Psychology Two

Ms Joy Louise Gumikiriza

BCP,Msc Clinical Psychology

References:

Lippa, R, A. (1989). Introduction to social psychology 8th

Edition. Wadsworth Publishing

Barlow, David, H., Durand, Mark, V. (1994). Abnormal

psychology 3rd Edition. Wadsworth Publishing

American Psychiatric Association (2000). DSM- IV- TR.

American Psychiatric Association Publishing Operations.

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Contents
 Introduction
 Theoretic perspectives of human development
 Theories of development
 Language acquisition and development
 Development of attachment
 Infant perception
 Introduction to abnormal psychology
 Assessment and treatment of Psychiatric/Psychological
disorders

Tests at the end of every month (20 marks ) and final exams
(60 marks)

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Introduction(Developmental Psychology)

 Definition
v Development are the systematic changes in the individual that occur
between the moment of conception and death
v It also refers to how individuals develop and change over the course
of there lives
 Domains of development
v There are 3 basic domains under which an individual develops.
f) Physical development
this is biological growth or maturation. Developmental changes in
the body that result from the process of aging. This includes
changes in body size, brain, sense organs, muscles, bones, genitals
e.t.c. it also includes how the person uses their body such as motor
skills & sexual development

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Introduction(Developmental
Psychology)
b) Cognitive development
these are changes in intellectual related
abilities i.e. reasoning & thinking, language
acquisition and how individuals gain and
store knowledge of their physical and social
environments. It also includes learning
e) Psychosocial development
this focuses on changes in feelings or
emotions as well as changes in how we
relate to other people. It includes
relationships with family as well as with
peers.
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Introduction(Developmental
 Relevance of developmental psychology to nursing

Ø It can give you appropriate expectations for children and
adolescents
Ø Helps to respond appropriately to children’s actual behavior
Ø Helps you recognize when departures from normal
development are truly significant & referrals need to be
made
Ø Researchers and nurses may apply what they have learned
and may help human beings develop in positive directions
Ø Helps individuals understand how to deal with changes that
occur during old age.

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Introduction(Developmental
 Theoretical perspectives to human development
v Biological perspective
Ø This emphasizes the relationship of biological systems to
behavior and mental processes
Ø This perspective started with Charles Darwin in the mid
1800’s.
Ø Darwin’s theory of evolution stresses the role of
biogenetic factors in determining the development of
individuals and the evolution of species
Ø He believed that development was a result of genetic
inheritance that directed the development of the individual’s
anatomy and physiology.
Ø Maturation was believed to be the unfolding of the individual’s
genetic characteristics. And it was thought to occur with little
influence from the environment therefore in order for one to
understand human development, you should first
understand human biogenetics

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Introduction(Developmental
v Behavioral learning perspective
v
Ø this emphasizes environmental factors in explaining
development.
Ø It was first studied by John, B, Watson (1878 – 1958)
Ø It views development as being largely determined by one’s
physical & social development
Ø Genetic factors are believed to be providing a blue print for
development with the environment providing the actual
materials
Ø Here the role of learning & experience in shaping behavior is
emphasized. Therefore in order to best understand
human development, there is a need for an individual
to focus on observable, overt behaviors, the process
of learning & the influences from the environment on
human behavior

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Introduction(Developmental Psychology)

v The cognitive perspective

Ø This perspective was first introduced by Jean Piaget
(1896_ 1980). He maintained that from birth on wards,
cognitive or mental development, is the result of an
active construction process by the individual
Ø this emphasizes our active role in influencing our
development in relationship with intellectual abilities
Ø This perspective focuses on the development of thinking,
reasoning and related intellectual abilities
Ø From this point of view, humans actively select and
process information about their world and construct a
meaning full internal representation of there knowledge

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Introduction(Developmental Psychology)
v Psychodynamic perspective
Ø This was first initiated by Sigmund Freud and it
provides the historical basis for many perspectives’
key ideas
Ø This believes that people are always in a state of
conflict between there internal urges (innate forces)
and society’s constraints on their behavior
Ø It stresses that development is the result of dynamic
inner forces of which individuals are normally
unaware, e.g. Sexual energy, aggressive energy.
Ø Humans are born with an innate set of forces that
shape and determine latter development

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Introduction(Developmental Psychology)

v Humanistic- Existential perspective

Ø This was founded by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
and Carl Rogers (1902- 1987)
Ø This emphasizes individual’s active role in their on
going development vis-à-vis social and personality
development
Ø It is based on an underlying belief that we make
conscious choices that directly affect how we develop.
i.e. development arises from striving to fulfill our
potential for growth
Ø It focuses on the idea that each of us has the capacity
to make our choices and to change these choices if we
so choose in the process of development

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Theories of development
v Freud’s Psychoanalytical theory
Ø Human development is motivated by energy or
libido. This approach believes that children move
through a series of stages in which they confront
conflict between biological drives or forces of social
expectations. The ways these conflicts are resolved,
determines development
Ø This theory focuses on five developmental stages
and these include
o Oral stage (Birth – 1yr)
o Anal stage (1-3yrs)
o Phallic stage (3-6yrs)
o Latency stage (6-12yrs)
o Genital stage (12-on wards)

