times, passing through
the same spot and the same height, the same signal level will be observed. In reality, this spatial
pattern is in fact, moving slowly around.

Figure 2.12: Geometry of the scenario considered

As illustrated in fig. (2.12), we assume that MS travels towards the reflector and away
from BS, all being on the x-axis. The distance to the origin of both the BS and the reflector
is 1000 m as shown in figure. We can already expect that two Doppler line will be present in
the received signal spectrum. One positive corresponding to the reflected signal and another
negative corresponding to the direct signal.
Complex envelope of received signal r(t) is as following

2π 2π
r(t) = a0 ej λ x1 cos(θ) + a0 ej x2 cos(θ)
(2.20)

To calculate the spectrum of the received complex envelope, r[n], MATLAB function FFT can
be used. Now obtain Doppler’s spectrum using function plot and set frequency axis for N point
FFT as

freqaxis = (-(N/2):(N/2)-1)*fs/N (2.21)

31
 MATLAB Code
1 function []= doppler (x)
2 %f c =2GHz
3 f o r j =1:100
4 d1 ( 1 , j ) = 1 0 0 0 + 0 . 0 0 9 3 7 5 ∗ j ;
5 d2 ( 1 , j ) =3000 −0.009375∗ j ;%r e f l e c t e d r a y
6 end
7 r = exp (− i ∗ 4 1 . 9 ∗ d1 ∗ c o s ( x ) )−exp (− i ∗ 4 1 . 9 ∗ d2 ∗ c o s ( x ) ) ;
8 f= f f t ( r ) ;
9 f r e q =( −50:49) /1 067 ∗10 0;
10 p l o t ( freq , abs ( f ) . ˆ 2 )
11 xlabel ( ’ frequency ’ )
12 y l a b e l ( ’ Magnitude ’ )
13 t i t l e ( ’ Doppler spectrum ’ )

Listing 2.1: Doppler spectrum

MATLAB Simulation

Doppler spectrum
6000

5000

4000
Magnitude

3000

2000

1000

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
frequency

Figure 2.13: Doppler spectrum

32
2.7 Summary
In this chapter, we have seen that multipath phenomenon is very dominant in mobile communi-
cation, by virtue of which wireless channel exhibit different phenomenon such as delay spread,
Doppler shift which are characterized by the terms such as RMS delay spread, coherence band-
width, coherence time, Doppler shift. Delay spread gives idea about the time lapse between
first and last component of the arriving transmitted signal at the receiver. If delay time is more
than the symbol time, we observe ISI, which significantly distorts our signal. Doppler shift
is the change in frequency of received signal due to motion between transmitter and receiver.
We observe dynamic nature of the channel because of Doppler effect. Coherence bandwidth
gives the idea about the range of frequency in which the channel response is static. If coherence
bandwidth is less than the signal bandwidth we observe frequency selective fading which also
results in distortion. Coherence time gives the idea about the time upto which channel is static.
Thus we want to protect our signal from getting distorted, for this, in the subsequent chapters
we use some of the robust existing technologies and analyze the wireless system performance.

33
Chapter 3

Diversity

3.1 Introduction
In diversity scheme we intend to improve the reliability of the message signal by exploiting the
different characteristics of communication channel. Diversity can be employed to overcome the
effects of Deep Fade. It is based on the fact that individual channels experience different lev-
els of fading and interference. Multiple versions of the same signal may be transmitted and/or
received and combined at the receiver. Alternatively, a redundant forward error correction code
may be added and different parts of the message are transmitted over different channels. Diver-
sity techniques exploit the multipath propagation, resulting in a diversity gain, often measured
in decibels.

3.2 Diversity Schemes

1. Time Diversity In time diversity multiple versions of the same signal are transmitted at
different time instants.

2. Frequency Diversity In frequency diversity the same signal is transmitted using different
frequencies over a wide spectrum that is affected by frequency selective fading.

3. Space Diversity In space diversity the signal is transmitted over different propagation
path. It can be achieved by antenna diversity using multiple antenna at transmitter or
receiver or at both.

34
 4. Polarization Diversity Multiple versions of a signal are transmitted and received via
antennas with different polarization. A diversity combining technique is applied on the
receiver side.

3.3 Principle of Diversity

Consider a transmitter and receiver in a wireless communication system as shown in figure 3.1.
There is a single link between our transmitter and receiver. If this single link is in a deep fade
it disrupts communication. There is no alternative to transmit the signal between transmitter
and receiver. If this single link is in deep fade, the link is broken thus the performance of the
communication system degrades.

Figure 3.1: System with single link

To resolve this problem, one way is to consider a system with multiple links as shown in
figure 3.2.
There are alternative paths for the signal to transmit from transmitter to receiver. So com-
munication is not disrupted since there are multiple links. This is because we have diversity
in the system. We can have antenna diversity, i.e., multiple antennas at receiver or multiple
antennas at transmitter or at both.

1. Receive Diversity: Multiple receive antennas.

2. Transmit Diversity: Multiple transmit antennas.

35
 Figure 3.2: System with multiple links

3.4 Multiple Antenna Diversity

Consider a multiple antenna system as shown in figure 3.3. We have a single antenna T1 at
transmitter and two receiving antennas R1 and R2 at receiver. Let h1 be the fading coefficient
between T1 and R1 and h2 be the fading coefficient between T1 and R2 . At receiving end let y1
be the received symbol at R1 and y2 be the received symbol at R2 .

Figure 3.3: Two antenna receiver system

Now this system can be modeled as follow

y1 = h1 (x) + n1 (3.1)

y2 = h2 (x) + n2 (3.2)

where n1 and n2 are noise at R1 and R2 respectively. Assuming n1 and n2 are Gaussian with
zero mean and variance(σ 2 ) and uncorrelated i.e.

E[n1 .n2 ] = 0 (3.3)

36
 Assuming h1 and h2 are real quantities, however in practical it is not the case.
The above system can be written as
     
y h n
 1 =  1 x +  1 (3.4)
y2 h2 n2

y = hx + n (3.5)

where y is received vector, h is channel vector, n is noise vector. The above equation is the
vector model for multiple antenna communication system. Now we have two received symbols
y1 and y2 . These symbols are combined at receiver

ỹ = W1 y1 + W2 y2 (3.6)

where W1 and W2 are combining weights whose respective values will be calculated in section
3.5. Performing weighted combination
 
h i y1
ỹ = W1 W2   (3.7)
y2

ỹ = (W )T y (3.8)

ỹ = (W )T (hx + n) (3.9)
T T
ỹ = W (hx) + W (n) (3.10)
T T
where W (hx) is the received component and W (n) is the noise component. Assuming noise
component uncorrelated, the noise power is given by

Noise Power = σ 2 || W ||2 (3.11)

Signal Power = P || h ||2 || W ||2 cos2 θ (3.12)

