SURAJMAL AGARWAL GIRLS

P.G. COLLEGE, KICHHA

STUDY OF OPTICAL FIBRE

DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED FOR
M.Sc. DEGREE
IN
PHYSICS

SUBMITTED TO: - SUBMITTED BY:-

Miss Kajal Chaudhary Miss Bhawna Rangila

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

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 Dedicated to LORD,
MY MOTHER AND BROTHER

FORWARDED
BY:

SUPERVISOR HEAD
Miss Kajal Chaudhary Dr. Neha Arora

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Miss Kajal

Chaudhary for her continuous support throughout my dissertation work for her
motivation and immense knowledge in the filled of Physics. Her guidance help me in all
the time of this thesis.

I take this opportunity to express my profound and science gratitude to our

college Surajmal Agarwal Girls P.G. College, KICHHA for providing me with this
opportunity to explore the corridors of the world and gather valuable information and
practical experience.

BHAWNA RANGILA

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certified that Bhawna Rangila has carried out the dissertation work in
partial fulfillment of requirement for the degree of master in physics with specialization
in ‘‘ADVANCED ELECTRONICS PHYSICS’’ on the topic ‘‘OPTICAL FIBRE’’
under my supervision at the department of physics, Surajmal Agarwal Girls P.G.
College, Kichha.

Dr. Neha Arora

(H.O.D)

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 PREFACE

The aim of my work is to study about Optical Fibre and its applications.

The complete work of this dissertation is divided into five parts.

Chapter 1 deals with the basic introduction of Optical Fibre like its history, development
and definition and structure.

Chapter 2 deals with the light propagation and classification of Optical fibre.

Chapter 3 deals with the acceptance angle, numerical aperture and connectors and splices
of Optical Fibre.

Chapter 4 deals with losses, applications, advantages and disadvantages of Optical Fibre.

Chapter 5 Deals with The recent project and future trends of optical Fibre.

Conclusions

References

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 CONTENT
Title Page No.
FORWARDED 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3
CERTIFICATE 4
PREFACE 5
1: INTRODUCTION 8-12
1.1: History 9

1.2: Development of Fibre Optics 10

1.3: Why Optical Fibre? 10

1.4: Optical Fibre 11

1.5: Structure Optical Fibre 12

2: LIGHT PROPAGATION AND CLASSIFICATION 14-19

2.1: Light Propagation in Optical Fibre 14

2.2: Classification of Optical Fibre 16

2.2.1: Step-index Multimode Fibre 16

2.2.2: Graded-index Multimode Fibre 17

2.2.3: Step-index Singlemode Fibre 17

2.3: Difference between Step index and Graded Index Fibre 19

3: SOME PARAMETERS OF OPTICAL FIBRE 20-25

3.1: Parameters of Optical Fibre 20

3.1.1: Radius of the Core 20

3.1.2: Acceptance angle 20

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 3.1.3: Numerical Aperture 21

3.2: Connectors and Splices 22

3.2.1: Connectivity 22

A. Fusion Splices 22

B. Connectors 23

 Physical Contact Connectors 23

 Expanded Beam Technology 25

4: LOSSES AND APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBRE 26-38

4.1: Some Losses in Optical Fibre 26

4.2: Fibre Optic Transmission System 28

4.3: Applications of Optical Fibre 32

4.4: Advantages of Optical Fibre 35

4.5: Disadvantages of Optical Fibre 36

4.6: Comparison among Twisted Pair Cable, Co-Axial Cable and Optical Fibre 38

5: RECENT PROJECT AND FUTURE TRENDS 39-43

5.1: NOFN 39

5.2: Future Trends in Optical Fibre 40

CONCLUSION 45

REFERENCES 46-47

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 Chapter : 1
INTRODUCTION

In 1952 physicist Narinder Singh Kapany, based on studies conducted by english

physicist John Tyndall that the light could travel in curve inside a material (in Tyndall’s
experiment this material was water), could conclude his experiments that led to the
invention of the optical fiber. Optical fiber is an excellent transmition medium used by
systems that require a high bandwidth, like the telephony systems, videoconference, local
networks (LANs), etc.

There are two main advantages on optical fibers over metallic cables. Optical
fiber is totally imune to electromagnetic interference, which means that data isn’t
corrupted during their transmition. The second main advantage is that optical fiber
doesn’t conduct electrical current, thus no electricity-related issue is found by using
optical fibers, like electrical potential difference between devices or problems with
lightnings.

As the name implies, optical fibers use light to transmit data. At one end of the
cable, a LED (Light Emitting Diode) or a semiconductor laser is used as the light source.
LEDs can transmit data up to 300 Mbps and is used on short-distance fibers, while with
laser the transfer rate can easily reach the Gbps range and is used in long-distance fibers.

Light is used in optoelectronics and optical fiber telecommunication for data

transmission, in optical fiber interferometers, optical fiber lasers, sensors and optical fiber
modulators. The term “light” in fiber transmission, even though commonly used, is not
always precise: Light defines only the electro-magnetic radiation from the visual range of
380-780 nm, while in many applications, e.g. optical fiber transmission, the electro-
magnetic radiation from near infrared range (850 nm, 1310 nm, 1550 nm) is used. The
light used in optical fibers is near the infrared range, so it is invisible to the human eye.
Actually optical fibers can use light from different wavelength.

Fig. 1.1.shows the electromagnetic radiation spectrum and allows to locate the
radiation used in optical fiber transmission.

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Fig: 1.1 Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum

1.1: HISTORY
The earliest attempts at optical communication date back to the 1790’s, when
Claude Chappe of France invented what is now termed as the optical telegraph. Various
lights mounted atop large towers with human operators would flash signals to nearby
towers. In the 1840’s, two physicists, Daniel Collodon and Jacques Babinet demonstrated
the transmission of light along tubes of water in fountain displays. This led to the now
popularized 1854 experiments of John Tyndall, which is seen by many as the true
beginning of fiber optics. In this demonstration, a jet of water was allowed to flow out of
a pipe in the side of a container; light was angled such that it entered and then exited the
container through the jet of water flowing from the pipe, and bent with the water as the
jet fell to a container below.

.
Fig 2: Basic Idea of Fibre Optics

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 In the 1950’s, Brian O’Brien, Narinder Kapany and colleagues developed the
fiberscope, which was essentially an all glass fiber that was used to transmit images. The
lack of a cladding resulted in excessisive loss, and prompted the development of more
sophisticated and modern fibers. Successive improvements on the general design were
made over the next 20 years, and in 1970 scientists at Corning Glass Works doped
extremely pure silica glass with titanium, resulting in a glass with less than 20 dB/km
attenuation. Such a low loss material meant that for the first time optical fiber was a
viable means for large scale transmission of information, and the modern era of fiber
optics had begun.

