Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jphotobiol

A review on bio-synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles using plant extracts as T

reductants and stabilizing agents
⁎
Parita Basnet, T. Inakhunbi Chanu, Dhrubajyoti Samanta, Somenath Chatterjee
Centre for Material Science and Nanotechnology, Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology, Sikkim Manipal University, Sikkim, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the age of technology, nanoparticles have proven to be one of the essential needs for development. These
Biosynthesis nanoparticles have the potential to be used for a wide variety of applications, thereby, development in improving
Plant extracts the quality of nanoparticles, to make them more application specific, is still under research. In this regard, an
ZnO nanoparticles important point to note is that the procedures employed in synthesizing nanoparticles require to be cost-effective
Anti-microbial activity
and less-steps involved and have an additional advantage, i.e. they should be eco-friendly. This means that the
Photocatalysts
synthesis procedure needs avoiding the use of harmful chemicals, and negligible generation of any noxious by-
products. The green synthesis (biosynthesis) method employs simple procedures, easily available raw materials
and ambiance for the synthesis process, where the precursors used are safe, with minute possibility for the
production of harmful by-products. Considering these advantages, the current review includes a brief description
on the various chemical and physical synthesis method of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles with emphasis on the
biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using plant extracts (and briefly microbes), the phytochemicals present in the
plant extracts, the plausible mechanisms involved in the formation of ZnO nanoparticles and applications of the
as-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles as photocatalysts and microbial inhibitors.

1. Introduction example, silver (Ag) nanoparticles are known to have anti-microbial

Nanotechnology is the design, characterization and application of
structures, systems and devices by controlled manipulation of size and
shape of particles at the nanometric scale (10−9 m). The particles are
scaled down to the nano-regime due to their superior characteristic(s)
as compared to the bulk particles [1]. Owing to the highly enhanced
properties of nanoparticles with regard to their bulk counterparts (like
higher chemical reactivity [2,3]), there has been an extensive research
for synthesizing and optimizing particles belonging to the nano-size
regime. In addition, the fabrication of nanoparticles is cheaper, simpler
and the amount required for an application is much lower. From lit-
erature, it is well known that the properties of nanoparticles are de-
pendent on their morphology and size [4,5]. Thus, there has been a
progressive improvement in obtaining nanoparticles of the desired
morphology and size so to make them application specific. However,
concerning environment and problems associated with it, the produc-
tion of nanoparticles should be such that, the methods involved are eco-
friendly and the nanoparticles are themselves non-hazardous. In this
regard, many metal nanoparticles (like silver, gold, platinum) have
been the topics of discussion and research. They have novel properties
and are several folds more effective than their bulk counterparts. For
activity more pronounced than the bulk Ag [6]. Although these novel
nanoparticles are very effective, their production involves the use of
expensive precursors. An alternative to this may be the use of metal-
oxide semiconductor materials like zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles,
whose production is more cost-effective than those mentioned above.
They also have good anti-microbial activity, in addition to several other
applications (listed in Section 1.2) [7]. Considering these factors, the
current review mainly focusses on the importance of ZnO nanoparticles,
different methods of synthesis with emphasis to the biological methods,
characterization techniques involved, parameters affecting the nature
and size of biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles, applications (as reported
in the literature), and finally, some prospects of the biological method
and as-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles for future applications.
1.1. Zinc Based Semiconductor Nanostructures
Zinc based semiconductor nanostructures, such as zinc oxide (ZnO)
and zinc sulphide (ZnS), have never ceased to interest researchers
across the globe. The potential that these nanostructures possess make
them applicable in various field of science and technology as well as
medicine. For example, the degradation of industrial wastes such as