Maximum SNR is given by

P || h ||2
γ |max = (3.13)
σ2

3.5 Maximal Ratio Combining

MRC is a method of diversity combining in which the signals from each channel are added
together, the gain of each channel is made proportional to the rms signal level and inversely

37
proportional to the mean square noise level in that channel, different proportionality constants
are used for each channel. It is also known as ratio-squared combining and pre-detection com-
bining. Maximum-ratio combining is the optimum combiner for independent additive white
Gaussian noise channels. MRC can restore a signal to its original shape.
The optimal MRC vector W is given by

h
W = (3.14)
|| h ||
p
where || h ||= | h1 |2 + | h2 |2 .
The SNR(γ) is given by

H
| W h |2 P
γ= (3.15)
σ 2 || W ||2
Let us understand this by an example, we have a system in which receiver has two receive
antennas and the transmitter is with a single transmit antenna. Let h1 = √1 + j √12 and h2 =
2
√1 − j √12
2

We have,
1 1
y1 = ( √ + j √ )x + n1 (3.16)
2 2
1 1
y2 = ( √ − j √ )x + n2 (3.17)
2 2
Let us assume the noise power at R1 and R2 be -3dB.
Representing in the form of vector
     
y1 √1 + j √1 n1
 = 2 2
x+  (3.18)
y2 √1 − j √1 n2
2 2

From eq(2.9)  
1 1
1  √2 + j √2 
W =√ (3.19)
2 √1 − j √1
2 2

The above equation gives Optimal Maximal Ratio Combining Vector for the given system.
From eq(2.10) we can calculate the SNR for the given system

γ = 4P (3.20)

where P is the power of the transmitted signal. In the above case we have derived SNR of a two
antenna system with MRC. Now, for the generalized case of L antennas system with MRC is

38
given by      
y1 h1 n1
     
 y2   h2   n2 
     
     
 .  =  . x +  .  (3.21)
     
     
     
.  .   . 
     
yL hL nL
Now, the SNR for this system is given by

|| h ||2 P
SNR = (3.22)
σ2
p
where || h ||= | h1 |2 + | h2 |2 +...+ | hL |2 .
Here, we have derived the expression for SNR of a system with MRC having L antennas.
We use MRC in order to exploit the spatial diversity by implementing antenna diversity. In the
subsequent sections we will see how the implementation of diversity has improved the BER
performance of a wireless communication system.

3.6 Bit Error Rate of Multiple Antenna Wireless System

The approximate expression for BER in multiple antenna system is given by:
!L L−1
1−λ X
L+l−1
 1 + λ l
BER = Cl (3.23)
2 l=0
2

where r
γ
λ= (3.24)
2+γ
At high SNR
1−λ 1
= (3.25)
2 2γ
Thus at high SNR, BER of wireless communication system with L antennas can be approxi-
mated as
!L
1
BER =2L−1 CL (3.26)
2γ

3.6.1 Numerical Analysis

Example 1. Using the high SNR approximation find the BER for two antennas at SNR of 20dB.
Solution 1. Here given L=2, SNRdB =20, convert SNR in dB to normal scale

39
 10log10 SNR = 20

SNR = 100

calculate BER using (3.26)

!L
1
BER =2L−1 CL
2γ
3 1
BER =
4 γ2
BER = 0.75 × 10−4

Thus approximate BER for L=2 is 0.75 × 10−4 which is very close to the exact value 0.7256 ×
10−4
Example 2. Using formula for approximate BER, calculate SNR required to acheive BER of
10−6 in a wireless system with two antennas.
Solution 2.
!L
1
BER =2L−1 CL
2γ
3 1
BER =
4 γ2
3 1
10−6 =
4 γ2
SNR = 866.024

SNRdB = 29.84 dB

Thus for a system with two antennas, to achieve the BER of 10−6 , the required SNR is 29.84dB.
To achieve the same BER for an AWGN or wire line system the SNR required is 14.19
dB. However in a wireless system with a single antenna across a Rayleigh fading channel for
BER of 10−6 , the required SNR is 57 dB.
Thus we can conclude that when the number of antenna increases from L=1 to L=2 the
SNR required decreases from 57dB to 29.84 dB i.e. for same noise power, required transmit
power ’P’ is decreased by 27.63 dB.

40
3.7 MATLAB Simulations and Analysis
AIM : To obtain SNR Vs BER plot for system using Rx diversity (for two antenna and three
antenna system at receiver end) using MATLAB.
To create the replica of whole wireless communication system on MATLAB, divide whole
system into three parts as enlisted below. First develop these blocks individually and then merge
them.

• Transmitter

• Channel

• Receiver

Transmitter: At transmitter generate random sequence of 0’s and 1’s, using command randi,
of length n (e.g. randi([0,1],[1,n])) as a information bits which is to be sent and then map the
√ √
bit sequence using BPSK, i.e., map 0 to - SN R and 1 to SN R. Consider a row matrix b
which is to be mapped using BPSK scheme, this can be done using commands as shown below,
if the statement within bracket is true then value written in the command is assigned to that
column in the row matrix c else it is made zero.
c(b==0)=-1
c(b==1)=1
Channel: Channel response is random in nature, i.e., we don’t have any information regarding it
so to replicate wireless channel on MATLAB we assign random value to it such that the assigned
random variable’s magnitude follow Rayleigh distribution and phase is uniformly distributed
between [-π, π]. To generate channel coefficient refer appendix no. As in present scenerio
we are using a Rx antennas therefore there are a received signal and channel’s response to
these received signal are also different, so we have to generate vector with a different channel
coefficients for a different antennas, let this vector be denoted by h.
We will not change the channel response vector for different bits, because we are consid-
ering that channel is not changing for the duration these n bits are being transmitted, else we
would have to generate n such channel response vector for n different time instance.
Receiver: At Rx we receives a signals which is given by eq(3.2),where yi represents signal re-
ceived by ith antenna at k th time instant, h1i represents channel coefficient between transmitting
antenna and ith receiving antenna and n0 is the additive white gaussian noise component .We

41
 will use output vector y with a elements as signal received by a different respective antennas.

yi [k] = h1i x[k] + n0 (3.27)

To obtain output vector do matrix multiplication of h and transpose of x and add AWGN com-
ponent of noise(generate matrix of dimension a × n using function randn(a,n)). Now to obtain
information bit we will use same process as discussed in theory section, so now we will multi-
ply weighted vector to output vector and we already know that value of these weights depends
on channel coefficient, various algorithums are used to estimate these values but here we are
considering that we know this at receiving end so we use vector h to calculate weighted vector
W . After implementing eq. 3.8 demap the processed vector
MATLAB Codes
1 f u n c t i o n [ p ] = d i v e r s i t y ( a , n , SNR)
2 b= r a n d i ( [ 0 , 1 ] , [ 1 , n ] ) ;
3 n= l e n g t h ( b ) ;
4 tx1=zeros (1 , n ) ;
5 f o r i =1: n
6 i f b ( 1 , i ) ==0
7 t x 1 ( 1 , i ) =−1;
8 else
9 tx1 (1 , i ) =1;
10 end
11 end
12 y= z e r o s ( a , n ) ;
13 h= z e r o s ( a , 1 ) ;
14 f o r i =1: a
15 [ y ( i , : ) , h ( i , : ) ] = c h a n n e l m o d e l ( SNR , t x 1 , n ) ;
16 end
17 W= c o n j ( h ) / s q r t ( sum ( a b s ( h ) ) ) ;
18 mf= t r a n s p o s e (W) ∗ y ;
19 op= z e r o s ( 1 , n ) ;
20 pe = o n e s ( 1 , n ) ;
21 f o r i =1: n
22 i f r e a l ( mf ( 1 , i ) )>0
23 op ( 1 , i ) = 1 ;
24 end
25 i f op ( 1 , i ) ==b ( 1 , i )
26 pe ( 1 , i ) = 0 ;