1.2: DEVELOPMENT OF FIBRE OPTICS

Since the earliest days of telecommunications there has been an ever increasing
need to transmit more data even faster. Initially single line wires were used. These gave
way to coaxial cables that enabled several channels to transmitted over the same cable.
However these systems were limited in bandwidth and optical systems were investigated.
Optical communications became a possibility after the first lasers were developed
in the 1960s. The next piece of the jigsaw fell into place when the first optical fibers with
a sufficiently low loss for communications purposes were developed in the 1970s. Then,
during the late 1970s a considerable amount of research was undertaken. This resulted in
the installation of the first optical fibre telecommunications system. It ran over a distance
of 45 km and used a wavelength of 0.5 mm and had a data rate of just 45 Mbps - a
fraction of what is possible today.
Since then, considerable improvements have been made in the technology. Data
rates have improved and in addition to this the performance of the optical fibre has been
improved to enable much greater distances to be achieved between repeaters. As an
indication of this the speeds that can now be achieved along through a fibre optic system
exceed 10 Tbps.
When the first fibre optic transmission systems were being developed, it was thought that
the fibre optic cabling and technology would be prohibitively expensive. However, this
has not been the case and costs have fallen to the extent that fibre optics now provides the
only viable option for many telecommunications applications. In addition to this it is also
used in many local area networks where speed is a major requirement.

1.3: WHY OPTICAL FIBRES?

Because of the rapidly increasing demands for telephone communication throughout the
world, multiconductor copper cables have become not only very expensive but also an
insufficient way to meet these information requirements. The optical fibre, with its low

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weight and high frequency characteristics, has become the choice for all heavy-demand
long-line telephone communication systems.
The following examples illustrate and emphasize the reasons for using optical fibres.
1. The light weight and noncorrosiveness of optical fibre make it very practical for
aircraft and automotive applications.
2. A single fibre can handle as many voice channels as a 1500-pair cable can.
3. The spacing of the repeaters from 35 to 80 km for fibres, as opposed to from 1 to
11/2 km for wires, is a great advantages.
4. Fibre is immune to interference from lightning, cross talk, and electromagnetic
radiation.

1.4: OPTICAL FIBRE

An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made
by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human
hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit light between the two ends
of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications, where they permit
transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables.

Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a

transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by
the phenomenon of total internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide.
Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode
fibers (MMF), while those that support a single mode are called single-mode
fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for
short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be
transmitter. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000
meters.

The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics.

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer

networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially
advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the
fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be
spanned with few repeaters.

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Why do some fibres change the color of the light?

In fact, all fibres change the color of the light in one way or another. Due to the physical
characteristics of the conductor some frequencies travel with the less impediment than
others and is impossible to produce a fibre that would have the same attenuation on the
whole of the visible spectrum. To expect a light conductor to transport millions of
different wavelengths along with exactly the same attenuation in every one would be
quiet unreasonable.

Some fibres absorb a little more blue than red and less green than yellow and others just
the opposite. Consequently, the hue and tone of the light varies from meter to meter, in
some cases very apparently. This Phenomenon is referred to as selective spectral
absorption.

1.5: STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBRE

The Optical Fibre has three principal sections, such as

 The core
 The cladding &
 The jacket

The core is the innermost section of the fibre and has a remarkable property of
conducting an optical beam. It is made up of glass or plastic.

The core is covered with another layer of glass with slightly different chemical
composition or plastic, called cladding. The cladding has optical properties very different

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from those of core. The optical fibre may have a adrupt boundary between the core &
cladding or there may be a gradual change in the material between the two.

The cladding performs the following functions:

 Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air
 Reduces scattering loss at the surface of the core
 Protects the fiber from absorbing surface contaminants
 Adds mechanical strength

The outermost section of the fibre is called, the jacket and is made up of plastic or
special kind of polymer and other materials. The opaque protective jacket protects the
core from abrasion, interaction with environment, moisture, absorption and other vagaries
of terrestrial atmosphere and thus enhance its tensile strength.

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 Chapter: 2
LIGHT PROPAGATION AND
CLASSIFICATION

2.1: PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBRE

The light propagates through optical fibre through “Total internal reflection”. The
total internal reflection appears due following reasons.
1. When light traverse from optically rarer medium (like air) to denser medium
(glass) the refracted ray moves towards the normal drawn on the interface of
media as in Snell’s law. Conversely, if light traverse from denser to optically rarer
medium, the refracted ray moves away from the normal drawn on the interface of
the medium Fig. (2.1) .

Fig: 2.1

2. If the angle of incidence increases (fig.2.2), to certain value for which the
refracted ray happen to be on the interface of medium. The angle of incidence s
known as critical angle (θc).

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 .

Fig: 2.2

Fig: 2.3

3. If the incident angle (fig.2.4) increases more than critical angle, then the refracted
ray falls on the same denser medium with no refraction. “This reflection of light is
called total internal reflection”.

Fig: 2.4 Total internal reflection

Thus, following are the conditions for total internal reflection:

1. The ray of light should be traverse from denser to rare medium.

2. The incident angle should be more than the Critical angle (θi >θc).
Total internal reflection
If the incident ray exceeds the critical angle, the refraction would be turned in to
reflection called total internal reflection. The critical angle is used for the mathematical
expression to the occurrence of total internal reflection (fig.1c) .

n1sin θi = n2sin900 (from Snell’s law)

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sin θi = n2/n1 Since, sin 900=1
sin θc = n2/n1 Since θi = θc
θc = sin-1(n2/n1)

Therefore, to propagate the light through optical fibre, the incident angle should
be made higher than the critical angle at various points on the core, so that the light can
be traversed by the total internal reflection at those points.
To achieve the above, the size of core should be adjusted suitably which causes
different types of optical fibre based on size, (no. of modes) refractive index and modes
of propagation.

2.2: CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBRE

Optical fiber falls into three basic classifications: step-index multimode, graded-
index multimode, and single mode. A mode is essentially a path that light can follow
down the fiber.

2.2.1: Step-index multimode fibre

In a step index multimode fibre a transparent glass core with a constant index of
refraction is surrounded by another coaxial glass or plastic cladding of index of refraction
lower than that of the core. Figure 2.5 shows how the principle of total internal reflection
applies to multimode step-index fiber. Because the core's index of refraction is higher
than the cladding's index of refraction, the light that enters at less than the critical angle is
guided along the fiber.