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: somenath@gmail.com (S. Chatterjee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2018.04.036
Received 16 November 2017; Received in revised form 28 March 2018; Accepted 21 April 2018
Available online 24 April 2018
1011-1344/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P. Basnet et al.
dyes, has been quite effectively carried out with both the nanos-
tructures of zinc, i.e. ZnO [8,9] and ZnS [10–12]. Optimization in the
green synthesis method (like biosynthesis of ZnO [13–15] and ZnS
[16]) is being carried out so to obtain the desired morphology or
characteristics of the nanoparticles required in a particular application.
Although both ZnO and ZnS nanostructures possess appreciable prop-
erties and various applications, this review especially focuses on ZnO
nanostructures prepared by the most environment friendly method of
synthesis, i.e. biosynthesis using plant extracts.
1.2. Importance of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
In this era, industries are flourishing and developing at the price of
pollution in an alarming rate. Therefore, the choice of materials to be
used for the sake of bringing normalcy in the environment must be very
carefully made. In this regard, ZnO nanoparticles have proven to pos-
sess the potential to be used for different applications since ZnO is non-
toxic and environment-friendly. The attractive characteristics of ZnO
nanoparticles like chemical sensitivity to different adsorbed gases,
amenability to doping and high chemical sensitivity have solved the
problem of fatal gases like NOx, CO2, CO, NH3 and others, when used as
gas sensors [17]. The large band gap energy of ZnO nanoparticles
(≥3.37 eV) make them a promising material in opto-electronic devices
(like solar cells) [18]. The ability of ZnO nanoparticles to efficiently
create electron-hole pairs, in the presence of UV-light, allows their use
as a photocatalyst, either for the water-splitting purpose (hydrogen gas
generation) [19] or for the degradation of textile wastes (dyes) [20].
Since ZnO nanoparticles can effectively absorb UV-radiation, is trans-
parent, less adhesive and may be easily rubbed on the skin, its use in the
cosmetic industry, to produce sunscreen lotions, is understandable
[21]. Owing to the anti-bacterial and disinfecting properties of ZnO
nanoparticles, it is also used in the production of different kinds of
medicine like dermatological substances for curing inflammation and
itching. In earlier ages, epilepsy and diarrhoea were treated using ZnO
[22]. Due to the high binding energy (60 meV) of ZnO nanoparticles at
room temperature [23,24], they are used in photoelectronics [25],
surface acoustic wave devices [26], field emitters [27], solar cells [28].
ZnO nanoparticles undergo photoluminescence when exposed to elec-
tromagnetic radiation with high electrical conductivity, it is used in
field emission display equipment like television [29,30]. Thus, ZnO
nanoparticles may be called a multi-functional material having appli-
cations in a wide variety of fields. Although bulk-ZnO may also be used
in place of nano-ZnO, the efficiency achievable with nano-ZnO is sev-
eral folds greater than the bulk (due to high surface to volume ratios of
the former), hence, ZnO nanoparticles have almost replaced bulk ZnO
in applications as stated above. These mentioned applications of ZnO
nanoparticles are schematically presented in Fig. 1.
The various properties and applications of ZnO nanoparticles have
led to a progressive improvement in its synthesis techniques. The next
section, therefore, deals with the various kind of methods involved in
the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles.
2. Synthesis Methods of ZnO Nanoparticles
The synthesis methods of ZnO nanoparticles may be broadly divided
into two major categories, namely, the top-down approach and the
bottom-up approach. Table 1 gives a brief outline on the major methods
of ZnO nanoparticles synthesis comprising the top-down and bottom-up
approaches.
2.1. Top-down Method of ZnO Nanoparticles Synthesis
Industrially, this method of synthesis is considered to be the most
promising since it is cheap, easy and gives very high production yields.
The top-down method may be further divided into two major cate-
gories, namely, physical and chemical, on the basis of the type of
202
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
processes involved.
2.1.1. Physical Top-down Method
The conventional technique of metallurgy falls under this category.
The synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the metallurgical process is
further divided into two types; the direct (American) process, in which
zincite (or any other ore of zinc) is reduced by heating with anthracite,
followed by the oxidation of zinc vapour, leading to the formation of
ZnO powders [31], and the indirect (French) process, which involves
the melting of metallic zinc, followed by its vaporization at around
910 °C to give ZnO powders. In terms of purity, the indirect process is
superior to the direct process. However, in both these methods, the
synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles still remains a huge challenge due to the
rapid agglomeration of the particles [32,33].
Another physical top-down method of ZnO nanoparticle synthesis is
the pulsed laser ablation method (Fig. 2). In this, a high purity metallic
zinc plate, well-polished with emery paper, is placed at the bottom of an
open glass cell filled with an aqueous solution of a surfactant, like cetyl
trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB). A laser is then focused onto this
target plate surface using a quartz lens for a certain period of time (20/
30/60 min). The products formed in the process are left for aging and
after a period of time, white precipitate of ZnO nanoparticles are ob-
tained [34–37]. A schematic view of this method is presented in Fig. 2.
2.1.2. Chemical Top-down Method
One of the chemical top-down methods for ZnO nanoparticles
synthesis is the mechanochemical (or mechanical attrition) method. A
typical synthesis process of ZnO nanoparticles through this process has
been depicted in Fig. 3. In this method, the precursors, i.e. zinc chloride
(ZnCl2) and sodium bicarbonate (Na2CO3) are milled by giant ball mills.
Sodium chloride (NaCl), a thinner, is simultaneously ground which acts
as the reaction medium and also, separates the reaction mixture being
formed. Thereafter, the product is heated at around 170–380 °C so to
obtain ZnO powders. Although, mechanochemical process is econom-
ical and simple method to obtain ZnO nanoparticles in large quantities,
uniform grinding of the ZnO powder and reduction of grains to the
required size may not be achieved quickly, thereby, leading to longer
milling time. This ultimately leads to a greater quantity of impurities
[38].
Solid state method (also called the ground process) of synthesis is
yet another type of chemical top-down method available for the
synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles. In one such synthesis reported by Sun
et al. [39], zinc acetate dihydrate (zinc source), CTAB (capping agent)
and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (hydroxide source) were mixed in the
molar ratios of 1:0.4:3, followed by 50 min ground in a mortar, and
finally, drying at 60 °C for 2 h so to obtain ZnO powders.
2.2. Bottom-up Method of ZnO Nanoparticles Synthesis
This method is perhaps the most flexible and simple method of
producing impurity free ZnO nanoparticles amongst the methods pre-
viously discussed. Various morphology of ZnO nanoparticles including
forests, bunches, brushes, whiskers, ribbons, wires, rods, spheres (i.e.
1D, 2D and 3D nanostructures) [40–45] may be obtained by employing
this method of synthesis. In this review, some very important chemical
and biological bottom-up methods are described like precipitation, sol-
gel, hydrothermal, and others.
2.2.1. Chemical Bottom-up Method
In co-precipitation/Controlled precipitation method of ZnO nano-
particles synthesis nucleation, coarsening, growth and/or agglomera-
tion processes occur simultaneously. In a typical synthesis, to an aqu-
eous solution of a zinc precursor (like zinc acetate, zinc nitrate), an
aqueous solution of hydroxide source (such as sodium hydroxide, am-
monium hydroxide), is added drop wise while stirring. The solution is
left in stirring condition for 1 h or 2 h. The white precipitate is then
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

