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Course Breakup
Chapter # Final Exam Chapter Headings
Q. No
1 1 Fundamentals of CAD
2 2 Computer Systems
3 3 Use of Computers in CAD/CAM System
4 4 CAD System Hardware
5 5 CAD System Software
6 6 Principles of Interactive Computer
Graphics (ICG)
7 7 Transformation Systems
8 8 Wire Frame Modeling
9 9 Surface Modeling
10 9 Solid Modeling
Final 11
Exam Question11
Paper: 5 Review Questions out of 9
Recommended Text Book
Course Outline
Chapter 1 – 10
Marks Distribution
Assignments – 10%
Project – 15%
Mid Term – 25%
Final – 50%
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of CAD
Introduction
Use of Computer Systems to assist in the
Creation
Modification
Analysis or
Optimization of a Design
CAD Hardware
Computer
Graphic Display Terminals
Keyboards
Other Equipment
Introduction
CAD Software
Computer programs to implement Computer Graphics on the
Systems
Application Programs to Facilitate the Engineering Functions of the
Use Company
Stress-Strain Analysis of Components
Dynamic Response of Mechanisms
Heat Transfer Calculations
Numerical Control Part Programing
The CAD System
Involves any type of Design activity, which makes use of
the Computer to
Develop
Analyze
Or Modify an Engineering Design
ICG (Interactive Computer Graphics)
Use oriented system in which the computer is employed to Create,
Transform and Display data in the form of Pictures or Graphics.
Combination of Hardware and Software
Reasons for Implementing CAD
To Increase the Productivity of the Designer
Visualize
Reduces time to Synthesize, Analyze and Document
To Improve the Quality of Design
Reduced Design Errors by accuracy built into the system by means
of Calculations and Checks
To Improve Communication through Documentation
Standardized designs
Better Documentation
Fewer Errors
To Create a Database for Manufacturing
Databases automatically created
Can be used in CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing)
Design Process
An act of Devising an Original Solution to a Problem by a
Combination of Principles, Resources and Products in
Design.
Design process is a Pattern of Activities
Iterative
Preliminary design based on available information
Can be Improved with more information is generated
Process
Statement of Need
Identification of Problem
Search of Solutions
Development of Solution to trail production
Use
Iterative Design Procedure
Start Analyze
Is the
Design Results
Usable?
Design
Parameters
Evaluate
Idea Amend
Design Stop
Parameters
Shigley Model
Shigley Model
1. Recognition of Need
Realization by someone that a problem exists for which some
feasible solution is to be found.
Identification of defect in a current machine design activity
2. Definition of Problem
A Thorough Specification of the Item to be Designed
Functional & Physical Characteristics
Cost, Quality, Performance etc.
3. Synthesis
Various preliminary ideas are developed through research of similar
products or designs in use
4. Analysis and Optimization
To determine their suitability for the specific design constraints
If Fail to satisfy the constraints → Redesigned or Modified
Shigley Model
5. Evaluation
Against the specifications established during the problem
definition phase is then carried out
Often requires the Fabrication and Testing of a Prototype model
to Evaluate Operating Performance, Quality, Reliability etc.
6. Presentation
Documentation of design through
Drawings
Material Specifications
Assembly Lists and so on
Pahl and Beitz Model
1. Clarification of the Task
Collection of Information about the Requirements to be embodied in
the solution and also about the Constraints on the design and
describing these in a Specification
2. Conceptual Design
The Establishment of the Functions to be included in the design and
identification and development of suitable solutions.
3. Embodiment Design
Conceptual Solution is Developed in Detail
Problems are resolved and weak aspects are eliminated.
4. Detail Design
Dimensions, Tolerances, Material and Form of Individual Components
of the Design are specified in detail for subsequent manufacture.
Pahl and Beitz Model
Ohsuga Model
Ohsuga Model
Stages
Requirements ,Conceptual Design, Preliminary Design, Detailed
Design
Models of the design are developed through a process of
analysis and evaluation leading to modification and
refinement of the model
Early Stages → Designer Proposed a Tentative Solution
evaluated from a number of viewpoints to establish the
fitness of the proposed design in relation to the given
requirements → if proposal is unsuitable → modification
Process is repeated until the design is at a point where it
can be developed in more depth and the preliminary
design stage will start.