42
27 end
28 end
29 p=mean ( pe ) ;

Listing 3.1: Main Code

1 f u n c t i o n [ y , h ] = c h a n n e l m o d e l ( SNR , t x 1 , n )
2 t x = s q r t (SNR) ∗ t x 1 ;
3 %c h a n n e l m o d e l l i n g
4 %h i s a c h a n n e l c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h v a r i a n c e 1
5 h= f a d i n g c h a n n e l ( 1 , 1 ) ;
6 %a d d i t i v e g a u s s i a n n o i s e
7 noise =randn (1 , n ) ;
8 %r e c e i v e d s i g n a l
9 y=h . ∗ t x + n o i s e ;

Listing 3.2: Code used to generate signal received after being transmitted through the channel

1 f u n c t i o n [ p ]= n o o f a n t e n a ( a )
2 SNR = 1 : 1 : 2 0 ;
3 n =10;
4 b= l e n g t h (SNR) ;
5 f o r j =1:100000
6 f o r i =1: b
7 d ( j , i ) = d i v e r s i t y ( a , n , SNR ( 1 , i ) ) ;
8 end
9 end
10 f o r r =1: b
11 p ( 1 , r ) =mean ( d ( : , r ) ) ;
12 end

Listing 3.3: Monte Carlo Simulation

43
 SNR vs BER plot for antenna divrsity at Rx side
0.14
no. of antenna=1
no. of antenna=2
0.12

0.1
Bit error rate

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Signal to noise ratio

Figure 3.4: Performance analysis for SIMO system

3.8 Advantages and Applications of Diversity

Advantages:
Increasing antenna leads to a significant decrease in BER. Increasing antennas leads to
saving of transmit power for achieving the same BER as that of a single antenna system.
Applications:
Diversity is used in several 3G/4G systems such as,

• WCDMA: Wideband Code Division for Multiple Access.(3G)

• HSDPA: High Speed Downlink Packet Access.(3G)

• LTE: Long Term Evolution.(4G)

44
3.9 Summary
In this chapter, we have seen the types of diversities and mainly exploited the spatial diversity by
implementing antenna diversity at the receiving end keeping single antenna at the transmitter.
We do performance analysis of such communication systems.

45
Chapter 4

MIMO

4.1 Introduction
MIMO stands for Multiple Input Multiple Output. Multiple input refers to multiple transmit
antennas and multiple output refers to multiple receive antenna. Thus multiple transmit antennas
and multiple receive antenna constitute a MIMO system. Multiple antennas leads to diversity
and diversity leads to increased data rates and decrased BER, therefore, MIMO technology is
used in 3G and 4G wireless systems.

4.2 Model of MIMO System

4.2.1 Block Diagram

In the above block diagram we have multiple antennas at transmitter and multiple antennas at
receiver. There is a fading channel coefficient between each transmit and receive antenna pair.

Figure 4.1: MIMO system

46
4.2.2 Modeling

Let us consider a transmitter with t transmit antennas and a receiver with r receive antennas.
   
x y
 1  1
x2  y2 
   
   
 .  → MIMO Channel →  . 
   
   
   
. .
   
xt yr

The equation for the model of the MIMO system is given by

y = Hx + W (4.1)

where H is a r × t matrix of the channel coefficients and W is a r × 1 noise vector.

 
h h . . h1t
 11 12 
h21 h22 . . h2t 
 
 
H= .
 
. . . . 
 
 
 . . . . . 
 
hr1 hr2 . . hrt
This is known as MIMO channel matrix.This has r rows and t columns. So basically it is
an r × t matrix, where r is number of receive antennas and t is the number of transmit antennas.
This has r rows, one corresponding to each receive antennas and t columns one corresponding
to each transmit antenna. The total number of channel coefficient in a MIMO system are r × t.
The coefficient hij is the fading channel coefficent between ith receive antenna and j th transmit
antenna.
We can understand it by a simple example, let us consider a channel coefficient h43 . The
coefficient h43 is the fading channel coefficent between 4th receive antenna and 3rd transmit
antenna. Thus in general, hij is the channel coefficent between ith receive antenna and j th
transmit antenna.This models the MIMO channel matrix H.
 
W
 1 
W2 
 
 
W = . 
 
 
 
 . 
 
Wr

47
where each Wi is Gaussian with zero mean, variance σ 2 and identically independent distributed(IID).
In general an r × t MIMO system’s model is given by

yl = hl1 x1 + hl2 x2 + hl3 x3 + ............ + hlt xt + W l (4.2)

4.3 MIMO Receiver

In this section, we see the signal processing that has to be done at the receiver. Particularly
we will study the Zero Forcing receiver (ZF Receiver) and its performance in terms of BER.
Our concern is to recover the transmit symbol x from the received the symbol y. This is the
problem at the reception.Thus, we want to understand how to recover the x from y. In order to
understand this, let us consider a scenario with MIMO system having equal number of receive
antennas and transmit antennas.
r=t

This will lead to a square matrix of H. If H matrix is invertible then the receiver for this
scenario will be a system of linear equation. Here we are ignoring the noise. The system for
this scenario is given by
y = Hx

If matrix H is invertible, we can recover the transmit symbol

x̂ = H −1 y (4.3)

The above equation models the simple receiver for this scenario.
But in another case where H is not a square matrix i.e r 6= t, H will not be invertible. Thus
we won’t be able to solve exactly for [xi ] for such system. So we try to minimize the error.

e = y − Hx (4.4)

min|| e ||2 = min|| y − Hx ||2 (4.5)

(4.6)

Thus we want to find x̂ such that min|| y − Hx ||2 is minimized. To minimize this we have to
differentiate w.r.t to x and set equal to zero. Where x is vector derivative. Thus after calculation
we achieve the receiver such that it minimizes the error, named Zero Forcing Receiver.
−1
x̂ = (H T H) H T y (4.7)

48
 If H is complex
−1
x̂ = (H H H) H H y (4.8)

(H H H)−1 is a t × t square matrix. Thus the zero forcing receiver enables us to get the square
matrix even when r 6= t which is (H H H)−1 H H . It is the Pseudo Inverse of H.