Fig. 1. Few applications of ZnO nanoparticles.

washed several times with deionised or distilled water to remove the
impurities (like salt) and finally with methanol (or ethanol) to remove
the organic impurities (if any). The final product is then dried, ground
and stored; or it may also be calcined [46]. Experimental parameters
such as pH, drying temperature (or calcinations temperature), time of
precipitation, ratio of precursors and choice of precursors determine the
process of precipitation. However, agglomeration, leading to the for-
mation of bulk molecules, is a serious problem in this process. A
modified method thus involves the use of capping agents which would
bind with the formed nanoparticles, thereby providing steric hindrance,
leading to the formation of stable nano-sized ZnO particles. For
example, in the synthesis reported by K. Akhil et al., the formation of
ZnO nanoparticles has been carried out both w/o the use of capping
agents, wherein, the particles formed using capping agents, like ethy-
lene glycol (EG), gelatine (GE), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyvinyl
pyrrolidone (PVP), showed smaller particle size distribution and pos-
sessed better morphology [47]. The process has been shown in Fig. 4.
Another very simple and convincing method of ZnO nanoparticles
synthesis is the hydrothermal process through which high purity ZnO
nanoparticles may be obtained. In this, the solution obtained through
co-precipitation method after 1 h or 2 h of stirring, is transferred to a
Teflon-lined autoclave at 60 °C to 150 °C for 1, 2 or 3 h; the pressure

Table 1
An overview of ZnO nanoparticles synthesis methods (as reported so far).

203
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

Fig. 2. Set-up of the pulsed laser ablation method for ZnO nanoparticles synthesis.

maintained in the autoclave allows the boiling point of the aqueous
solution to increase, thereby preventing evaporation and allowing nu-
cleation to occur. The final product is then dried (after which it may be
grinded and stored or calcined). Optimization of the structures and sizes
of the ZnO nanoparticles may be achieved through changes in the ex-
perimental parameters like experimental pH, mixing time, heating
temperature and heating duration. In this regard, a relevant example
would be the work reported by B. Baruwati et al., where they have
optimized the pH using ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). Also, the
duration of autoclave heating was varied from 6 to 24 h [48]. An il-
lustration of this method is presented in Fig. 5.
Similar to this method of synthesis is the solvothermal process. In
this process, a solvent is used instead of water like ethanol, methanol,
butanol, propanol, ethylene glycol, and others [49–51].
Another interesting class of bottom-up method of ZnO nanoparticles
synthesis is the sol-gel method. In one such synthesis, a sol is prepared
by mixing the aqueous or ethanolic solutions of the precursors of ZnO
like zinc acetate, zinc nitrate, followed by stirring and finally aging
[52–55]. A typical synthesis reported by J. N. Hasnidawani et al. states
the preparation of sol by mixing the aqueous solutions of zinc acetate
(Zn(CH3COO)2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) followed by the drop
wise addition of ethanol. The formation of ZnO nanostructures was
possible by the complete hydrolysis of Zn(CH3COO)2 by NaOH in
ethanolic solution, resulting in the formation of ZnO colloid and, the
final product was obtained because of the equilibrium between hy-
drolysis and condensation reactions [56]. A depiction of this synthesis
method is given in Fig. 6.
In addition to these methods of synthesis, the bottom-up approach