Earle Model
1. Problem Identification
2. Preliminary Ideas
3. Design Refinement
4. Analysis
5. Decision
6. Implementation
Problem Identification
Need to gather data of various Types
Fixed data, Opinion Surveys, Historical Records, Personal
Observations, Experimental Data and Physical Measurements and
Characteristics
Types
Identification of Need
Identification of Design Criteria
Problem Identification
Problem Identification
Steps
a) Problem Statement
b) Problem Requirements
c) Problem Limitations
d) Sketches
e) Gather Data
Preliminary Ideas
Generation of as many ideas for solution as possible.
Should be sufficiently broad to allow for unique solutions
that could revolutionize present methods.
Should be recorded in written form with sketches.
Systematic approach should be used to gather preliminary
ideas for the design problems
Suggested Steps
Hold brainstorming Session
Prepare Sketches and Notes
Research Existing Design
Conduct Surveys
Preliminary Ideas
Brainstorming
Practice of a conference technique by which a group attempts to
find a solution for a specific problem by amassing all the ideas
spontaneously contributed by its members.
Brainstorming Rules
No Criticism
Think Wild
Quantify Ideas
Seek Combination and Improvement
Preliminary Ideas
Organization Steps
Select a Panel of about 12 members with and without knowledge
of the subject.
Prepare a one page note pertaining to the session and should be
distributed to the members about two days in advance.
The problem should be concisely defined
A Moderator and recorder should be appointed for e session.
Hold the Session by initiating the problem
The recorder should reproduce the list of ideas gathered during
the session for distribution to the participants.
Design Refinement
Several of the better preliminary ideas are selected for
further refinement to determine their true merits
Rough sketches are converted to scale drawings that will
include space analysis, critical measurements and the
calculation of ideas and volumes affecting the design
4. Analysis
Evaluation of the best designs to determine the
comparative merits of each with respect to cost.
Strength, function and market appeal.
General Areas
Functional Analysis
Human Engineering
Market and Product analysis
Specification Analysis
Strength Analysis
Economic Analysis
Model Analysis
4. Analysis
Product Analysis Areas
Potential Market Evaluation
Market Outlets
Advertising Methods
Sales Features
Models to analyze design in Final Stages of its
Development
Conceptual Models
Mock-up Models
Prototype models
System Layout Models
5. Decision
Single model is accepted as the solution
Graphs must compare Costs of Manufacturing, Weights,
Operational Characteristics and other data that would be
considered in arriving at the final decision
6. Implementation
Presentation of final design concept in a workable form
preliminary as working drawings and specifications that
are used as the actual instruments for fabrication of a
product implementation phase of the design process
Application of Computers in Designs
Design related tasks performed by CAD
Geometric Modeling
Engineering Analysis
Design Review and Evaluation
Automated Drafting
Benefits of CAD
Productivity Improvement in Design
Shorter Lead Times
Design Analysis
Fewer Design Errors
Flexibility in Design
Standardization of Design, Drafting and Documentation
Drawings are mode understandable
Improved Procedures for Engineering Changes
Benefits in Manufacturing
Tools and Fixture Design for manufacturing
Computer Aided Process Planning
Computer Aided Inspection
Coding and Classification of Components
Production Planning and Control
Assembly Sequence Planning etc.
Creating the Manufacturing Database
Assignment # 1 (Due Date 22-05-2016)
What is the Design Process? Explain Briefly the FOUR
models for the Design Process.
Take any real world example/project and apply Earle
model on it.
What are the various Mass Storage Devices used for
Computer Storage Technology?
What is difference between:
ROM and RAM
Direct Access and Random Access
Low Level and High Level Programing Language
Write a details note on Input/output devices.
Chapter 2
Computer Systems
Digital Computer
An electronic computing machine that can perform
mathematical and logical computations and data
processing functions according to a predetermined series
of instructions known as Programs.
Essential Components ➔ Hardware
Programs ➔ Software
Hardware Components
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Memory
Input / Output Devices
CPU
Peripheral Devices
Input / (Readers, Printers, etc.)
Control Unit Output or mass Memory (Tape,
Disk, etc.)
