Operational

Amplifier
Operational Amplifier
 Originally an op-amp was an electronic
circuit that could carry out mathematical
operations of addition, subtraction,
differentiation and integration.
 Hence the word “operational”
 Op-amp is used to amplify DC and AC
signals.

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Operational Amplifier Symbol
 Circuit Symbol +ve supply

Inverting i/p -
V1 output

Non-Inverting +
i/p V2

-ve supply

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Internal Block Diagram

ip
+
+
V_p Ri
Vi Ro

_
+
AVi
in Vo
_

+
V_n

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Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp
 Infinite input impedance (about 2 Mohm)
 Low output impedance (about 200 ohm)
 Very large voltage gain at low frequency
 Thus, small changes in voltages can be
amplified by using an op-amp
 Infinite bandwidth (all frequencies are
amplified by same factor
 No slew rate – no delay between change in
i/p and changes in o/p
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Op Amp Characteristics Explained
 Infinite input impedance
 no current flows into inputs
 Infinite voltage gain
a voltage difference at the two inputs is
magnified to a very large extent
 in practice, voltage gain ~ 200000
 means difference between + terminal and 
terminal is amplified by 200,000!

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Op Amp Characteristics Explained
 Infinite bandwidth
 In practice, bandwidth limited to few MHz
range
 slew rate limited to 0.5–20 V/s

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 Op Amp Slew Rate Explained
 The o/p of an op amp does not change
instantaneously.
 The rate of change of o/p of an op amp is
limited (about 0.5 V/  sec)
 So, if we want to change the o/p voltage from 0
to 10 V, it would take 20 s

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Op Amp Slew Rate Explained

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Operational Amplifier Without Feedback

 The op-amp can be regarded as a device

which generates an voltage Vo given by:
Vo = A (V2 – V1)

A is called as the gain of the amplifier.

V1 is the voltage applied at the inverting input,
V2 is the voltage applied at the non-inverting input,

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Variation of Gain with Frequency

 The value of gain A depends on the

frequency of the i/p signal and is very high at
low frequencies.
 At DC, (f = 0 Hz), gain A is about 105.
 But the gain decreases with frequency.

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Variation of Output voltage with V1
 Vo = A (V2 – V1)
 When V2 = 0, Vo = -AV1
 So, the output voltage is out of phase with
the input voltage applied to the inverting
input.
 That is why it is called the “inverting” input

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Variation of Output voltage with V2

 Vo = A (V2 – V1)
When V1 = 0, Vo = AV2
 So, the output voltage is in phase with the
input voltage applied to the non-inverting
input.
 That is why it is called the “non-inverting”
input

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Variation of Output with Input Voltages

 Vo = A (V2 – V1)

 If V2 > V1, Vo is positive

 If V2 < V1, Vo is negative
 If V2 = V1, Vo is zero

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Consequences of Ideal characteristics
 Infinite input resistance means the current
into the inverting input is zero:
i- = 0
 Infinite gain means the difference between V1
and V2 is zero:
V2 – V1 = 0

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The Basic Inverting Amplifier
Resistor used to control amplification
R2

I2
I1
R1
–

Vin + + +
– Vout
–

16
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How to Calculate the Gain
 For an Inverting amplifier:
Gain = -R2 / R1

Example : if R2 is 100 kilo-ohm and R1 is 10 kilo-ohm,

Gain = -100 / 10 = -10
If the input voltage is 0.5V then the output voltage would
be Vin x Gain:
Vout = 0.5V X -10 = -5V

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Inverting Amplifier
 The i/p voltage to be amplified is fed to the inverting i/p
 A fraction of the o/p signal is fed back to the op-amp
through the inverting i/p.
 R2 is the feedback resistance in this circuit
 Since we have used the inverting i/p, the o/p is out of
phase with the i/p signal.
 This process is called negative feedback.

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Inverting Amplifier
 It is called negative feedback because the overall gain of
the amplifier reduces.
 So why use negative feedback if gain is reduced?
 The gain is constant over a wide range of input
frequencies and input voltages.
 Stability is greater
 Amplification is linear – i.e. distortion of o/p is less
 Gain is independent of the characteristics of op amp.

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Solving the Amplifier Circuit
Apply KCL at the inverting input:
R2

i2
R1
–
i1 i-

i1 + i2 + i-=0

20
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KCL
i  0
vin  v vin
i1  
R1 R1
vout  v vout
i2  
R2 R2

21
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Solve for Vo
vin vout

R1 R2

Amplifier gain: Thus, Gain of an

op-amp
vout
A  depends only
vin on the two
resistances and
R2
A  not on the op-
R1 amp
characteristics
22
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Assumptions made in deriving gain equation

 Each input draws zero current from the signal

source.
 Typically, i/p current is 1A
 That is, input impedances are infinite

 The i/ps are both at the same potential if the op-

amp is not saturated.