(H H H)−1 H H H = I

Thus, MIMO ZF receiver minimizes the reconstruction error.

4.4 BER in MIMO System

BER of MIMO system depends on the type of receiver we are using.The BER for the Zero
Forcing receiver is given by
!L
1
BER =2L−1 CL (4.9)
2γ
where L=r-t+1

4.4.1 Numerical analysis

Example 1.Compute the BER for a 3 × 2 MIMO system SNR of 25 dB with ZF receiver.
Solution 1. !L
2L−1 1
BER = CL
2γ
L=r−t+1

L=2

SNR = 316.22
!2
1
BER =3 C2
2γ

BER = 0.75 × 10−6

Thus, for theSNR of 25 dB we obtained BER of 0.75 × 10−6 .

49
4.4.2 MATLAB Simulations and Analysis

AIM: To obtain SNR Vs BER plot for MIMO system having zero forcing receiver and also to
compare the SNR Vs BER plot for MIMO system with different values of L.
The whole sequence of step from transmitting end to receiving end is given in fig no. in the
form of block diagram. Let us consider a scenario with t transmitting antenna and r receiving
antenna, then at transmission end we will have t transmitted bit sequence each of length n, i.e,
we have matrix of dimension t × n at transmitting end. After generating t bit sequences map
them using bpsk scheme.

Figure 4.2: Block diagram representation of the MIMO technology

In MIMO system each transmitting antenna have r direct links therefore in total there are
r × t channel coefficients one for each transmitter and receiver pair. For channel make r × t
matrix which will have Rayleigh faded random elements. Implement eq. 5.1 to obtain the
vector for received signal by different receiving antennas. Now as we have done Rx diversity
system,we will multiply weights to these different received signal. Using least mean square esti-
mation technique we have obtained weighted matrix also known as Pseudo Inverse matrix. Now
demap the processed signal and compare the received information with information bits send,

50
 count the number of errors and obtain probability of error. To obtain accurate BER perform this
whole process multiple number of times using loop and take the average of all observations.

4.4.3 MATLAB Code and Simulation

1 f u n c t i o n [ a v g p ] =MIMO( t , r , n , SNR)
2 %t x = t and r x = r n=no o f s y m b o l s
3 L= r−t + 1 ;
4 x= z e r o s ( t , n ) ;
5 x1= z e r o s ( t , n ) ;
6 f o r j =1: t
7 x( j , : ) =randi ([0 ,1] ,[1 , n ]) ;
8 end
9 x1 ( x ==0)=− s q r t (SNR) ;
10 x1 ( x ==1) = s q r t (SNR) ;
11 f o r i =1: r
12 h( i , : ) =fading channel ( t ,1) ;
13 end
14 no =100∗ r a n d n ( r , n ) ;
15 y=h∗ x1+no ;
16 v=h . ∗ c o n j ( h ) ;
17 u=sum ( v ) ;
18 %a t r e c e i v i n g end
19 hh= i n v ( t r a n s p o s e ( c o n j ( h ) ) ∗h ) ;
20 r x =hh ∗ t r a n s p o s e ( c o n j ( h ) ) ∗ y ;
21 rx1= zeros ( t , n ) ;
22 r x 1 ( rx >=0) = 1 ;
23 r x 1 ( rx <0) = 0 ;
24 p= z e r o s ( t , n ) ;
25 p ( r x 1 ==x ) = 0 ;
26 p ( rx1 ˜= x ) =1;
27 a v g p =mean ( mean ( p ) ) ;

Listing 4.1: MIMO

51
 MATLAB Simulation

SNR vs BER plot for MIMO system

0.48
plot for L=3
0.46 plot for L=4

0.44

0.42
Bit error rate

0.4

0.38

0.36

0.34

0.32
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Signal to noise ratio

Figure 4.3: Performance analysis of MIMO

4.5 Summary
In this chapter, we explored the MIMO technology and observed the performance improvement
in the wireless system after implementing the antenna diversity. In the above MATLAB simu-
lation we can see that as the number of antenna increases the BER performance improves with
respect to SNR. Thus MIMO technology has improved the performance in terms of BER.

52
Chapter 5

OFDM

5.1 Introduction
OFDM stands for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing. OFDM is a key technology
which is employed in 4G wireless systems such as long term evolution(LTE), World Wide
Interoperability for Microwave Access(Wi-Max), long term evolution advanced(LTEA). These
are some of the 4G cellualar standards which are based on OFDM.
OFDM is wireless broadband technology, i.e., this system supports large bandwidth upto
20MHz. Therefore, it gives data rate from 100Mbps to 1Gbps. Several WiFi or wireless LAN
standards such as 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac are also based on OFDM. They enable
high data rate. OFDM has low complexity of implementation. It enables easy implementation
of these broadband communication systems.

5.2 Challenge in Broadband Wireless Communication Sys-

tems
Communication system uses broadband signals to fulfill high speed requirement, but because of
the opposite nature of frequency and time, signals with brought bandwidth have small symbol
time and as we have discussed in section 2.1 that symbol time has a lower limit given by delay
spread and if symbol time decreases below this value signal goes through ISI.
Consider a broadband communication system with certain bandwidth B, a signal carrier at
the center of the bandwidth.As OFDM systems have bandwidth in megaHz let B=10MHz(broadband),

53
 Figure 5.1: Broadband signal with the carrier frequency at the center

1
so the symbol time of the communication system, T is given by T = B
. Thus the symbol time
for this communication system is 0.1µs. As we know that generally the delay spread of the
wireless communication channel Td is 2-3µs. Here T << Td , i.e., the symbol time is less
than delay spread, which results in ISI. Thus larger the bandwidth smaller the symbol time, this
leads to ISI which degrades the performance of wireless communication system. Thus this is
the significant challenge in wireless communication systems. Thus we need to overcome ISI.
In the next section we will see the principle to overcome ISI.

5.3 Principle of OFDM

To make transmission of the broadband signal possible through a wireless channel within co-
herence bandwidth is necessary for distortionless transmission, but the channel is coherent for
a very small range of frequency. To achieve this in OFDM systems bandwidth of the broadband
signal is divided into N sub-bands of equal width and information in these sub-bands is trans-
mitted concurrently. Let us consider that we split the band with bandwidth B equal to 10 MHz
B
into N =1000 sub-bands then the bandwidth of each sub-band is equivalent to N is10KHz. Sym-
bol time for each sub-band is 100µs. Thus the new symbol time is greater than delay spread,
therefore, there is no ISI.
Such a system with multiple band and multiple carriers is termed as Multi carrier modu-
lated system (MCM). This is the basic principle of OFDM.