Arithmetic-
Logic Unit
Memory
Central Processing Unit
Center of Digital Computer
Coordinates and Controls activities of other units
Subsections
Control Unit
Acts as Administrator
Coordinates operations of all the other components
Controls input and output of the information between computer and
outside world
Synchronize the transfer of signals between the various sections of
computer
Regulates the other sections to perform their individual functions
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Memory
Central Processing Unit
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Performs arithmetic operations
Performs logical operations
Memory
Registers
Instruction register
Holds instruction currently being executed
Data register
Holds data waiting to be processed
Holds results from processing
Special-purpose
High-speed
Temporary storage
Located inside CPU
Central Processing Unit
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
Bit
Byte
Registers
Program Counter
contains the address of the next instruction to be executed by the
program
As each instruction gets fetched, the program counter increases its
stored value by 1
Memory Address Register (MAR)
a CPU register that either stores the memory address from which data
will be fetched to the CPU or the address to which data will be sent
and stored
It holds the memory location of data that needs to be accessed.
Instruction Register
Part of a CPU's control unit that stores the instruction currently being
executed or decoded
Accumulator
a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are
stored
Registers
Status Register
a hardware register that contains information about the state of
the processor
Individual bits are implicitly or explicitly read and/or written by
the machine code instructions executing on the processor
Arithmetic Logic Unit
digital circuit used to perform arithmetic and logic operations
It represents the fundamental building block of the central
processing unit (CPU) of a computer
Memory
millions/billions of on/off charges
Divided into:
Bits 0 or 1
Bytes (Groups of 8 bits)
A byte is the smallest unit of storage. ( Can hold one text character)
Words (Groups of bits/bytes (8, 16, 32, 64-bits))
Two Types
Main Memory (Primary Storage)
Auxiliary Memory (Secondary Storage)
Main Memory
Very closely connected to the CPU.
Contents are quickly and easily changed.
Holds the programs and data that the processor is actively
working with.
Interacts with the processor millions of times per second.
Nothing permanent is kept in main memory
Categories
Main Data Storage
Close Proximity to the CPU, Fast access rate, Low Storage Capacity, Costly
Control Storage
Contains Microprograms that assist the CPU circuitry in performing its
functions
Local Storage
High speed working registers
Main Memory
Virtual Memory
Memories (ROM & RAM)
Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is a feature of an operating system (OS) that
allows a computer to compensate for shortages of physical
memory by temporarily transferring pages of data from random
access memory (RAM) to disk storage.
Memories (ROM & RAM)
Caches
Level 1 Cache
A level 1 cache (L1 cache) is a memory cache that is directly built
into the microprocessor, which is used for storing the microprocessor's
recently accessed information, thus it is also called the
primary cache.
Level 2 Cache
A level 2 cache (L2 cache) is a CPU cache memory that is located
outside and separate from the microprocessor chip core, although, it
is found on the same processor chip package.
Earlier L2 cache designs placed them on the motherboard which
made them quite slow.
Buffers
Some Programs allocate a Small Portion of the Computer’s
Random-Access-Memory as a Buffer.
Buffers have Several applications.
Mass Storage Devices
Magnetic Tape Storage
Sequential access Storage
Data stored on magnetic tapes
Cheap
Can hold large number of information
Slow Retrieval
Magnetic Disk Storage
Magnetic storage or magnetic recording is the storage of data on
a magnetized medium.
Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization in a
magnet sable material to store data and is a form of non-volatile
memory.
The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads.
Mass Storage Devices
Magnetic Drum Storage
A magnetic drum, also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder
coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and
programs can be stored.
Magnetic drums were once used as a primary storage device but
have since been implemented as auxiliary storage devices.
Compact Disk (CD)
A Compact Disc (CD) is a type of optical disc. It is flat and round,
and is used to store digital data. It was first used to store music
and other sounds (and is sometimes called an "audio CD"). The
sound on a CD is played using a compact disc player.
Mass Storage Devices
Digital Video/Versatile Disk (DVD)
DVD-ROM
A DVD-ROM permanently stores data files which cannot be changed, written
over or erased.
A personal computer (PC) with a DVD-ROM or a DVD-RAM drive is designed to
read a DVD-ROM disc.
DVD-R
DVD-RAM
a disc specification presented in 1996 by the DVD Forum, which specifies
rewritable DVD-RAM media and the appropriate DVD writers.
DVD-RAM media have been used in computers as well as camcorders and
personal video recorders since 1998.
DVD+RW
A DVD-RW disc is a rewritable optical disc with equal storage capacity to a DVD-
R, typically 4.7 GB (4,700,000,000 bytes).
