Review of General

Chemistry Concepts
The Periodic Table
The Periodic Table
Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

➢ Atom?
• electrons, protons,
neutrons
➢ Isotopes?
• C-12, C-14
➢ Charged ions?
• cations, anions
➢ Atomic weight?
Atoms, Ions, and Molecules
1. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons
are in an atom of phosphorus-31

2. Give the complete chemical symbol for the

atom that contains 82 protons, 82 electrons, and
126 neutrons.
 Atomic Orbitals
➢ According to Schrodinger, the
behaviour of each electron in
an atom or a molecule can be
described by a wave function.

➢ An orbital tells us the energy

of the electron and the volume
of space around the nucleus
where an electron is most
likely to be found.
 Atomic Orbitals
✓ Each shell contains a subshell known as atomic orbitals

An s orbital A p orbital A d orbital

Atomic Orbitals
✓ Energy level or shell – quantized, discrete
✓ s orbital – sphere of electron density
✓ p orbital – dumbbell shape; contains a node of
electron density
Atomic Orbitals
✓ First and second row elements
Atomic Orbitals
✓ Electron configuration
Atomic Orbitals
✓ Valence electrons – the outermost electrons
Atomic Orbitals
✓ Examples
Electron Configuration
✓ Aufbau principle states that the lowest-energy orbitals fill
up first, according to the order: 1s-2s-2p-3s-3p-4s-3d...

✓ Pauli exclusion principle states only two electrons can

occupy an orbital, and they must be of opposite spin

✓ Hund’s rule states that if there are two or more orbitals

with the same energy level, an electron will occupy an
empty orbital first before it will pair up with another
electron.
Electron Configuration
Draw the electron configuration of the given elements
below. Determine the number of valence electrons

1. Na
2. Cl ion
3. Al
Structure and Bonding

➢ Covalent bond?

➢ Ionic bond?

➢ Octet rule?
Structure and Bonding
✓ Ionic bond – a bond that is the result of only
electrostatic attractions wherein there is a transfer of
electrons.
Structure and Bonding
✓ Covalent bond – a bond formed as a result of sharing
electrons
Structure and Bonding
✓ Octet rule – states that atoms of main group
elements make bonds by gaining, losing, or sharing
electrons to achieve an outer shell containing 8
electrons.
Structure and Bonding

How many bonds does each atom need to satisfy

the octet rule?
–C
–H
–O
–N
–S
–P
Structure and Bonding
✓ Always remember, atoms are trying to complete
their outer shell!

✓ The number of electrons the atoms needs is the total

number of bonds they can make.
Structure and Bonding
✓ The atoms in organic compounds can form a fixed
number of bonds using their outermost shell
(valence ) electrons.
Structure and Bonding
✓ A carbon atom can use one or more of its valence
electrons to form bonds to other carbon atoms.
Structure and Bonding
✓ Representation of tetrahedral carbon atom
Lewis symbol
Lewis structures
✓ Electron-dot representation for molecules

General rule:
– Draw only the valence electrons.
– Give every 2nd-row element no more than 8 e-.
– Give each hydrogen 2 electrons.
Lewis structures
✓ Shared pairs of e- - bonding pairs.
✓ Unshared pairs of e- - nonbonding pairs/ lone pairs.

Each chlorine atom sees

an octet of electrons.
Writing Lewis structures
Draw a Lewis structure for methane, CH4 :

1. Start with the least

electronegative element H
as the central atom.

2. Surround the central H C H

atom with the bonding
elements H
Writing Lewis structures
3. Keep track the number
of electrons.
H ●
●
4. Indicate the initial
electrons for each atom. H C H
● ●

●
● ●

5. Add extra electrons to ●

satisfy the octet rule.
6. Connect the bonds. If
H
you run out of electrons,
use multiple bonds. 1 C : 4 e-
4 H : 4 e-
8e-
Writing Lewis structures

1. Draw a Lewis structure for methanol, a compound

with molecular formula CH4O.

2. Draw a Lewis structure for hydrogen cyanide.

 Exceptions to Octet Rule
Less than an octet

More than an octet

Formal charges
✓ The charge assigned to individual atoms in a Lewis
structures.
Formal charges
✓ The best Lewis structure…
– is the one with the fewest charges.
– puts a negative charge on the most electronegative
atom.
Formal charges
Determine the formal charges in each structure and
determine which is the dominant one?
Formal charges
Line Bond Formula
✓ Kekulé structure – bonding electrons are drawn as
lines and lone pair electrons are left out.
Condensed structures
✓ Simplified structures – the covalent bonds are
omitted and the atoms bonded to C (or N or O) are
listed next to it with a subscript to indicate the
number of atoms

CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH(OH)CH3

CH3C(CH3)2CH2CH3
Skeletal formula
✓ Line angle formula – shorthand representation of a
molecule's bonding using lines and chemical symbol
of atoms other than C and H

pentane isopentane

Anytime there is a line drawn, the atom at each end is a C unless otherwise indicated
Simplify!
Isomerism
✓ Different compounds that have the same molecular
formula

C3H60
Constitutional Isomers
Isomerism
✓ Constitutional isomers are compounds that have the
same molecular formula but differ in the way atoms
are connected

• Different physical properties

• Different names
Overview – Functional groups

Alkane C−C

Hydrocarbon Alkene C=C

Functional
Groups
Alkyne C=C

Aromatic
Overview – Functional groups

Alkyl
halides

Single Bond Alcohols

to a Heteroatom
Functional
Groups Ethers

Amines
Overview – Functional groups
Aldehydes

Carboxylic
Carbonyl Acids
Functional
Groups Esters

Ketones

Amides