54
5.3.1 Multi-carrier modulation system (MCM)

In the MCM system bandwidth of the broadband signal is divided into multiple bands and each
band is modulated by different carriers and transmitted concurrently.The transmission scheme
in an MCM system is given in figure(5.2)

Figure 5.2: Broadband signal with BW B

Figure 5.3: Broadband signal with BW B is divided in N sub-bands of equal length

Consider a broadband signal with bandwidth B which is divided into N bands of equal

55
width B/N. Now modulate each of these sub-bands using different carriers with frequency equal
to multiple of fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency F0 for this system is B/N,
therefore we have sub-carrier with following possible set of frequencies [(-N/2-1)F0 ....-2F0 -F0 ,
0, F0 , 2F0 ....N/2F0 ].So, carrier frequency of k th sub-band FK is as following,
kB
Fk = kF0 =
N
Let symbol of k th sub-carrier is Xk then the signal transmitting the information content of k th
sub-carrier in time domain, denoted by Sk (t) can be given as (5.1)

Sk (t) = Xk ej2πkF0 t (5.1)

Then total transmitted MCM signal x(t) is the sum of all modulated information contents of all
N sub-bands is given in (5.2)
X
x(t) = Xk ej2πkF0 t (5.2)
<N >

Consider noiseless channel then received signal y(t) is same as the transmitted signal, now our
goal is to get back symbols of each sub-carrier Xk using y(t).Equation for y(t) is similar to
IFFT operation (Inverse Fast Fourier transform) and inverse of IFFT operation is FFT.
X
y(t) = Xk ej2πkF0 t (5.3)
k=<N >

Equation for y(t) is similar to IFFT operation (Inverse Fast Fourier transform) and inverse
of IFFT operation is FFT.So to extract Xl (symbol on lth sub carrier) from y(t) integrate y(t)
multiplied by e−j2πlF0 t over the fundamental period as given below.
Z 1
1 F0
Xl = e−j2πlF0 t y(t)dt
T0 0
Z 1
F0 X
= F0 e−j2πlF0 t Xk ej2πkF0 t dt
0
Z k=<N
1 >
X F0
= Xk F 0 ej2π(k−l)F0 t dt (5.4)
k=<N > 0

on integrating exponential part of (5.4) over the fundamental period we get following results

Z 1 1, if l = k

F0
j2π(k−l)F0 t
F0 e dt =
0 0, if l 6= k


Above integral will be zero whenever k − lwill not be equal to zero because for non zero k − l
it gives integration of sinusoidal signal over fundamental period,but case in which k is equal to

56
l. This integral will be non zero because when k is equal to l the sinusoid component reduces
to DC component.
Z 1
X F0
Xl = Xk F 0 ej2π(k−l)F0 t dt
k=<N > 0
X
= Xk δ(k − l)
k=<N >

= Xl

At receiver we employ demodulation with e−j2πlF0 t to extract Xl . By correlating with

ej2πlF0 t or matched filtering with e−j2πlF0 (τ −t) , one can extract symbol on lth sub carrier.

5.3.2 Comparison between MCM system and single Carrier system

Figure 5.4: This is a signal send by single carrier system in which each symbol have symbol
time 1/B and symbols are send in sequence one after the other

57
Figure 5.5: In MCM system each symbol have symbol time N/B which are being send using
different carrier concurrently.

Multi carrier modulated system is a precursor of OFDM. Two key aspects of OFDM(which are
incorporated in MCM will lead to OFDM). Thus

5.4 FFT and Cyclic Prefix for OFDM:-

With broadband systems we have problem of channel being frequency selective, i.e., the phe-
nomenon of ISI is very prominent in such systems and in subsequent section we will se there
is a new problem named Interblock Interference(IBI)in order to deal with such problems, there
are some techniques There are two key ingredient of OFDM systems to deal with the problem
of frequency selective nature of the system and IBI, they are:

1. IFFT/FFT Processing

2. Cyclic Prefix(CP)

5.5 IFFT/FFT Processing in OFDM systems

To understand the IFFT/FFT processing in OFDM systems, consider the MCM signal x(t)

X
x(t) = Xk ej2πkF0 t
k
th
Xk : Symbol transmitted on k sub carrier.

58
 ej2πkf0 t : K th sub carrier.
KF0 : K th sub carrier frequency.
N : Total number of sub carrier.

B
F0 =
N
X
x(t) = Xk ej2πkF0 t
k=<N >

Generating the above signal is difficult because of large number of sub carriers. If N=1000,
i.e., we have 1000 sub carriers we need 1000 oscillators ans spacing between these oscillator
must be precise in order to maintain the orthogonality. Orthogonality principle must hold i.e.,

Z 1 1, if l = k

F0
j2π(k−l)F0 t
F0 e dt = (5.5)
0 0, if l 6= k


Thus, these sub carriers are orthogonal.

To overcome the problem of large number of sub carriers. Considering our initial system,
we have a band limited transmitted signal with bandwidth B. Since it is a band limited signal
we can sample it to the Nyquist rate.

Figure 5.6: asddf

Therefore, Nyquist rate (Fs ) is given as

B
Fs = 2Fmax = B ∵ Fmax = (5.6)
2
Thus, the sampling interval (Ts ) is given by
1
Ts = (5.7)
Fs

59
The lth sampling instant = lTs , i.e., lth sample will be sampled at lTs instant.
Now,
X
x(t) = Xk ej2πkF0 t
k=<N >
X
x(l) = x(lTs ) = Xk ej2πkF0 lTs
k=<N >
B 1
X
x(l) = Xk ej2πk N l B
k=<N >

kl
X
x(l) = Xk ej2π N (5.8)
k=<N >

The above expression is for IDFT or IFFT, where x(l) represents lth IDFT point of symbols
transmitted on different sub carriers X0 , X1 , X2 ,..., XN −1 .
The problem with this system is that the transmit signal is difficult to generate, because it
requires N number of oscillators for N number of sub carriers, therefore N number of modulators
but from eq(boxed), we are saying that we don’t need these requirements, if we consider the
sampled transmitted signal that can be generated by IFFT operation. IFFT operation is way
simpler than setting N oscillators and N modulators. This is one of the key principle of OFDM.
This is the difference between MCM and OFDM. Thus by operating IFFT at transmitter and
FFT at receiver we can implement OFDM.
Since different sub carriers are orthogonal from eq(conditional equal), therefore it is or-
B
thogonal. We are dividing bandwidth among N sub carriers with each having bandwidth N
.
Therefore, it is frequency division. We are multiplexing the multiple symbols over N different
sub carriers, therefore, it is multiplexing. Hence it is named as Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing.