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Theories of development

v Erick Erickson’s theory of Psychosocial

development(1902 – 1994)
Ø He emphasized social cultural development in his
theory
Ø He however puts more emphasis on social factors than
maturation
Ø The theory sees the child as an active participant in his
participant in his own development. It is comprised of
8 stages and these include;
5) Trust Vs Mistrust (Birth – 1yr)
ü this corresponds to infancy and Freud's oral stage
of psycho sexual development

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 ü Infants are extremely helpless and dependant on
there care givers and as a result they come to
trust their parents and others who care for them
adequately
ü Responsive maternal care while feeding the infant
and adequate attention to the infants basic needs
enables them to develop a sense of trust and
confidence.
ü Infants who are given adequate care view people
as good, predictable, dependable and reliable they
also view the world as a good place to leave.
ü If care givers are harsh, rejecting and inconsistent,
infants develop a sense of mistrust and view the
world as a difficult place and people untrustworthy

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Theories of development
2) Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt (1-3yrs)
ü This corresponds to Freud’s anal stage of psycho sexual
development.
ü During this stage children achieve muscular control and
motor skills like walking, climbing and manipulating
objects
ü A child must also learn to what degree he/she can take
pride in his/her own body and in the ability to decide
how to use it and to what degree he/she will experience
shame and doubt about the choices made.
ü A child who is treated with respect regardless of there
errors, will eventually develop a sense of autonomy
ü If a child is consistently humiliated, shamed and
embarrassed, they develop a sense of shame and
doubt

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Theories of development

3) Initiative Vs Guilt (3-6yrs)

ü This is a stage of activity and curiosity. It corresponds
to the phallic stage of Freud’s psycho sexual theory.
ü Children learn about the roles and institutions of society
and gain an insight about what kind of the person they
can become.
ü Initiative involves a sense of ambition and social
responsibility that develop when parents support their
children’s developing sense of purpose and direction
ü The danger here is that parents’ demands for self
control may lead to over control and result into a sense
of guilt i.e. children will under take goals or activities
that will make conflict with those of their parents and
family members which will make them feel guilty

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Theories of development
4) Industry Vs inferiority (6-12yrs)
ü This is the school going age which corresponds to
Freud’s latency stage. Here a child develops industrious
capacity for productive work, cooperation with others
and takes pride in doing things well.
ü Children leave the protection of their families and enter
a world of school in which they learn to master a new
set of challenges
ü They also acquire basic social and intellectual skills
required in modern society
ü Children who master important social and academic
skills develop a sense of industry
ü If parents fail to foster feelings of competence and
mastery, develop a sense of inferiority were one feels
they are not good at any thing

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Theories of development
5) Identity Vs role confusion (12-20yrs)
6)
ü This stage marks the transition between childhood,
adolescence and adulthood. It comes in adolescence.
ü Teenagers undergo a re-evaluation of who they are in
many areas of their development including physical,
social and intellectual development.
ü They are more concerned with what they appear to be
in the eyes of others than what they feel they are
ü Adolescents who establish basic social occupational
identities develop a sense of identity
ü Those who remain confused about the roles they should
play as adults, or remain confused about ones sexual,
physical and social self definition develop a sense of
role confusion

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Theories of development

6) Intimacy Vs Isolation (20-40yrs)

ü This is experienced in early adulthood. Once a sense of
personal identity is achieved, young people start
striving to achieve meaningful and intimate
relationships with other people
ü Intimate relationships are made with peers and adult
people regardless of their sex (gender)
ü The primary task at this stage is to form strong
relationships to achieve a sense of love and
companionship
ü Young adults who establish intimate relationships with
others, achieve a sense of intimacy and those who do
not, i.e. are rejected, negative out comes, because of
the fear for further rejection, develop a sense of
isolation.

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Theories of development
7) Generativity Vs Stagnation (40-65yrs)
ü This occurs during middle adult hood. At this stage
adults face the task of raising families, becoming
productive in their work looking after the needs of
young people
ü This task is achieved through child-rearing and caring
for other people.
ü Adults who accomplish these tasks develop a sense of
generativity. The standard of generativity is defined by
one’s culture.
ü People who fail to contribute to the task of child
rearing, are unable or unwilling to assume such
responsibilities, develop a sense of stagnation

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Theories of development
8) Integrity Vs Despair (65- on wards)
ü This occurs during the old age. The old individual looks
back at life, viewing it as either meaningful, productive,
and a happy experience or a disappointment full of
unfulfilled promises and unrealized dreams
ü Old people look back at the kind of life they have led
and the kind of people they have been and what they
have accomplished over the years.
ü Those who view life as a worthy experience, meaningful
and fulfilling, develop a sense of integrity
ü Those who view life as a major disappointment,
develop a sense of despair. To these, life is too short to
correct the mistakes they made.