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 Transfer Characteristics of Inverting Amplifier
Vo

saturation
+Vs

B Vin

-Vs saturation

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Transfer Characteristics of a Non-inverting Amplifier
Vo

saturation
+Vs
V2 > V1

B V2 – V1
V2 < V1

-Vs
saturation

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Transfer Characteristics of an Op-Amp

 The output (Vo) is directly proportional to the

input only within the range AOB. In this region,
the op-amp behaves linearly. There is very little
distortion of the amplifier output.
 If the inputs are outside this linear range, then
saturation occurs. That is output is close to the
maximum value it can have i.e. Vs or -Vs

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Transfer Characteristics of an OpAmp
Value V0 might have for an ac i/p if
Vo opamp did not saturate

Vs

-Vs

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Transfer Characteristics of an OpAmp
 Consider an opamp connected to +9 V supply.
 The o/p voltage can never exceed these values.
  max value of o/p voltage can be +9V or -9V
 Let A = 105 (Remember A = Vo / Vin )
 So, max i/p voltage is Vin = Vo / A
  Vin = +9 / 105 = + 90  V
 This is the maximum input voltage swing.
 A smaller value of A would allow greater input.

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 Saturation Effect in Op Amp
Suppose gain is -10. Assume the input is a signal of amplitude of 1.4v. We would
expect the output of the amplifier to be a signal of amplitude of 14V because the
amplitude of the input is 1.4v and the gain is -10. But, if you take saturation into
account, you will get a signal that is "flattened" at the top and bottom.

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Problem 1:
In this circuit, we want a gain of ten. If R1 is 5 K
ohm, what is the value you need to use for
R0? Give your answer in ohms.
50,000 ohm

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Problem 2:
In this circuit, you have it set up for a gain of -10. The input
voltage is 0.24v. What is the output voltage?

Gain = - Vo / Vi
Vo = Gain x Vi
Vo = (-10) x 0.24
Vo = -2.4 V

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Problem 3:
In this circuit, Ro and R1 values are shown. The input signal
is also shown. Sketch the o/p signal.

10 K ohm

2.7 K ohm

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Problem 3:

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Problem 3:
• Gain A = Ro / R1
So, A = - 10 K / 2.7 K = -3.7
 Amplitude of i/p signal is 4 V
 So max o/p voltage is Vo = A x Vin
 Vo = 3.7 x 4 = 14.8 V
 But power supply is only +9V
 So 9V is the max o/p the amplifier can provide.

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Problem 3:
• Amplifier is saturated
• It will remain saturated as long as size of i/p
voltage is greater than 9V / 3.7 = 2.4 V
• That is why we observe that the o/p gets
clipped as soon as the i/p rises above 2.4 V

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Concept of virtual earth
R2

I2
I1
R1
–
P
Vin Q
+ + +
VP
– Vout
VQ
–

36
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Virtual earth

 In the previous figure, VQ = 0 and  VP = 0

 P is called a virtual earth or ground point even
though it is not connected to the ground.

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Non-inverting Amplifier

38
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Non-inverting op amp
–
+
Rf
Vo
Vi
Ri

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Non-inverting Amplifier
 The output (Vo) is in phase with the input.
 Rf and Ri form a voltage divider circuit.
 A fraction of o/p voltage (Vo) developed across Rf is fed back to
the inverting i/p
 This fraction is called feedback factor and is given by
 = Ri / (Ri + Rf)
 Gain of this amplifier is:

A = 1 + Rf
Ri
 There is no virtual earth at the non-inverting i/p terminal.

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Voltage Follower
–

Vo
Vi

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Voltage Follower

 This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier.

 In case of non-inverting amplifier, gain
A = 1 + Rf
Ri
If we set Rf = 0, A = 1 (unity gain)
 This is called voltage follower because the o/p voltage
is locked to the i/p voltage (both are same)
 Advantage: op amp has very high i/p impedance so it
can measure Vi without drawing any current.

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Characteristics of Voltage Follower

 This is a special case of the non-inverting

amplifier.
 Gain A = 1
 The o/p voltage “follows” the i/p voltage
 Op amp has very high i/p impedance and very
low i/p impedance

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Voltage Follower used for measuring charge

Test Plate

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Voltage Follower used for measuring charge
 This circuit uses a capacitor to make a charge-
measuring device.
 If a charged object touches the test plate, it will
transfer charge to the capacitor.
 The p.d. between the plates of the capacitor rises
 If the capacitor is connected directly to a voltmeter,
this charge will drain away through the meter and
incorrect reading would be obtained.
 Op-amp has very high i/p impedance and so
practically no charge is removed from the capacitor
and yet measured by the voltmeter

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