DVD-R/W
Short for DVD-Re-Writable, a re-recordable DVD format similar to CD-RW or
DVD+RW. The data on a DVD-RW disc can be erased and recorded over numerous
times without damaging the medium.
Input / Output Devices
Card Readers
The brush Reader
The Photoelectric Reader
Card Punches
Paper Tape Readers
Paper Tape Punctures
Keyboard Input Devices
The Keypunch
Key-to-type Unit
Alphanumeric Display
Tele printers
Visual Display Units (VDU)
Printers
Line, Serial, InkJet, Laser Printers
Input / Output Devices
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
a technology used to verify the legitimacy or originality of paper
documents, especially checks. Special ink, which is sensitive to
magnetic fields, is used in the printing of certain characters on the
original documents.
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
a technology that enables you to convert different types of
documents, such as scanned paper documents, PDF files or images
captured by a digital camera into editable and searchable data.
Optical Barcode Reader (OBR)
an electronic device that can read and output printed barcodes to a
computer. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source, a lens
and a light sensor translating optical impulses into electrical ones.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
is the process of capturing human-marked data from document forms
such as surveys and tests.
Programing Languages
Machine Languages
Machine code or machine language is a set of instructions
executed directly by a computer's central processing unit (CPU).
Each instruction performs a very specific task, such as a load, a
jump, or an ALU operation on a unit of data in a CPU register or
memory.
Every program directly executed by a CPU is made up of a series of
such instructions.
Programing Languages
Assembly Languages
An assembly (or assembler) language, often abbreviated asm, is a
low-level programming language for a computer, or other
programmable device, in which there is a very strong (generally
one-to-one) correspondence between the language and the
architecture's machine code instructions.
Each assembly language is specific to a particular computer
architecture, in contrast to most high-level programming
languages, which are generally portable across multiple
architectures, but require interpreting or compiling.
Assembly language may also be called symbolic machine code.
Programing Languages
High-Level Languages
A programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal that
enables a programmer to write programs that are more or less
independent of a particular type of computer.
Such languages are considered high-level because they are closer
to human languages and further from machine languages.
Operating System
Batch Processing
Programs to be run are collected several at a time and are entered
into the computer as batch of programs.
Programs are read in and placed on disk storage to form an
execution queue.
When one program is completed, the next one in the queue is
loaded for processing.
On-line Processing
Use communicates directly with the computer through its terminal
devices.
Information and instructions entered via a terminal are executed
virtually immediately and a response is received as soon as
possible, often within seconds.
Operating System
Multiple Programming
In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and
peripherals were very slow.
When the computer ran a program that needed access to a
peripheral, the central processing unit (CPU) would have to stop
executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the
data.
This was deemed very inefficient.
It enabled individual programs to make use of memory and
operating system resources as if other concurrently running
programs were, for all practical purposes, non-existent and
invisible to them
Operating System
Time-Sharing
Time sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at
various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the
same time.
Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of
multiprogramming.
Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously
is termed as time-sharing.
Real-Time
In computer science, real-time computing (RTC), or reactive
computing describes hardware and software systems subject to a
"real-time constraint", for example from event to system response.
Real-time programs must guarantee response within
specified time constraints, often referred to as "deadlines".
System Configuration
Simple Configuration
CPU
Paper Tape or
Disks or Tapes Console Printer
Card
System Configuration
Network Configuration
Centralized Network
Centralized Computer
Complex
Communication
User User
System
User
System Configuration
Network Configuration
Distributed Network
System Configuration
Network Configuration
Ring Network
User User
Computer Complex
User User
User
Computer Complex
User User
Chapter 3
Use of Computers in CAD/CAM System
Classification of Computers
Microcomputer
Minicomputer
Large Mainframes
Supercomputer
Microcomputer
a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a
microprocessor as its central processing unit (CPU).
It includes a microprocessor, memory, and input/output
(I/O) facilities.
Microcomputers became popular in the 1970s and 1980s
with the advent of increasingly powerful microprocessors.
Minicomputer
Computer that is smaller, less expensive, and less
powerful than a mainframe or supercomputer, but more
expensive and more powerful than a personal computer.
Minicomputers are used for scientific and engineering
computations, business-transaction processing, file
handling, and database management, and are often now
referred to as small or midsize servers.
Large Mainframe
A data processing system employed mainly in large
organizations for various applications, including bulk data
processing, process control, industry and consumer
statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial
transaction processing.