Fig: 2.5 - Total Internal Reflection in Multimode Step-index fiber

Three different light waves travel down the fiber. One mode travels straight down
the center of the core. A second mode travels at a steep angle and bounces back and forth

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by total internal reflection. The third mode exceeds the critical angle and refracts into the
cladding. Intuitively, it can be seen that the second mode travels a longer distance than
the first mode, causing the two modes to arrive at separate times. This disparity between
arrival times of the different light rays is known as dispersion, and the result is a muddied
signal at the receiving end. It is important to note that high dispersion is an unavoidable
characteristic of multimode step-index fiber.

Multimode fibres are used for short distances, shorter than 200 meters,
communication links or for application where high power must be transmitted. Modal
dispersion can be minimized by using single mode step or multimode step index fibres or
graded index multimode fibres.

2.2.2: Graded index multimode fibre

Graded-index refers to the fact that the refractive index of the core gradually
decreases farther from the center of the core. The increased refraction in the center of the
core slows the speed of some light rays, allowing all the light rays to reach the receiving
end at approximately the same time, reducing dispersion.

Figure: 2.6 Multimode Graded-index Fiber

Figure 2.6 shows the principle of multimode graded-index fiber. The core's
central refractive index, nA, is greater than that of the outer core's refractive index, nB. As
discussed earlier, the core's refractive index is parabolic, being higher at the center. As
figure 2.6 shows, the light rays no longer follow straight lines; they follow a serpentine
path being gradually bent back toward the center by the continuously declining refractive
index. This reduces the arrival time disparity because all modes arrive at about the same
time. The modes traveling in a straight line are in a higher refractive index, so they travel
slower than the serpentine modes. These travel farther but move faster in the lower
refractive index of the outer core region.

2.2.3: Step index single mode fibre

In a single-mode fiber, there is only one mode with one group velocity, so that a
short pulse of light arrives without delay distortion. Single-mode fiber allows for a
higher capacity to transmit information because it can retain the fidelity of each light

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pulse over longer distances, and it exhibits no dispersion caused by multiple modes.
Single-mode fiber also enjoys lower fiber attenuation than multimode fiber. Thus, more
information can be transmitted per unit of time. Like multimode fiber, early single-mode
fiber was generally characterized as step-index fiber meaning the refractive index of the
fiber core is a step above that of the cladding rather than graduated as it is in graded-
index fiber.

Fig: 2.7 Single Mode Step Index Fibre

Single-mode fiber has disadvantages. The smaller core diameter makes coupling
light into the core more difficult. The tolerances for single-m ode connectors and splices
are also much more demanding. Single-mode fiber has gone through a continuing
evolution for several decades now. As a result, there are three basic classes of single-
mode fiber used in modern telecommunications systems.

In spite of the negligible dispersion, very thin core of a single mode or mono
mode fibre creates mechanical difficulties in manufacturing, handling and splicing the
fibres. Hence, the fabrication of single mode fibre is very expensive. Single mode fibres
are used for most communication longer than 200 meters. Single mode fibres are
frequently used under sea water.

Do fibre optics transmit radiation?

Light is a radiation; therefore the answer is yes. Some fibres, depending on the nature of
the materials from which they are made, transmit one band of radiation more or less
wide or restricted.

Generally, the fibres used for lighting transmit little or no ultraviolet, a very small
amount of infrared and variable quantities of the visible light frequencies.

Heat is the radiation on the infrared region and does not transmit well on standard
lighting fibres.

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2.3: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STEP INDEX AND GRADED
INDEX FIBRE

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 Chapter:3
SOME PARAMETERS OF OPTICAL FIBRE

3.1: PARAMETERS OF OPTICAL FIBRES

The parameters of optical fibres are:

 Radius of the core

 Acceptance angle
 Numerical Aperture

3.1.1: Radius of the core

The size of optical fibres plays crucial role in the light wave propagation through
fibre. Therefore, radius of the core is significant to decide mode of propagation in fibre. The
thickness/diameter of the core can be measured in spite of measurement of radius. For the
purpose the profile projector can be used.

3.1.2: Acceptance angle

Having considered the propagation of light in an optical fiber through total
internal reflection at the core cladding interface, it is useful to enlarge upon the geometric
optics approach with reference to light rays entering the fiber. It is clear that not all rays
entering the fiber core will continue to be propagated down its length.
Let us consider an optical fiber into which light is entered at one end, as shown in
Fig.3.1.

Fig.3.1 The path of a ray incident on the end of an optical fibre at an angle θ i

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 Let refractive index of the core be n1 and that of cladding be n2 (n2< n1). Let n0 be
the refractive index of the medium from which the light ray is entered to the fiber. If light
ray enters the fiber at the angle θi with axis of the fiber, and if the ray is reflected at angle
θr and strikes at the core cladding interface at angle ø, and ø is greater than, øc, the ray
will undergo total internal reflection. As long as the angle ø is greater than, θ the ray will
stay in the fiber.
By Snell’s law in the Fig:3.1,

sin θi /sin θr = n1/n0

On increasing the θi , ø drops, and after a limit it will drop below the critical angle
øc.
and the ray escapes from the sidewalls of the fiber. For largest θi , ø = øc ,

And sin θr = sin(90-ø) = cosø

Therefore,

sin θi = n1/n0 cosø

For ø = øc ,

Sin (θi max) = n2/n1 , therefore,

Cos øc =

Therefore, Sin (θ i max) = n1/n0 cos øc =

For air, n0 =1 and if θ i max = θ0

sin θ0 =

Therefore θ0 = sin-1

The angle θ0 is called acceptance angle of the fiber. It is the maximum angle
which a ray can have relative to the axis of fiber and travel down the fiber.

3.1.3: Numerical aperture

A light ray is incident on the fiber core at an angle θ 0 to the fiber which is less
than the acceptance angle for the fiber θ0 . The ray enters the fiber from a medium of
refractive index n0, and the fiber core has refractive index n1. The numerical aperture is
defined as the sine of acceptance angle,

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Numerical aperture = sin θ0
where θ0 is acceptance angle.

But sin θ0 =

Therefore, NA =

And = (n1 + n2) (n1 – n2) = ( ( 2n1

Let = n1 , therefore , = 2 n12Δ

Hence numerical aperture NA = n1 . The numerical aperture is the light

gathering ability of fiber. It is a measure of amount of light that can be accepted by fiber.
The numerical aperture is independent of physical dimensions of fiber, depends only on
the refractive indices of core and cladding. The NA value ranges from 0.13 to 0.50.
Larger the NA means the fiber accepts larger amount of light.
Numerical Aperture is one of the most fundamental quantities of an optical fiber.
It indicates the light collecting efficiency of an optical fiber. More the value of N.A.
better is the fiber.