5.6 Cyclic Prefix in OFDM Systems

Considering a frequency selective channel that can be modeled as

y(n) = h(0)x(n) + h(1)x(n − 1) + h(2)x(n − 2) + ... + h(L − 1)x(n − L + l) (5.9)

where h(0), h(1),..., h(L − 1) are channel taps. Here y(n) not only depends on x(n) at the time
instant n but also depends on x(n − 1), x(n − 2),..., x(n − L + l) that means the channel has

60
ISI and as we know that frequency selective in frequency domain refers to ISI in time domain,
thus, the above model represents a frequency selective channel.
In OFDM systems we generate transmit signals via IFFT operation. Let us consider the
first set of symbols

X̃0 , X̃1 , ...., X̃N −1 IF

−−−F−→
T x̃0 , x̃1 , ...., x̃N −1

And the second set of the symbols is

X0 , X1 , X2 , ..., XN −1 . IF
−−−F−→
T x0 , x1 , ...., xN −1

where x̃0 , x̃1 , ...., x̃N −1 and x0 , x1 , ...., xN −1 are the transmitted sample of first and second set
respectively.Now output for x0 is given by

y(0) = h(0)x(0) + h(1)x̃(N − L + 1) + ... + h(l − 1)x̃(N − L + 1) (5.10)

There is Inter Block Interference(IBI) which is undesirable, we want to devise a mechanism to

avoid IBI. Thus we use cyclic prefix method.
Figure
we are taking last L samples and prefixing them. Hence the length of the block is N + L.
Thus the OFDM samples with cyclic prefix is given by
[x(N − L)...x(N − 1) x(0) x(1) x(2)... x(N − 1)]
Output for x(0) is given by

y(0) = h(0)x(0) + h(1)x(n − 1) + ... + h(L − 1)x(N − L + 1) (5.11)

Output for x(1) is given by

y(1) = h(0)x(0) + h(1)x(n − 1) + ... + h(L − 1)x(N − L + 1) (5.12)

Thus we have avoided IBI but there is ISI because the channel is frequency selective. We can
see that, all the channel coefficients are moving in circular fashion over the transmitted symbols
with each time instant, i.e., output OFDM signal is circular convolution between channel and
input. After addition of Cyclic Prefix, it resulted in circular convolution at the output of the
OFDM signal.
y =h~x (5.13)

61
where y is the receive OFDM sample, h is the channel coefficient, and x is the transmitted
OFDM sample. And as we know that, Y convolution in time domain is multiplication in fre-
quency domain, thus circular convolution in time domain is equivalent to a product of FFT
coefficients in frequency domain.

Y (k) = H(k)X(k) (5.14)

where Y(k) is the k th FFT coefficient of OFDM received signal [y(0),y(1), y(1)....y(N − 1)].
H(k) is the k th coefficient of the N point FFT of [h(0), h(1), h(2)..... h(L − 1), 0, 0,..., 0],
we have the h(n) zero paded with (N-L) number of zeros because of cyclic prefixing. X(k) is
the FFT coefficient of [ x(0), x(1),....x(N − 1)] From equation (6.15) we observe that each sub
carrier is experiencing flat fading, i.e.,we have removed the frequency selectivity of the channel.
Thus, OFDM has converted frequency channel into N flat fading channel.
After we do FFT operation at the receiver, we have N parallel flat fading channel across
N sub carriers. Thus we have collection of N parallel fading channels, which removed the
frequency selective nature of the channel,i.e., we have removed the ISI from the channel, which
was one of the major problems with broadband communication systems.

62
 OFDM schematic of operations at tx and rx
The following figures show the schematic of the operation that are at the transmitting and
the receiving end of the OFDM Systems.

Operations at transmitting end

Figure 5.7: OFDM schematic at transmitter

63
Operations at receiving end

Figure 5.8: OFDM schematic at receiver

5.7 BER in OFDM Systems

The system model for the OFDM is given by

y =h~x+w (5.15)

whose FFT is given as

Y (k) = H(k)X(k) + W (k) (5.16)

Previously we just ignored the noise component for ease of understanding. Here, we include
the noise component w in the system.Let us characterize the properties of the noise. The noise

64
is Gaussian with zero mean, σ 2 variance and is IID. The k th FFT coefficient of noise sample is
given by W(k)
N −1
kl
X
W (k) = w(l)e−j2π N (5.17)
l=0

w(l) is IID i.e. E[w(l)w̃(l)] = 0 Thus mean of W(k) is given by

N −1 
−j2π kl
X
E[W (k)] = E w(l)e N

l=0

Since w(l) zero mean, therefore, E[W(k)] is also zero, i.e., each sub-carrier is zero mean.

E[W (k)] = 0

Variance of W(k) is given by

E[| W (k) |2 ] = E[W (k)W ∗ (k)]

 N −1  N −1 
j2π kNl̃
X X
2
E[| W (k) | ] = E w(l) ˜
w(l)e
l=0 l̃=0

Since w(l) and w(˜l) are IID, therefore,

N −1 N −1
X X k(l−l̃)
E[W (k)W ∗ (k)] = E[w(l)w∗ (˜l)]e−j2π N (5.18)
l=0 l̃=0

Since w(l) and w(˜l) are IID, therefore they are uncorrelated, i.e., E[w(l)w(˜l)] = 0 if l 6= ˜l

0, if l 6= ˜l

∗
E[W (k)W (k)] = (5.19)
σ 2 , l = ˜l


N
X −1
E[| W (k) |2 ] = σ2 (5.20)
l=0
Since W(k) is linear combination w(l)

E[| W (k) |2 ] = N σ 2 (5.21)

Thus, N σ 2 is the noise variance at output of FFT.

Now characterizing the properties of channel coefficient H(k) is the k th point of (N-L)
number of zero padded sequence [h(0), h(1), h(2), h(L − 1),..,0, 0, 0]
L−1
kl
X
H(k) = h(l)e−j2π N (5.22)
l=0

65
assuming h(l) E[h(l)] = 0 and E[h(l)h∗ (˜l)] = 1, i.e., uncorrelated scattering environment. The
various channel coefficients h(l) are Rayleigh Fading i.e., they are complex Gaussian with zero
mean and unit variance(average power unity), therefore H(k) is also complex Gaussian with
zero mean and unit variance. Each H(K) is a Rayleigh fading coefficient with zero mean with
average power L. Now if we look at our system model, we have

Y(k) = H(k)X(k) + N(k) (5.23)

Let the power of the transmitted signal be P, i.e,

E[| X(k) |2 ] = P (5.24)

Thus SNR γ at the receiver is given as

| H(k) |2
γ= N σ2 (5.25)
P

LP
γavg = (5.26)
N σ2
v !
u L
1 u γ
BER = 1−t N L (5.27)
2 2+ Nγ

where γ is the transmit SNR Let us understand this by an example.

5.7.1 Mathematical analysis

Example 1. Compute the BER of an OFDM system with L = 16 channel tapes and N = 256
sub-carrier and SNR = 35 dB.
Solution 2. We have γdB = 35.

10log10 γ = 35 dB

γ = 103.5

Substituting the values in (5.25) we get,

BER = 2.5 × 10−3

Thus we computed the BER of this particular OFDM system.