Mainframes use proprietary operating systems, most of
which are based on Unix, and a growing number on Linux.
Over the years they have evolved from being room-sized
to networked configurations of workstations and servers
that are an extremely competitive and cost effective
platforms for e-commerce development and hosting.
Super Computers
A supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near
the currently highest operational rate for computers.
A supercomputer is typically used for scientific and
engineering applications that must handle very large
databases or do a great amount of computation (or both).
Microcomputer Based Systems
Microcomputer (C) = microprocessor-based computer
Microprocessor (P) = single-chip or chipset CPU
Chipset - few closely-interacting chips
All computers today have single-chip CPU
2 levels of memory cache on chip
“chipset” is interface chip for CPU
Memory interface, Mouse, Keyboard, Graphics, USB, ...
Types of Microcomputers
Single board computer (SBC)
usually an embedded computer - buried inside a product
Features
dedicated to a single fixed task
minimum hardware to support the task
minimize cost, power, weight, size
Examples
PostScript printer, ATM, microwave oven, cell phone
Types of Microcomputers
Modular microcomputer
modules connected by a bus
usually a general-purpose computer
Features
used for wide range of applications
flexible hardware to support application range
can mix and match modules as needed
example - add more memory modules
Examples
personal computer, factory controller
Modular Microcomputer
System = modules linked by system bus
system bus - data transfer between modules
local bus - data transfer within module
Advantages
standard modules assembled to form computer
large number of module types available
can easily customize computer to application needs
Modular Microcomputer
Architecture (Hardware)
Architecture (Hardware)
Bus Conductors
Data Lines
Address Lines
Control Lines
Architecture (Software)
Microcomputer Instructions
Data Transfer and Input/output Instructions
Arithmetic Operations
Logical Operations
Branching Operations
Mainframe Based Systems
Mainframe Based Systems
Super Computers
Definition
A supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the
currently highest operational rate for computers.
A supercomputer is typically used for scientific and engineering
applications that must handle very large databases or do a great
amount of computation (or both).
At any given time, there are usually a few well-publicized
supercomputers that operate at extremely high speeds.
The term is also sometimes applied to far slower (but still
impressively fast) computers.
Most supercomputers are really multiple computers that perform
parallel processing.
Characteristics of Super Computers
High Computing Speed
In Mega FLOPS (Floating Point Operations per Second)
0.185686547 x 103 ➔ (0.185686547, 3) ➔(Mantissa, Exponent)
In Supercomputers # of digits in Mantissa are 15
Range of exponent is also high around 500
High Precession of Stored Numbers
Real number stored in supercomputers memory as a 64 bit word
(49 bits for mantissa and 15 to store exponent and sign)
Exponent range 105000
Large, Fast Main Memory
Provides 256 Million words
Time to access data from main memory is also high
Large, Fast Secondary Memory
Speed Comparison
Need
Cheaper than setting up big experiments or building
prototypes of physical systems
Possible in numerical model to change many parameters
and observe their effect
Experimental
Graphics
CPU Input Devices
Terminal
Output
(Plotter etc.)
The Design Workstation
System interface with the outside world
Functions
Must interface with CPU
Must generate a Steady Graphic Image for the User
Must provide Digital Descriptions of the Digital Image
Must Translate Computer Commands into Operating Functions
Must Facilitate Communication between User and the System
Components
Graphic Terminals
Operator Input Devices
Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs)
PLCS
Programmable Logic Controllers
Were introduced in 1968
Were primarily intended to replace relay devices , so it
is appropriate to be familiar with the components used
in relay devices
Definition
A PLC is a digital operating electronic apparatus which uses
a programmable memory for internal storage of instruction
for implementing specific function such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control
through analog or digital input/output modules various
types of machines or process.
PLC Background
PLC Development factors
needs for low-cost
Flexible
Easily commissioned/ smart usage
Historical Background
In 1968, a group of engineers from General Motors
developed the concept of PLC with an initial
specification. The PLC must be:
Easy to program.
Not need rewiring the control system if change the
program.
Smaller in size, cheaper and high reliability.
Simple construction and low maintenance
Cost- competitive
PLC Elements
Processor
The Processor is a computer that Executes a Program to
Perform the Operations specified in a Ladder diagram or a set
of Boolean Equations.
The processor performs arithmetic and logic operations an
input variable data and determines the proper state of the
output variables.