3.2: CONNECTORS AND SPLICES

3.2.1: Connectivity

Fibre optic lint require a method to connect the transmitter to fibre optic cable to
the receiver. In general, there are two methods to link optical fibres together.

A. Fusion Splice

The first method is called the fusion splice. This operation consist of directly
linking two fibres by welding with an electric arc or a fusion splicer (see fig.3.2). The
advantages of this approach are that the linking method is fast and simple and there is
very little insertion loss (the loss of light generated by a connection is called insertion
loss IL). The disadvantages are that the link is relatively fragile, is permanent, and the
initial cost (of fusion splicer ) is high.

Fig3.2: Fibre optic Fusion Splicer

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B. Connectors

The second method involves the uses of fibre optic connectors. A connector
terminates the optical fibre inside a ceramic ferrule, using epoxy to hold a fibre in place.
The connectors can be mated or unmated at any time. The advantages of this approach
are that the connection is robust, the connector can be chosen according to the
application, and the connector can be connected or disconnected hundreds or even
thousands of time without damaging the connectors. The disadvantages are that the
connectorization takes longer than fusion splicing, requires special tools, and the
insertion loss can be higher when compared with fusion splicing.

There are two types of optical connectors: physical contact and expanded beam.

Physical Contact Connectors

Physical contact connectors utilize fibre in a tightly tolerance ceramic ferrule.
This allows easy handling of the fibre and protects it from damage. The principle of
physical connect connectors involves the direct contact of polished fibers within two
ceramic ferrules. The ferrules are aligned using a ceramic alignment sleeve (see Figure
3.3). Insertion loss is a function of the alignment accuracy and the polish quality. There
are springs behind the ferrule to ensure that the two ferrules are in constant contact even
in high vibration and shock environments.

Fig.3.3: Physical Contact

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 Physical contact connectors are the most common type of fibre optic connectors.
They are rugged, repeatable, easy to clean, cost effective, and perform well. In addition
for physical connect connectors, the insertion loss is generally low (approximately
0.3dB). There are many types of fiber optic connectors used in various applications. The
most popular single fiber connectors are (see Figure 3.4):

 FC-Ferrule Connector: Although the FC connector is being replaced in many

applications (telecom and datacom) by LC and SC connectors, it is still used in
measurement equipment. The connector has a screw threading and is keyed
allowing the ferrule to be angle polished providing low back reflection (light is
reflected back to the transmitter, most often at the connector interface due to an
index of refraction change).

 LC-Lucent Connector: LC connectors are supplanting SC connectors because of

their smaller size and excellent panel packing density and push-pull design. They
are also used extensively on small form-factor pluggable transceivers.

 SC-Subscriber Connector: SC connectors also offer a push-pull design (which

reduces the possibility of end-face damage when connecting) and provide good
packing density. They are still used in datacom and telecom applications.

 ST-Straight Tip Connector: ST connectors are engaged with a bayonet lock

which is engaged by pushing and twisting the connector. The bayonet interlock
maintains the spring-loaded force between the two fiber cores.

Fig.3.4: Popular Single Fibre Connectors

These physical contact connectors perform well against particle contaminates

(dust, mud, etc) are usually less sensitive to liquid contaminates (water or oil). The
physical contact pushes liquid out of the way and liquid does not degrade the connection.
Physical contact connectors are cleaned by wiping the ferrule with a clean cloth or wipe,
spraying with a cleaner or washing with water.

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Expanded Beam Technology
The other beam technology is expanded beam, which consists of placing a lens at
the exit of each fibre to widen and climate the light. In this configuration, ther is an air
gap between the two optical fibres/lens assemblies (see fig. 3.5).

The mechanical interface between the connectors must be precise. Dust and dirt
must not interfere with alignment of the elements. Expanded beam connectors are less
susceptible to particle contaminates such as dirt and dust but they perform poorly with
liquids or film on the lenses.

The loss generated by an expanded beam connection is more than that of physical
contact connector due to the lenses, mechanical alignment and sometimes protective
windows (approx. 0.8 to 2.5dB typical).

Fig.3.5: Expanded Beam Technology

25
 Chapter: 4
LOSSES AND APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL
FIBRE

4.1: SOME LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBRES

The optical fibre does not experience the loss in terms of intensity of light.
However, the presence of impurities, scattering at the edges, geometry of structure and
dispersion of light causes some losses.
Transmission loss/attenuation (α)
If the intensity of light at the second end of the optical fibre be I out and intensity at first
end be Iin.
The attenuation, α = -log (Iout / Iin)
In decibel the attenuation, α = - 10/L log (Iout / Iin)dB
Other possible losses in optical fibre
The possible losses are absorption, scattering, radiation losses and geometric losses.
The absorption loss
The absorption losses appears as
1. Extrinsic losses

2. Intrinsic losses

3. Atomic defect losses

Extrinsic losses
The extrinsic loss appears due to presence of impurities which absorbed the light.
The impurities may be due to presence of Fe, Cr, Co and Cu in the core material. The
impurities could absorb the energy that may reemit the absorbed energy during the de
excitation in different wavelength which causes loss of intensity to original light of
specific wavelength.

Intrinsic loss
Since, the fibre core itself absorbs some quantity of energy which is known as
intrinsic loss.
Intrinsic fiber losses are those associated with the fiber optic material itself, and the total
loss is proportional to length L. Once inside the fiber, light is attenuated primarily
because of absorption and scattering; therefore, these are the primary causes of the losses.

26
Scattering and radiation losses
Since, optic fibre contains glass as core, where impurities are present. The
scattering of light at these impurities causes Raleyeigh scattering where the energy of
scattered wave directly proportional to 4th power of wavelength. Therefore, small change
of energy causes 4th power of wavelength. The loss of energy at couplers and interfaces
are known as radiative losses.

Geometrical loss
Due to bending of optical fibres there are 2 types of losses from macroscopic
bending and microscopic bending. If the fibre be rounded as big circle of known radius of
curvature, the loss may be less called macroscopic bending loss.
For small bending of fibre the loss of energy in microscopic bending is larger. Some time
the irregularities in the dimensions cause geometrical losses.

Dispersion loss
In the transmission of light through optical fibres the pulse width varies due to
dispersion of light through the core. The loss of intensity caused as result of dispersion of
light is due to
1. Material dispersion

2. Waveguide dispersion

3. Inter modal dispersion

Material dispersion
The refractive index of core causes the changes in the wavelength/frequency
called material dispersion. If narrow pulse passes trough fibre, causes broadening of pulse
width due to material property. It can be overcome by highly monochromatic source of
light. The single mode fibre could reduce the material dispersion to maximum extent.