Fig. 3. A simple method of ZnO nanoparticles synthesis via the Mechanochemical process.

204
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

Fig. 4. ZnO nanoparticle synthesis by a simple co-precipitation method.

Fig. 5. A simple hydrothermal method for ZnO nanoparticle synthesis.

includes microemulsion technique [57], microwave technique [58],
spray pyrolysis [59], and others (as shown in Table 1). All these tech-
niques are although simple and cost-effective, the use of chemicals in
these methods may be avoided by considering the biosynthesis tech-
nique.
2.2.2. Biological Bottom-up Method
Owing to the day-to-day degrading quality of environment, a small
miniaturisation in toxicity would, to some extent, help in overcoming
many of the fatal conditions faced today. One way to contribute is to
explore the biological methods of nanoparticles synthesis. Even though,
the greener methods would not substitute all of the existing chemical
methods, a lesser damage to the environment could be reached. The
next section thus deals with the greener methods or the biosynthesis of
ZnO nanoparticles using plant extracts. A schematic process and char-
acterization of ZnO nanoparticles synthesis using plant extracts are
shown in Fig. 7.
With the onset of green chemistry bearing its twelve principles,
researchers around the globe are developing green synthesis methods
for producing nanoparticles. This method of synthesis does not involve
the use of noxious chemicals rather, materials which are en-
vironmentally benign like plant parts (leaves, flowers, roots and other
parts) having biomedical applications and microbes (fungi, algae,
bacteria) [69,70]. Moreover, the production of harmful by-products is
also checked by this method of synthesis unlike the chemical method.
The advantages of this method over others, in addition to being safe,
are cost-effectiveness (as it does not involve the use of expensive che-
micals but the use of naturally occurring substances), large scale

205
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

Fig. 6. A simple Sol-gel method of ZnO nanoparticle synthesis.

Fig. 7. An overview on the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using plant extracts.

Table 2
Comparison between the chemical and biological methods of nanoparticles synthesis.
Sl. no. Properties Chemical method Biological method

1. Particle size Comparatively smaller [48] Comparatively larger [64]

2. Cost-effectivity Comparatively higher experimental duration; thermal-budget in- Comparatively lower experimental duration; thermal-budget
efficient [64] efficient [64]
3. Toxicity Toxic: involves the use of base compounds or solvents or other noxious Non-toxic: involves the use of plant extracts [64] or microbes [65]
chemicals [64]
4. Stability Unstable (without the use of capping agents) or stable (with the use of Stable (since the plant extracts act as both reducing as well as
capping agents) [66] capping agent) [66]
5. Application in terms of i. Comparatively higher photocatalytic degradation efficiency [67] i. Comparatively lower photocatalytic degradation efficiency [68]
i. photocatalytic efficiency
ii. anti-microbial activity ii. Comparatively lower anti-microbial activity [66] ii. Comparatively higher anti-microbial activity [66]