The Processor functions under a permanent Supervisory
Operating System that directs the overall operations from
data Input and Output to Execution of user Programs.
Processor is a Serial Machine
Sample Each Input → Perform Operation → Provide Each Output →
Repeat the Process
Input Modules
The Input modules examine the state of physical switches
and other input devices and put their state into a form
suitable for the processor.
The processor is usually able to accommodate a number of
Inputs, called channels.
Output Modules
The Output modules supply power to external devices such as
motors, lights, solenoids, and so on, just as required in the
ladder diagram.
Advantages of Using PLCs
Shorter Project implementation time
Easier modification
Project cost can be accurately calculated
Shorter training time required
Design easily changed using software
A wide range of control application
Easy maintenance
High Reliability
Standardization of Controller hardware
Able to withstand Harsh plant/process environments
(Operate normally under severe conditions of
temperature, humidity, voltage fluctuations and
noises)
Chapter 4
CAD System Hardware
Introduction
Hardware Components
Graphical Terminal
Operator Input Devices
Central Processing Unit
One or more Plotter and Other Devices
Secondary Storage
Introduction
Secondary
Storage Device
Graphics
CPU Input Devices
Terminal
Output
(Plotter etc.)
The Design Workstation
System interface with the outside world
Functions
Must interface with CPU
Must generate a Steady Graphic Image for the User
Must provide Digital Descriptions of the Digital Image
Must Translate Computer Commands into Operating Functions
Must Facilitate Communication between User and the System
Components
Graphic Terminals
Operator Input Devices
Graphics Output Devices
Pen Plotters
Hardcopy Units
Electrostatic Plotters
Computer output to Microfilm Units (COM Units)
Pen Plotters
Pen Plotters
Pen plotters print by moving a pen or other instrument
across the surface of a piece of paper.
This means that plotters are vector graphics devices,
rather than raster graphics as with other printers.
Pen plotters can draw complex line art, including text,
but do so slowly because of the mechanical movement of
the pens.
They are often incapable of efficiently creating a solid
region of color, but can hatch an area by drawing a
number of close, regular lines.
Plotters offered the fastest way to efficiently produce
very large drawings or color high-resolution vector-based
artwork when computer memory was very expensive and
processor power was very limited, and other types of
printers had limited graphic output capabilities.
Electrostatic plotters
Electrostatic plotters used a dry toner transfer process
similar to that in many photocopiers.
They were faster than pen plotters and were available in
large formats, suitable for reproducing engineering
drawings.
The quality of image was often not as good as
contemporary pen plotters.
Electrostatic plotters were made in both flat-bed and
drum types.
Computer output to Microfilm Unit (COM)
A COM system usually consists of a recorder/developer
and a reader.
The recorder/developer equipment may be in a single unit
or each unit may be separate.
The recorder reads computer magnetic tape, reduces the
physical size of the data, and transforms it onto film,
which is then developed.
The reader, the main vehicle for retrieving information on
microfilm, magnifies the reduced data on the film so a
report user can read it.
CAD Mode of Operation
Hard Copy Module
CRT
CRT
CAD Mode of Operation
Online Module
Remote Plotter
Computer Telephone Telephone
Computer
Chapter 5
CAD System Software
Graphics Software
Collection of programs written to make it convenient for a
user to operate the computer graphics system
It include programs
To generate images on the CRT screen
To manipulate the images and to accomplish various types of
interaction between the user and the system
Additional programs
Design analysis programs
Manufacturing planning programs
Computer Graphics Programs
Classified according to types of images created
Vector objects
Created in CAD drawings
Made up of lines and arcs
Defined with point coordinates in space
Hard copy images may be converted to raster format with a scanner
Raster objects
Also called bitmap graphics
Number of pixels defines resolution
Modified using an image editing program
Computer Graphics Programs
Ground Rules in designing Graphics
Software
Simplicity
Consistency (Operate in Consistent and Predictable way)
Completeness (No inconvenient omissions)
Robustness (Tolerant of minor instances of misuse by
operator)
Performance (Efficient and Speed of Response should be
fast and Consistent)
Economy
Software Configuration of a Graphic System
In operation of the graphics system by the user, a variety
of activities takes place which can be divided into three
categories
Interact with the graphics terminal to create and alter images on
the screen
Construct a model of something physical out of the images on the
screen (Application Models)
Enter the model into Computer memory and/or Secondary storage
Graphics Software
Graphics Package
Application Program
Application Database
Software Configuration of a Graphic System
Design
Workstation
Graphics
Terminal
Variables a and b
record the distances
to the pixel centers
of (i+1, j) and (i+1,
j+1)
If a > b, then y=j
If a < b, then y= j+1
a b
Row-vector
a
b
Column-vector
Matrix Math
We’ll use the column-vector representation for a
point.