Waveguide dispersion
The optical fibre can be considered as circular wave guide where refractive index
varies with modes of propagation with wavelength causes wave guide dispersion.
Waveguide dispersion is a consequence of changes in fibre dimensions as
practically there will be some differences in dimensions as compared to theoretical
dimensions. More generally, waveguide dispersion can occur for waves propagating
through any inhomogeneous structure of the fibre.
Waveguide dispersion depends on the refractive index difference between core
and cladding. Waveguide dispersion also depends on the fibre distance. As distance
increases waveguide dispersion increases. In general, both type of dispersion (Material as
well as Waveguide) may be present.

27
Intermodal dispersion
Intermodal dispersion is the dominant source of dispersion in multimode fibres.
Intermodal dispersion does not exist in single mode fibres. The optical power in the
pulsed wave distribution over the mode of light through the fibre decreases during the
propagation, these changes are known as intermodal dispersion.

Intermodal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a different distance over
the same time span.

Can fibres be bent at right angles?

No. All fibres must be bent with a radius, which will not alter the internal architecture of
the fibre. For every type and size of fibre, there is a minimum radius of curvature,
specified and recommended by the manufacturer. Bending fibre optics at right angles will
cause the conductor to shatter in case of glass, and be permanently damaged in all other
types.

4.2: FIBRE OPTIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Any fibre optic data transmission system will comprise a number of different
elements. There are three major elements (marked in bold), and a further one that is vital
for practical systems:

 Transmitter (light source)

 Fibre optic cable
 Optical repeater
 Receiver (Detector)
The different elements of the system will vary according to the application.
Systems used for lower capacity links, possibly for local area networks will employ
somewhat different techniques and components to those used by network providers that
provide extremely high data rates over long distances. Nevertheless the basic principles
are the same whatever the system.
In the system the transmitter of light source generates a light stream modulated to
enable it to carry the data. Conventionally a pulse of light indicates a "1" and the absence
of light indicates "0". This light is transmitted down a very thin fibre of glass or other
suitable material to be presented at the receiver or detector. The detector converts the
pulses of light into equivalent electrical pulses. In this way the data can be transmitted as
light over great distances.

28
Fibre optic transmitter
Although the original telecommunications fibre optic systems would have used
large lasers, today a variety of semiconductor devices can be used. The most commonly
used devices are light emitting diodes, LEDs, and semiconductor laser diodes.
The simplest transmitter device is the LED. Its main advantage is that it is cheap,
and this makes it ideal for low cost applications where only short runs are needed.
However they have a number of drawbacks. The first is that they offer a very low level of
efficiency. Only about 1% of the input power enters the optical fibre, and this means that
high power drivers would be needed to provide sufficient light to enable long distance
transmissions to be made. The other disadvantage of LEDs is that they produce what is
termed incoherent light that covers a relatively wide spectrum. Typically the spectral
width is between 30 and 60 nm. This means that any chromatic dispersion in the fibre
will limit the bandwidth of the system.
In view of their performance, LEDs are used mainly in local-area-network
applications where the data rates are typically in the range 10-100 Mb/s and transmission
distances are a few kilometres.
Where higher levels of performance are required, i.e. it is necessary that the fibre
optic link can operate over greater distances and with higher data rates, then lasers are
used. Although more costly, they offer some significant advantages. In the first instance
they are able to provide a higher output level, and in addition to this the light output is
directional and this enables a much higher level of efficiency in the transfer of the light
into the fibre optic cable. Typically the coupling efficiency into a single mode fibre may
be as high as 50%. A further advantage is that lasers have a very narrow spectral
bandwidth as a result of the fact that they produce coherent light. This narrow spectral
width enables the lasers to transmit data at much higher rates because modal dispersion is
less apparent. Another advantage is that semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly
at high frequencies because of short recombination time for the carriers within the
semiconductor material.
Laser diodes are often directly modulated. This provides a very simple and
effective method of transferring the data onto the optical signal. This is achieved by
controlling current applied directly to the device. This in turn varies the light output from
the laser. However for very high data rates or very long distance links, it is more effective
to run the laser at a constant output level (continuous wave). The light is then modulated
using an external device. The advantage of using an external means of modulation is that
it increases the maximum link distance because an effect known as laser chirp is
eliminated. This chirp broadens the spectrum of the light signal and this increases the
chromatic dispersion in the fibre optic cable.

29
Fibre optic cable
The full details and description of fibre optic cabling are found in a separate
article / tutorial on this area of the website. In essence a fibre optic cable consists of core,
around which is another layer referred to as the cladding. Outside of this there is a
protective outer coating.
The fibre optic cables operate because their cladding has a refractive index that is
slightly lower than that of the core. This means that light passing down the core
undergoes total internal reflection when it reaches the core / cladding boundary, and it is
thereby contained within the core of the optical fibre.

Repeaters and amplifiers

There is a maximum distance over which signals may be transmitted over fibre
optic cabling. This is limited not only by the attenuation of the cable, but also the
distortion of the light signal along the cable. In order to overcome these effects and
transmit the signals over longer distances, repeaters and amplifiers are used.
Opto-electric repeaters may be used. These devices convert the optical signal into
an electrical format where it can be processed to ensure that the signal is not distorted and
then converted back into the optical format. It may then be transmitted along the next
state of the fibre optic cable.
An alternative approach is to use an optical amplifier. These amplifiers directly
amplify the optical signal without the need to convert the signal back into an electrical
format. The amplifiers consist of a length of fibre optic cable that is doped with a rare
earth mineral named Erbium. The treated fibre cable is then illuminated or pumped with
light of a shorter wavelength from another laser and this serves to amplify the signal that
is being carried.
In view of the much reduced cost of fibre optic amplifiers over repeaters,
amplifiers are far more widely used. Most repeaters have been replaced, and amplifiers
are used in virtually all new installations these days.

Receivers
Light travelling along a fibre optic cable needs to be converted into an electrical
signal so that it can be processed and the data that is carried can be extracted. The
component that is at the heart of the receiver is a photo-detector. This is normally a
semiconductor device and may be a p-n junction, a p-i-n photo-diode or an avalanche
photo-diode. Photo-transistors are not used because they do not have sufficient speed.

30
 Once the optical signal from the fibre optic cable has been applied to the photo-
detector and converted into an electrical format it can be processed to recover the data
which can then be passed to its final destination.
Fibre optic transmission of data is generally used for long distance
telecommunications network links and for high speed local area networks. Currently fibre
optics is not used for the delivery of services at homes. By using optical fibre cabling
here, the available bandwidth for new services would be considerably higher and the
possibility of greater revenues would increase. Currently the cost of this is not viable,
although it is likely to happen in the medium term.