66
 5.7.2 MATLAB Codes and Simulation

At transmitter
Generate n bits sequence using command randi and then divide this sequence into a set
of N bits, this set of N bits is called block, for now consider N = 4, i.e., each block comprises of
4 symbols, now apply IFFT operation on each block. We can do this by changing dimension of
information sequence from 1*n to n/N*N and then evaluate IFFT of each row separately using
loop operation, use command ifft() to find inverse Fourier transform. Now add cyclic prefix
in each row, let matrix with CP is denoted by x[n]. As we are considering two taps channel
response for now, therefore, number of terms which are being copied as a prefix to generate CP
should be greater than two.
At Channel
The relation between transmitted bits, received bits and channel coefficients is given as
y[n] = h[1]x[n] + h[2]x[n − 1]
Use for loop here to implement this equation.
At Receiver
To extract information bit we perform the reverse of the process we performed at the
transmitter end, i.e., remove CP and then find FFT. As we have already discussed in the theory
section that in frequency domain received signal is a product of channel response in frequency
domain and message bits. So to obtain message bits divide FFT of received signal with FFT
of channel response. Now again we compare the received information with information bits
send and calculate number of errors. Now we use Monte Carlo simulation to obtain BER for
particular value of SNR
MATLAB Simulation and Analysis
1 f u n c t i o n [ avgp ] = ofdm4 ( n , A)
2 m= r a n d i ( [ 0 , 1 ] , [ 2 , n / 2 ] ) ;
3 m(m==0) =−1;
4 q= t r a n s p o s e ( o n e s ( n / 2 , 1 ) ) ;
5 o = [ q ;m; q ] ;
6 p= r e s h a p e ( o , [ 1 , n+n ] ) ;
7 r=transpose (o) ;
8 s = s q r t (A) ∗ t r a n s p o s e ( o ) ;
9 f o r i =1: n /2
10 R( i , : ) = i f f t ( s ( i , : ) ) ;

67
11 end
12 L=2;
13 f o r k =1: n /2
14 f o r i =1:L
15 d ( k , i ) =R ( k ,4 −L+ i ) ;
16 end
17 end
18 CP= [ d R ] ;
19 CP1= r e s h a p e ( t r a n s p o s e ( CP ) , [ 1 , 3 ∗ n ] ) ;
20 h1= f a d i n g c h a n n e l ( 2 , 1 ) ;
21 h = [ h1 ( 1 , 2 ) z e r o s ( 1 , 4 ) ] ;
22 y ( 1 , 1 ) =h ( 1 , 1 ) ∗CP ( 1 , 1 ) +15∗ r a n d n ( 1 , 1 ) ;
23 y ( 1 , 2 ) =h ( 1 , 1 ) ∗CP ( 1 , 2 ) +h ( 1 , 2 ) ∗CP ( 1 , 1 ) +15∗ r a n d n ( 1 , 1 ) ;
24 f o r i =3:3∗ n
25 y ( 1 , i ) =h ( 1 , 1 ) ∗CP1 ( 1 , i ) +h ( 1 , 2 ) ∗CP1 ( 1 , i −1) +15∗ r a n d n ( 1 , 1 ) ;
26 end
27 y1= t r a n s p o s e ( r e s h a p e ( y , [ 6 , n / 2 ] ) ) ;
28 %remove CP
29 y2=y1 ( : , 3 : 6 ) ;
30 h2=h ( 1 , 1 : 4 ) ;
31 %f f t o f y and h
32 f o r i =1: n /2
33 Y( i , : ) = f f t ( y2 ( i , : ) ) ;
34 end
35 H= f f t ( h2 ) ;
36 f o r i =1: n /2
37 X( i , : ) =Y( i , : ) . / H ;
38 end
39 op= o n e s ( n / 2 , 4 ) ;
40 op (X>=0) = 1 ;
41 op (X<0)=−1;
42 p ( op== r ) = 0 ;
43 p ( op ˜ = r ) = 1 ;
44 avgp =mean ( p ) ;

Listing 5.1: OFDM System

68
 SNR vs BER plot for Ofdm
0.44

0.42

0.4
Bit error rate

0.38

0.36

0.34

0.32

0.3
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Signal-to-noise ratio(in dB)

5.8 Summary
In this chapter, we dealt with broadband communication system which gives us a great advan-
tage of high data rate but has a problem of ISI because of our channel being frequency selective.
Thus we have MCM systems in which whole band is spitted into several sub-bands resulting in
a better performance but with these systems we have the problem that we need large number of
oscillators, modulators when number of sub-carries is huge. To deal with this problem we used
the OFDM technology which is based on two key principles

1. IFFT/FFT Processing

2. Cyclic Prefix

In IFFT/FFT processing we do Fourier operation on our signal which is to be transmitted and

Cyclic Prefixing, we prefix the last L samples from the same set of transmitted signal to the be-
ginning of the same sample set. These techniques not only removed the problem of requirement
of large number of oscillators and modulators but also removed the frequency selective nature
of the channel. And at the end we analyzed the BER performance of the OFDM system.

69
Chapter 6

Estimation of Channel Coefficent

6.1 Introduction
In previous chapters we had a detailed discussion regarding modeling of wireless channel, hur-
dles in wireless communication system like ISI, delay spread, Doppler’s effect etc and various
wireless communication technique like MIMO, OFDM etc but there is one thing common about
all the techniques we have studied so far is we require channel coefficients at receiving end. As
we see that wireless channel is a dynamic channel, it changes frequently therefore it is not easy
to determine channel response correctly.
And for all these things which can’t be evaluated exactly, we can estimate them approx-
imately using statistics. This chapter deals with some basic techniques which can be used to
estimate channel coefficient. Estimation theory plays a key role in channel estimation. In this
chapter we are going to discuss two estimation techniques maximum likelihood estimation and
least square estimation.

6.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation

Maximum likelihood estimation is a method that determines values for the parameters of a
model. The parameter values are found such that they maximize the likelihood that the process
described by the model produced the data that were actually observed. Let us try to understand
it with an example consider a wireless sensor network having N sensor nodes and each node
gives there N different observations which are independent of one another. Let actual value
of the parameter to be estimated is h, it can be temperature or pressure or any other physical

70
quantity. Consider that ith sensor node produces yi as it’s output observation which is equivalent
to addition of actual value of parameter which is to be identified and noise component, we
consider this noise component to be Gaussian in nature with zero mean and σ variance.

yi = h + ni (6.1)

As yi is sum of one fixed parameter and one random noise component, therefore yi is also
random in nature with Gaussian PDF as in (6.3), with mean h and σ variance. Then joint
probability density function of output measurements of N sensor nodes is simply the product
of PDFs of output measurement of individual sensor node as shown by (6.4).The joint PDF of
N output measurements is called likelihood function which can be defined by P (y; h), which
denotes likelihood function P with y as its observation vector parametrized by h.