Which implies that we use pre-multiplication of the
transformation – it appears before the point to be
transformed in the equation.
A B x Ax + By
C D • y = Cx + Dy
Translation
A translation moves all points in an ?
object along the same straight-line path
to new positions.
The path is represented by a vector, ty=4
called the translation or shift vector.
We can write the components: (2, 2) tx = 6
p'x = px + tx
p'y = py + ty
or in matrix form:
P' = P + T
x’ x tx
y’ = y +
ty
Translation
Rotation P’
Example
Find the transformed point, P’, caused by rotating P= (5, 1)
about the origin through an angle of 90.
5 0 − 1 1
=
5 1 + 1 0
− 1
=
5
Scaling
• Scaling changes the size of an
object and involves two scale
factors, Sx and Sy for the x- and
P’
y- coordinates respectively.
• Scales are about the origin.
• We can write the components:
p'x = sx • px
p'y = sy • py P
or in matrix form:
P' = S • P
Scale matrix as:
sx 0
S=
0 s y
Scaling
• If the scale factors are in between 0
and 1 ➔ the points will be moved
closer to the origin ➔ the object will
be smaller.
• Example :
•P(2, 5), Sx = 0.5, Sy = 0.5 P(2, 5)
•Find P’ ?
P’
Scaling
• If the scale factors are in between 0
and 1 ➔ the points will be moved P’
closer to the origin ➔ the object will
be smaller.
• Example :
•P(2, 5), Sx = 0.5, Sy = 0.5
•Find P’ ? P(2, 5)
•If the scale factors are larger than 1 ➔ the
points will be moved away from the origin ➔
the object will be larger. P’
• Example :
•P(2, 5), Sx = 2, Sy = 2
•Find P’ ?
Scaling
Combining transformations
It’d be nicer if we could use the same matrix operation all the time.
But we’d have to combine multiplication and addition into a
single operation.
Chapter 8
Wire Frame Modelling
CAD Modelling types - Wireframe
These types of drawings only show the
structure of the object drawn.
No other details are shown.
CAD Modelling types - Surface Rendered
These types of drawings show the objects as solid
shapes.
CAD Modelling types - Surface Rendered
You can view surface detail as a rendered block.
It looks realistic due to the highlights and shading
generated by the package.
This allows high quality drawings to be produced very
quickly.
This allows high quality drawings to be produced very
quickly.
It also means that very realistic models of a design can
be produced without having to manufacture them,
saving design firms time and money.
CAD Modelling Types – Solid
3D model is built up using simple geometric forms such
as cones, cylinders, prisms and cuboids.
These can be added or subtracted to produce complex
3D models.
CAD Drawings
There are certain things common to all 3D
packages and this is how the shapes are produced.
You can:
combine shapes
subtract them from each other
add them together
obtainthe orthographic views of the 3D object using
one command.
CAD Drawings - Combining Shapes
Shapes can be combined.
CAD Drawings - Subtracting Shapes
Shapes can be subtracted from each other.
CAD Drawings - Adding Shapes
You can add shapes to each other.
CAD Drawings - Orthographic Views
You can use one command to obtain the 3
orthographic views of the object.
Plan
End Elevation
Elevation
Geometric Modeling
Geometric modelling refers to a set of techniques
concerned mainly with developing efficient
representations of geometric aspects of a design.
Therefore, geometric modelling is a fundamental part of
all CAD tools.
Geometric modeling is the basic of many applications such
as:
Mass property calculations
Mechanism analysis
Finite-element modelling.
NC programming
Geometric Modeling
Requirements of geometric modelling include:
Completeness of the part representation.
The modelling method should be easy to use by designers.
Rendering capabilities (which means how fast the entities can be
accessed and displayed by the computer).
Basic geometric modelling approaches
Wire-frame modeling
Surface modeling
Solid modeling
Wire-frame Modeling
Wire-frame modelling uses points and curves (i.e. lines,
circles, arcs), and so forth to define objects.
The user uses edges and vertices of the part to form a 3-D
object