Fig:4.1 Fibre Optic transmission system

Can several fibres give the same amount of light?

No. If a number of fibres or light guides are coupled to the same illuminator. It is
physically impossible that each receives the same amount of light and therefore transmit
it. The spot or tack formed by a reflector lamp at the focus point or screen is not
completely homogeneous, this is to say that not have the same quantity of light in each
point of its surface. This problem is sometimes minimized by mixing the fibres at the
common end but it can never be made totally even.

31
4.3: APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBRE
Fiber optic cables are cables that contain several thousands of optical fibers in a
protective, insulated jacket. The optical fibers are very thin strands of pure glass, which
transmit information in the form of light. Fiber optic cables have revolutionized the world
of network communication ever since their inception nearly 4 decades ago. Today, these
cables have almost obliterated traditional methods of networking, which use metallic
wires. Some of the most popular uses of fiber optic cables are listed below.

Internet
Fiber optic cables transmit large amounts of data at very high speeds. This
technology is therefore widely used in internet cables. As compared to traditional copper
wires, fiber optic cables are less bulky, lighter, more flexible and carry more data.

Cable Television
The use of fiber optic cables in the transmission of cable signals has grown
explosively over the years. These cables are ideal for transmitting signals for high
definition televisions, because they have greater bandwidth and speed. Also, fiber optic
cables are cheaper as compared to the same quantity of copper wire.

Fig: 4.2 A data center using Fibre Optics

Telephone
Calling telephones within or outside the country has never been so easy. With the
use of fiber optic communication, you can connect faster and have clear conversations
without any lag on either side.

32
Computer Networking
Networking between computers in a single building or across nearby structures is
made easier and faster with the use of fiber optic cables. Users can see a marked decrease
in the time it takes to transfer files and information across networks.

Surgery and Dentistry

Fiber optic cables are widely used in the fields of medicine and research. Optical
communication is an important part of non-intrusive surgical methods, popularly known
as endoscopy. In such applications, a minute, bright light is used to light up the surgery
area within the body, making it possible to reduce the number and size of incisions made.
Fiber optics are also used in microscopy and biomedical research.

Lighting and Decorations

The use of fiber optics in the area of decorative illumination has also grown over
the years. Fiber optic cables provide an easy, economical and attractive solution to
lighting projects. As a result, they are widely used in lighting decorations and
illuminating Christmas trees.

Mechanical Inspections
Fiber optic cables are widely used in the inspection of hard-to-reach places. Some
such applications are on-site inspections for engineers and also inspection of pipes for
plumbers.

Military and Space Applications

With the high level of data security required in military and aerospace
applications, fiber optic cables offer the ideal solution for data transmission in these
areas. Fibre Optics is used extensively in both military (fig.4.3) and commercial aircraft
systems.

Fig: 4.3 Military Aircraft

33
Automotive Industry
Fiber optic cables play an important role in the lighting and safety features of
present day automobiles. They are widely used in lighting, both in the interior and
exterior of vehicles. Because of its ability to conserve space and provide superior
lighting, fiber optics is used in more vehicles every day. Also, fiber optic cables can
transmit signals between different parts of the vehicle at lightning speed. This makes
them invaluable in the use of safety applications such as traction control and airbags.

Use of Optical fibre in medicine

Endoscope
The endoscope is a instrument through which small surgery could be performed. The
construction details are given as in fig.4.4. The ray of light is obtained using laser the
light is partially allowed to pass through optical fibre kept inside the tube as shown in the
figure. The output of fibre is connected to lens system and then to prism to split the
object. The reflected light can be obtained using polished prism and returning ray will be
visualize to get the real position of inner organs.

Fig: 4.4 Endoscope

What can justify the use of fibre optics?

In the great majority of tasks, using traditional means, the amount of light used is far in
excess to the quantity really needed. Most light goes to illuminate areas that do not need

34
light at all. With fibre optics, we can distribute minute quantities of light exactly where
needed, an impossible feat with conventional lighting because light sources are too large.

The distinct possibilities to put lamp within easy reach whilst the light is distributed in
zones with difficult access is another advantage of fibre optics. The main reasons for the
use of fibre optics is lighting are safety, control, miniaturization, cost and ease of
maintenance.

4.4: ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE

Fibre optic systems offer many advantages and a wide range of benefits as
compared to traditional copper wire or coaxial cables, radio and microwave links, some
advantages are given below:

Bandwidth – Fibre optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. The
amount of information that can be transmitted per unit time of fibre over other
transmission media is its most significant advantage. With the high performance single
mode cable used by telephone industries for long distance telecommunication, the
bandwidth surpasses the needs of today's applications and gives room for growth
tomorrow.

Low Power Loss – An optical fibre offers low power loss. This allows for longer
transmission distances. In comparison to copper; in a network, the longest recommended
copper distance is 100m while with fibre, it is 2000m. Due to the low signal loss, the
error rate for optical fibres is very low.

Interference - Fibre optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference. It can also
be run in electrically noisy environments without concern as electrical noise will not
affect fibre.

Size - In comparison to copper, a fibre optic cable has nearly 4.5 times as much capacity
as the wire cable has and a cross sectional area that is 30 times less.

Weight - Fibre optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires. They also
occupy less space with cables of the same information capacity. Lighter weight makes
fibre easier to install.

Safety - Since the fibre is a dielectric, it does not present a spark hazard.

Security - Optical fibres are difficult to tap. As they do not radiate electromagnetic
energy, emissions cannot be intercepted. As physically tapping the fibre takes great skill
to do undetected, fibre is the most secure medium available for carrying sensitive data.

35
Flexibility - An optical fibre has greater tensile strength than copper or steel fibres of the
same diameter. It is flexible, bends easily and resists most corrosive elements that attack
copper cable.

Cost - The raw materials for glass are plentiful, unlike copper. This means glass can be
made more cheaply than copper.

Grounding- Fiber optic cables do not have any metal conductors; consequently, they do
not pose the shock hazards inherent in copper cables.

Electrical Isolation- Fiber optics allow transmission between two points without regard
to the electrical potential between them

4.5: DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRES

In spite of all attractive features, fibre optics has few disadvantages, which are
given below:

Fragile - Fibres can be broken or have transmission loses when wrapped around curves
of only a few centimetres radius. However by encasing fibres in a plastic sheath, it is
difficult to bend the cable into a small enough radius to break the fibre.

Protection - Optical fibres require more protection around the cable compared to copper.

Difficult to Splice - The optical fibers are difficult to splice, and there are loss of the
light in the fiber due to scattering. They have limited physical arc of cables. If you bend
them too much, they will break.