E[yi ] = E[h + ni ]

E[yi ] = E[h] + E[ni ]

E[yi ] = h (6.2)

have to be added

1 2 2
fyi (yi ) = √ e−yi /2σ (6.3)
2σ 2
!N  
(y1 −h)2 +(y2
2 −h)2 +....+(y −h)2
1 −
σ2
N

fy1 y2 y3 ...yN (y1 , y2 , y3 ...yN ) = √ e (6.4)

2πσ 2

(6.5)

Now our goal is to find the value of h for which (6.4) have maximum value, so find the derivative
of the function, set the derivative function equals to zero and then rearrange the equation to
evaluate the parameter of interest. The above expression of the joint probability is actually quite
a pain to differentiate, so it is almost always simplified by taking the natural logarithm of the
expression. This is absolutely fine because the natural logarithm is a monotonically increasing
function. The natural logarithm of the likelihood function is called log likelihood function and
now we will differentiate the log likelihood function to obtain the optimum value of h.
Log likelihood function
PN
N i=1 (yi − h)2 )
log(P (y; h))) = − log(2πσ 2 ) − (6.6)
2 σ2

71
In (6.6) first term is constant, therefore, to maximize likelihood function we have to minimize
second part of equation, so differentiate it and set it equal to zero.
N
∂ X
(yi − h)2 ) = 0
∂h i=1
N
X
2(yi − h) = 0
i=1
PN
i=1 yi
h= (6.7)
N

6.3 Properties of MLE

From now onwards we will use h for true value of parameter and h for estimated parameter.
Estimated parameter h is random in nature and therefore it is not necessary that it is same as
the true parameter h so now we have look for the properties of estimated parameter h that is
how close is this estimated parameter to the actual parameter.We have to know how good our
estimation is for the first we will look at mean and variance of estimated parameter h.
MEAN: Expected value of estimated parameter is evaluated below:
"P #
N
y
i=1 i
E[h] = E (6.8)
N

as we have already seen in section 6.2 that expected value of observations yi is h, therefore,
using this result and (6.1), expected value of estimated parameter is its actual parameter h. Esti-
mated parameter whose mean is equivalent to its actual parameter is called unbiased parameter.
VARIANCE Variance is the measure of spread or deviation of parameter about its mean value
and variance of our estimated parameter should be as low as possible because we want our
estimated parameter to be very close to the true value.

y1 + y2 + .....yN
h=
N

Substitute value of yi using (6.1).

P
ni
h=h+
P N
ni
h−h=
N

72
Using above equation
ni ) 2
P
2 (
E[(h − h) ] = E[ ]
N2
We have assumed ni to be IID(Independent Identical Distribution) in nature with zero mean,
therefore,
σ 2 δ(i − j)
E[(h − h)2 ] = (6.9)
N
In (6.9) we can see very obvious result showing that the deviation of estimated parameter from
the actual parameter decreases with increase in number of observations or say number of nodes
in wireless sensor network scenario.

6.4 Summary
n wireless communication we use techniques like MIMO, OFDM or CDMA we require chan-
nel’s information at receiving end, therefore piloted carriers are sent with message signal to
know channel response. Pilots are those message bits which are known to the receiver in ad-
vance, the main motive behind using pilots is to know channel response at receiving end. To
extract this information from piloted carriers various techniques are used which are developed
using estimation theory.

73
Chapter 7

Conclusion

In this project, we have done mathematical and simulation based analysis of wireless commu-
nication systems. our main emphasis was on the channel, since channel is the major source of
noise in the signal and it distorts the signal. We have compared the performance of wireless
channel to the wired channel (AWGN channel) because AWGN channel can be considered as
reference channel in order to analyze the performance.
We have modeled both the channels and analyzed there performance mathematically and
by simulating. we have analyzed the performance in terms of bit error rate (BER) with respect
to signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). We have observed that BER in wireless communication system
is very high as compared to AWGN channel for the same value of SNR. thus the performance of
wireless channel is poorer than AWGN channel. The reason for poor performance of wireless
channel was found to be deep fade events that occurs between transmitter and receiver link.
Further, in the subsequent chapters we have seen the challenges that we face in wireless
environment such as multipath effect, delay spread, Doppler shift, intersymbol interference.
In order to solve the problem of deep fade events that are occurring in single link systems,
we have implemented one of the existing technologies called multiple-input-multiple-output
(MIMO). In MIMO technology we exploit the antenna diversity at transmitter and receiver,
i.e., we use multiple transmit and receive antennas so that we can have multiple links between
transmitter and receiver which reduces the probability of occurrence of deep fade events. By
doing this we improve the BER performance of the wireless communication systems. From
section 2.6 we can infer that larger the number of antennas smaller the BER and better the
performance of the system. Thus MIMO technology has improved the BER performance of the
systems working in narrow band. With time, the requirement of high data rate has increased,

74
thus to meet this requirement of high data rate we need to work on broadband. In order to
have fast communication we need to increase the data rate which can be improved by using
high frequency signal which in time domain signifies low symbol time. We have to work on
the systems which support transmission and reception of broadband signals. From chapter 2
we know that we deal with the multipath environment in which we face the problem of delay
spread, if delay spread is greater than symbol time then frequency selective fading occurs. Thus,
in multipath environment at high frequencies the channel is frequency selective. Thus at high
frequency our signal suffers frequency selective fading which is ISI in time domain, which in
turn degrades the performance of the system. To improve the performance of such systems,
we have used another existing technology which is orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM). In OFDM we transmit the signal at different orthogonal frequency component. Thus,
OFDM allows us to efficiently utilize the available bandwidth.
we observe that the nature of the channel is dynamic, i.e., channel is time variant.

75
Bibliography

1. NPTEL, Principle of Wireless Communication by Prof. Aaditya Jaggannatham, IIT Kan-

pur

2. Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling, Goutam Saha: Principles of Communication System,

Tata McGraw-Hill Education Private Limited, 2008

3. F. Perez Fontan and P. Marino Espineira: Modeling the Wireless Propagation Channel,
John Wiley Sons, Inc., United Kingdom, 2004.

4. Upamanyu Madhow: Introduction to Communication System, University of California,

Santa Barbara, 2014

5. Mathwork and Simulink

76
Acknowledgments

This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and the help of several
individuals, who in one way or the other, contributed and extended their valuable assistance in
the preparation and completion of this work.
We would like to express deep respect and gratitude towards our guide Dr.Kamlesh Gupta,
who not only guided the academic project work, but also stood as a teacher and philosopher in
realizing our imagination in pragmatic way. We want to thank our guide for introducing us to
the field of research with his abundant knowledge and valuable guidance. We would like to
extend our gratitude to Prof.Aditya Jaggannatham (IIT KANPUR), whose valuable lectures on
”Principle of Wireless Communication” on the platform of NPTEL contributed a huge part in
completion of this dissertation. We acknowledge various authors of great books on Wireless
Communication Systems and MATLAB which helped us enormously. We would also like to
acknowledge Dr.S.C Sharma(Director) and all the faculty members and staff of our institute for
extending all possible help. We would like to acknowledge our institute, Acropolis Institute of
Technology and Research, Indore, for providing all the necessary facilities for completion of
this work.

Date:

Aaditya Jain Akshita Chordiya

Divisha Gupta Jyoti Porwal