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Theories of development
v Watson’s Behaviorism theory
ü This put emphasis on nurture or the environment. The
basic belief of this theory is that conclusions
about human development should be based on
observations of overt behavior rather than
speculations about unconscious motives and
cognitive processes that are un observable
ü He regarded the environment as the supreme force in
child development. He believed that a child should be
modeled in any way a parent felt is best if they
carefully controlled stimulus response associations in
their environment
ü He believed that well learned associations between
external stimuli and observable responses called
habits, are the building blocks of human development
ü He viewed development as a continuous process of
behavior change that is shaped by the person’s unique
environment and differs from one person to the next
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Theories of development
v Skinner’s Operant learning theory
ü He believed that both humans and animals will
repeat a series of responses that lead to favorable
or pleasant outcomes and suppress responses that
lead to unfavorable or un pleasant outcomes
ü according to this theory, a child’s behavior can be
increased if it is followed by a wide range of
reinforces e.g. praise, a smile, a hug a new toy e.t.c.
however if responses are followed by punishment ,
parental disapproval, withdrawal of privileges,
behavior can be decreased.
ü Skinner believed that the habits we learn come from
our unique environments and they differ from one
person to the next

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Theories of development
v Albert Bandura’s Social learning theory
ü This focuses on how humans observe, imitate and set goals that are self
rewarding.
ü He believed that observation and imitation are powerful tools for
childhood socialization. It is believed that through observing and trying
out what they have seen, children actually internalize important
qualities of models they observe.
ü He observed that from an early age, children learn most of the things
through watching and listening to others around them without direct
rewards and punishment
ü He believed that humans are cognitive beings (active information
processors) who unlike animals, think about the relationship between
their behavior and it’s consequences.
ü he noted that vicarious reinforcement and self reinforcement play a big
role in the process of observation and imitation
ü Vicarious reinforcement is when we learn appropriate behavior from
successes or mistakes of others
ü Self reinforcement refers to the fact that people have self-capacities
that permit them to control their own thoughts, feelings and actions

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Theories of development
v Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development
ü Cognitive development is the development of thinking and
reasoning and it involves construction of new mental
processes as children interact with the environment.
ü A child’s cognitive development consists of acquisition of
acquisition of cognitive structure called schemas that are
used in understanding and dealing with the environment
ü Cognitive development takes place through the process of
adaptation which involves assimilation and accommodation
ü Assimilation is the process by which children
understand and interpret new experiences by
incorporating them into existing schemas.
ü Accommodation is the process by which children modify the
existing schemas in order to adapt to new experiences

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Theories of development
Ø Piaget believed that children keep shifting back and
forth through the processes of assimilation and
accommodation. He believed that if the when
children are not changing, they assimilate more
than they accommodate a process he referred to as
cognitive equilibrium
Ø Rapid cognitive change is when children move
towards accommodation because they realize that
new information does not match their current
schemas a process he called disequilibrium. The
children end up shifting back to assimilation
Ø Piaget’s cognitive development is believed to occur
in 4 stages which include

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Theories of development
1) Sensorimotor (birth – 2yrs)
ü Young children acquire understanding through
sensory impressions and motor activities. i.e.
infants experience the world through their senses
ü Children’s cognitive abilities are dominated by
reflexive actions
ü Infants lack the concept of object permanence and
symbolic representation. Objects exist for infants
only when they are present
ü There is little or limited use of language
ü Children gain a little bit of self. This is evidenced
by them identifying an image of themselves in the
mirror

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Theories of development
2) Pre- operational stage (2-7 yrs)
ü There is rapid use of language
ü Cognitive abilities are developed i.e. there is object
permanence
ü Cognitive abilities are highly symbolic i.e. a doll can
represent a person
ü Children’s thinking is erratic and uneven (irrational).
Thinking at this stage is ego centric i.e. tendency to
view the world from their own point of view
ü They manifest the concept of concentration
ü They lack the concept of conversation
ü They lack the concept of reversibility i.e. it is difficult
for them to think back wards or retrieve earlier
information e.g. 1+2 and 2+1

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Theories of development
3) Concrete operation (7-12 yrs)
ü This is a major turning point in the quality of
cognitive manifestation. It is closely similar to
adults thinking
ü Development of conversation
ü Development of reversibility
ü Develop cognitive deception i.e. the tendency
to have too much faith in there thinking and
reasoning
ü Develop a sense of compensation i.e. a
change in one stimuli is balanced by a change
in another e.g. change in temperature means
a change in dressing
ü Spatial operations
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Programming i .e. the tendency
Theories of development

4) Formal operational (12 and above)

ü Dominated by qualitative improvement in
cognitive thinking and reasoning
ü Systematic problem solving is well developed
ü During adolescence an individual develops two
distorted images of self e.g. imaginary audience
where one views him/her self to constantly be on a
stage. They are convinced they are the center of
attention and thus become extremely self
conscious
ü And the personal fable where an individual
develops an inflated personal opinion of their own
importance. They start to feel they are special and
unique.

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