Expensive to Install - The optical fibers are more expensive to install, and they have to
be installed by the specialists. They are not as robust as the wires. Special test
equipment is often required to the optical fiber.

Highly Susceptible - The fiber optic cable is a small and compact cable, and it is highly
susceptible to becoming cut or damaged during installation or construction activities. The
fiber optic cables can provide tremendous data transmission capabilities. So, when the
fiber optic cabling is chosen as the transmission medium, it is necessary to address
restoration, backup and survivability.

Can’t Be Curved - The transmission on the optical fiber requires repeating at distance
intervals. The fibers can be broken or have transmission losses when wrapped around
curves of only a few centimeters radius.

36
Affected by Chemicals- The glass can be affected by various chemicals including
hydrogen gas (a problem in underwater cables).

Opaqueness- Despite extensive military use it is known that most fiber become opaque
when exposed to radiation.

Requires Special Skills- Optical fiber cannot be joined together as a easily as copper
cable and requires additional training of personnel and expensive precision splicing and
measurement equipment.

Need More Careful- The joining of fiber optics cables need greater care because if the
Joining is not correct; a lot of attenuation will produce in high Wave length.

Need Special Equipment- As optical fibers have no electrical conductivity, therefore

additional copper cable is not used with optical fiber to provide power supply to the
repeaters.

Price- Even though the raw material for making optical fibers, sand, is abundant and
cheap, optical fibers are still more expensive per meter than copper. Although, one fiber
can carry many more signals than a single copper cable and the large transmission
distances mean that fewer expensive repeaters are required.

Are fibres safe?

Fibre optics are passive elements, therefore do not use power to generate light, as is the
case with lamps. As light conductors only carry light from one point to another, never
electricity.

Fibre optics can be put under, or in direct contact with water, can be cut, handled,
broken or unharmed and can never be anything but totally safe lighting conductors, with
the exception of power conversion.

Because standard lighting fibre optics have a very restricted transmission window most
radiation which could be harmful to beings or things is not transmitted. In fact the
amount of infrared or ultraviolet issuing from a fibre optics is, in the most instances,
negligible.

The use of fibre optics in the lighting of museum pieces or radiation sensitive material is
one of the main applications of these conductors.

37
4.6: COMPARISION AMONG TWISTED PAIR CABLE,
CO-AXIAL CABLE AND OPTICAL FIBRE

38
 Chapter: 5
RECENT PROJECT AND FUTURE TRENDS

5.1: NATIONAL OPTICAL FIBRE NETWORK

Kerala will be the first state to be fully covered by broadband connectivity under
the national optical fibre network (NOFN) project, which aims to connect 2.5 lakh gram-
panchayats across the nation by December 2016.

Minister of Communications and IT Ravi Shankar Prasad will launch NOFN on

January 12 in Idukki district of the state, which is completely connected by optic fibre.
The entire state will be covered by March.

Facts about National Optical Fibre Network (NOFN)

 NOFN is the largest rural connectivity project of its kind in the world.
 It aims to transform the country into a digitally empowered society and
knowledge economy.
 It seeks to link each of the 2.5 lakh village panchayats in the country spread over
6600 blocks and 631 districts through broadband optical fibre network in order
to provide a minimum bandwidth of 100 Mbps.

39
  On its completion, NOFN is expected to facilitate Broadband connectivity to over
600 million rural citizens of the country.
 NOFN, is being funded by the Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF),
Department of Telecom, Ministry of Communications & IT.
 It will offer people with friendly services like e-governance, e-health, e-education,
e-banking, public internet access etc. It will also enable delivery of various
government services such as local planning, management, monitoring and
payments of Government schemes at panchayat level.

Thus it will help to provide non-discriminatory telecom infrastructure, in order to

bridge the gap of digital divide in rural internet access.

The NOFN project, renamed as BharatNet, is one of the pillars of programme,

and all GPs in the country will be connected through optical fibre cable to set up a
network infrastructure by December 2018 under the government’s Digital India
Programme.

According to the government, as on July 9, 2016 OFC has been laid to 54,023
GPs with a total lenth of 1,25,642 km. Out of these, 7,312 GPs have been tested with
broadband connectivity.

The project, once complete, will enable the centre to provide e-services and e-
applications nationally and a minimum of 100 Mbps bandwidth is to be made available at
each GP with non-discriminatory acces to the network for all categories of service
providers.

5.2 FUTURE TRENDS IN OPTICAL FIBRE

Fiber optics communication is definitely the future of data communication. The
evolution of fiber optic communication has been driven by advancement in technology
and increased demand for fiber optic communication. It is expected to continue into the
future, with the development of new and more advanced communication technology.
Below are some of the envisioned future trends in fiber optic communication.

A. All Optical Communication Networks

An all fiber optic communication is envisioned which will be completely in the

optical domain, giving rise to an all optical communication network. In such networks, all
signals will be processed in the optical domain, without any form of electrical
manipulation. Presently, processing and switching of signals take place in the electrical

40
domain, optical signals must first be converted to electrical signal before they can be
processed, and routed to their destination. After the processing and routing, the signals
are then re-converted to optical signals, which are transmitted over long distances to their
destination. This optical to electrical conversion, and vice versa, results in added latency
on the network and thus is a limitation to achieving very high data rates.
Another benefit of all optical networks is that there will not be any need to replace
the electronics when data rate increases, since all signal processing and routing occurs in
the optical domain. However, before this can become a reality, difficulties in optical
routing, and wavelength switching has to be solved. Research is currently ongoing to find
an effective solution to these difficulties.

B. Multi – Terabit Optical Networks

Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) paves the way for multi-terabit
transmission. The world-wide need for increased bandwidth availability has led to the
interest in developing multi-terabit optical networks. Presently, four terabit networks
using 40Gb/s data rate combined with 100 DWDM channels exists. Researchers are
looking at achieving even higher bandwidth with 100Gb/s. With the continuous reduction
in the cost of fiber optic components, the availability of much greater bandwidth in the
future is possible

C. Intelligent Optical Transmission Network

Presently, traditional optical networks are not able to adapt to the rapid growth of
online data services due to the unpredictability of dynamic allocation of bandwidth,
traditional optical networks rely mainly on manual configuration of network connectivity,
which is time consuming, and unable to fully adapt to the demands of the modern
network. Intelligent optical network is a future trend in optical network development, and
will have the following applications: traffic engineering, dynamic resource route
allocation, special control protocols for network management, scalable signaling
capabilities, bandwidth on demand, wavelength rental, wavelength wholesale,
differentiated services for a variety of Quality of Service levels, and so on. It will take
some time before the intelligent optical network can be applied to all levels of the
network, it will first be applied in long-haul networks, and gradually be applied to the
network edge.

D. Improvements in Laser Technology

Another future trend will be the extension of present semiconductor lasers to a

wider variety of lasing wavelengths. Shorter wavelength lasers with very high output

41
powers are of interest in some high density optical applications. Presently, laser sources
which are spectrally shaped through chirp managing to compensate for chromatic
dispersion are available. Chirp managing means that the laser is controlled such that it
undergoes a sudden change in its wavelength when firing a pulse, such that the chromatic
dispersion experienced by the pulse is reduced. There is need to develop instruments to
be used to characterize such lasers. Also, single mode tunable lasers are of great
importance for future coherent optical systems. These tunable lasers lase in a single
longitudinal mode that can be tuned to a range of different frequencies.

D. Polymer Optic Fibers

Polymer optical fibers offer many benefits when compared to other data
communication solutions such as copper cables, wireless communication systems, and
glass fiber. In comparison with glass optical fibers, polymer optical fibers provide an
easy and less expensive processing of optical signals, and are more flexible for plug
interconnections. The use of polymer optical fibers as the transmission media for aircrafts
is presently under research by different Research and Development groups due to its
benefits. The German Aerospace Center have concluded that “the use of Polymer Optical
Fibers multimedia fibers appears to be possible for future aircraft applications.
Also, in the future, polymer optical fibers will likely displace copper cables for
the last mile connection from the telecommunication company’s last distribution box and
the served end consumer. The future Gigabit Polymer Optical Fiber standard will be
based on Tomlinson-HarashimaPrecoding, Multilevel PAM Modulation, and Multilevel
Coset Coding Modulation

E. Improvements in Optical Transmitter/Receiver Technology

In fiber optics communication, it is important to achieve high quality transmission

even for optical signals with distorted waveform and low signal to noise ratio during
transmission. Research is ongoing to develop optical transceivers adopting new and
advanced modulation technology, with excellent chromatic dispersion and Optical Signal
to Noise Ratio (OSNR) tolerance, which will be suitable for ultra-long haul
communication systems. Also, better error correction codes, which are more efficient
than the present BCH concatenated codes are envisioned to be available in the nearest
future.

F. Improvement in Optical Amplification Technology

Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) is one of the critical technologies used in optical
fiber communication systems. In the future, better technologies to enhance EDFA

42
performance will be developed. In order to increase the gain bandwidth of EDFA, better
gain equalization technology for high accuracy optical amplification will be developed.
Also, in order to achieve a higher output power, and a lower noise figure, high power
pumping lasers that possess excellent optical amplification characteristics with outputs of
more than +20dBm, and very low noise figure are envisioned to exist in the nearest
future. L. Improvement in WDM Technology Research is ongoing on how to extend the
wavelength range over which wave division multiplexing systems can operate. Presently,
the wavelength window (C band) ranges from 1.53- 1.57μm. Dry fiber which has a low
loss window promises an extension of the range to 1.30 – 1.65μm. Also, developments in
optical filtering technology for wave division multiplexing are envisioned in the future.

G. Improvements in Glass Fiber Design and Component

Miniaturization

Presently, various impurities are added or removed from the glass fiber to change
its light transmitting characteristics. The result is that the speed with which light passes
along a glass fiber can be controlled, thus allowing for the production of customized glass
fibers to meet the specific traffic engineering requirement of a given route. This trend is
anticipated to continue in the future, in order to produce more reliable and effective glass
fibers. Also, the miniaturization of optical fiber communication components is another
trend that is most likely to continue in the future.

How long will the fibre optics last?

In the case of glass practically indefinitely due to the inert characteristics of the material.
This refers to the actual fibre, and not to the polymer cladding. Also the common ends
being an encapsulation of epoxy’s will behave less predictably and perform erratically,
depending of many factors, such as temperature of operation and level of radiation
exposure.

As far as the polymer systems are concerned 20 years for the conductors is standard
guarantee in the industry. This also refers to the actual fibre, without reference to the
common end whose average life depends on the same factors outlined before.

43
NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS 2009
Sir Charles K. Kao for "groundbreaking achievements concerning the
transmission of light in fibers for optical communication“ Work was
mainly done at Standard Telecommunication Laboratories (STL) in
Harlow, England in 1960s, with groundbreaking predictions for use of
glass fibres for telecommunications in 1966.

44
 CONCLUSION
This concludes our study of fibre optics. We have looked how it works and
examined the other properties of fibres. Fibre Optics provides many advantages over
copper conductors including higher bandwidth, transmission of signals over larger
distances, lower weight and cost and immunity from electro-magnetic interference. These
attributes make it the increasingly preferred medium for applications such as avionics,
energy, mining, broadcast and data telecommunication. These advantages also mean that
optical interconnections have the potential to exhibit higher data rate communication,
higher densities of interconnections with lower crosstalk, and lower power consumption.
The shortest interconnections however, will remain electrical ones, due in part to the
inverse relationship between electrical interconnection length and power consumption,
and to a length independent minimum latency time inherent to optical interconnections
caused by the time delays required for electrical to optical to electrical conversion..

The fiber optics communications industry is an ever evolving one, the growth
experienced by the industry has been enormous this past decade. There is still much work
to be done to support the need for faster data rates, advanced switching techniques and
more intelligent network architectures that can automatically change dynamically in
response to traffic patterns and at the same time be cost efficient.

There are a number of essential points about fiber optics that have been
mentioned throughout this dissertation. As we move towards a more sophisticated and
modern future, the uses of fiber optics are going to grow in all computer systems as well
as telecommunication networks. Modern information systems handle ever-increasing data
loads which strain the data throughput ability of information systems. Designers have
made significant progress in increasing processor speeds, however progress in the design
of high-speed interconnection networks has lagged so much so that the most significant
bottleneck in today's information systems is the low speed of communications between
integrated chips. These low speed communications networks consume increasing
amounts of power in an effort to keep up with the faster processors. The slow
communications speed is brought on by the small bandwidth available to existing
communications networks based on the propagation of electrical signals through metallic
lines.

45
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21) http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_97/journal/vol4/sm27/conclusion.html

22) http://research.psut.edu.jo/Project/Puplications/Optical%20losses.pdf

23) Kennedy’s Electronic Communication Systems, George Kennedy, Bernard Davis,

S R M Prasanna, Fifth Edition, page no. 551 to 564.

24) Basic Electronics Solid State, B L Theraja, Fifth Edition, S. Chand Publishing,
page no. 685 to 700.

25) http://hal-croatia.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/AFO_100-Questions-
Answers.pdf

26) http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/~akadi/ite/major_assignments/barber/advdisad.htm

27) http://www.fs.com/the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-fiber-optic-transmission-
aid-431.html

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