206
P. Basnet et al.
Fig. 8. Mechanism involved in the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles as reported; figures: (a). Ref. [60] (b). Ref. [61] (c). Ref. [62] (d). Ref. [63].
production of nanoparticles free from impurities, easy availability of
the raw materials required (may be found even in the surrounding).
Table 2 provides comparison between the chemical and biological
methods based on most important factors.
ZnO nanoparticles have been successfully synthesized using the
green method. Exact mechanisms explaining the biosynthesis procedure
of ZnO nanoparticles is still under research, however, the main idea
behind the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles may be that the natural
materials contain phytochemicals (like saponins, polyphenols, terpe-
noids) which act as both reducing as well as stabilizing (capping)
agents. They reduce the metal (zinc) to the 0-valence state and then
through calcinations, oxide may be added to the metal. Another very
convincing mechanism is that zinc ions in the solution of the natural
extract form complexation with the polyphenols (or other phytochem-
icals) with zinc in the form of Zn+2. This is then followed by the for-
mation of zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2) through hydrolysis and finally after
calcinations, the complex decomposes, thereby favouring the formation
of ZnO nanoparticles [71]. Several mechanisms for possible formation
of ZnO nanoparticles using bio-extracts are depicted in Fig. 8, as col-
lected from different literature [60,61,63,72]. Moreover, the images
from reported work have been shown in Fig. 8, depicting the me-
chanisms involved in the biosynthesis process.
Generally, in the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using plant parts
(for example leaves), the leaves are washed thoroughly with deionised
or distilled water. These leaves are then uniformly cut into small pieces
and then dried (either sundried or room temperature drying). The
preparation of extract involves weighing some amount of the dried
sample and then boiling it with deionised or distilled water (according
207
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
to the desired concentration). Another way is by weighing some amount
of the dried sample, ground in a mortar, converting it into powder, then
boiling it according to the desired concentration under continuous
stirring condition. After this, the solution is filtered using a whatman
paper and the filtrate (liquid part) is used in the experiments. In a ty-
pical experiment for the preparation of ZnO nanoparticles using plant
extract, 2 g of a zinc precursor (like zinc acetate, zinc nitrate) is put to
40 mL of the extract solution and the resulting solution is stirred for
15 min then placed in a water bath shaker for about 3 h to 6 h at about
60 to 80 °C. The solution is then heated and finally calcined at 400 °C. In
another type, same amount of the zinc precursor is added into the ex-
tract, then boiled at the desired temperature and time to ensure effi-
cient mixing. The period of incubation causes the colour of the mixture
to change into yellow, indicating the formation of ZnO nanoparticles.
Another biological method of ZnO nanoparticles synthesis involve
the use of microbes. However, as compared to the synthesis using plant
extracts, this method has many disadvantages. The screening of the
microbes is necessary which certainly is a time-consuming process,
contamination in this process is to be strictly avoided, especially in the
culture broth, and, the entire process is not very cost-effective as
compared to the synthesis involving plant extracts, [15]. A typical
method involving the synthesis using fungal strain has been depicted by
Moghaddam et al. using Pichia kudriavzevii yeast strain [65]. Their
process involves the use of fungal cell-free filtrate mixed with aqueous
solution of zinc acetate dihydrate, incubated at 35 °C in a shaking in-
cubator, agitated for different hours of time. The confirmation about
the completion of the reaction was indicated by the colour change of
the solution from light brown to pale and deep white. The resulting
P. Basnet et al.
precipitate was then collected, followed by drying at 150 °C for 6 h. The
resulting product was stored at 5 °C for further experiments and char-
acterizations.
The following section deals in detail about some of the methods
used for the preparation of plant extracts, followed by the biosynthesis
of ZnO nanoparticles, as given in the literature.
3. Preparation of the Plant Extract to be Used as a Reducing and/
or Capping Agent
The type of preparation of the plant extracts depend on what plant
part is to be employed for the experiment. As far as comparison of the
final product is concerned, the extracts may be prepared in different
ways even when the same plant part is being employed, since the
concentration of the phytochemicals present may vary accordingly.
This section deals with the methods reported in literature for the pre-
paration of plant extract to be employed for the biosynthesis of ZnO
nanoparticles.
The preparation of Aloe vera extract, reported by Sangeetha et al.
[64], consists of two different methods. In one method, they have taken
the Aloe vera leaves, chopped them into fine and even pieces, and then
boiled with de-ionised (DI resistivity 18.5 MΩ-cm) water. In another
method, they took the inner portion of the leaves (i.e. the gel part),
crushed it, and then made a thin paste by grinding it along with the
addition of DI water. They have, therefore, used two different methods,
utilizing the same leaves of the Aloe vera plant, to find out the efficiency
of the methods employed. N. Ain Samat and R. Md Nor [73] used the
fruits of Citrus aurantifolia to prepare the extract. These fruits were
peeled, the fruit-skin discarded, and the pulp was cut and blended with
DI water. This was then filtered, and the filtrate was used for the ex-
periments. P. Rajiv et al. used the leaves of Parthenium hysterophorus
plant [74]. They cut the leaves finely, then ground in a mortar-pestle
using DI water, heated, and when cooled, filtered the extract to be used
for further experiments. The peels (or covers) of fruits are often thrown
away after eating the inside pulps, being regarded as wastes. But since
these wastes are non-toxic and environment friendly, their utilization
may prove to be rewarding. R. Yuvakkumar et al. [72], understanding
the potential of fruit peels, synthesized ZnO nanocrystals using Nephe-
lium lappaceum L. (rambutan) peel extract. Realising the components
present in the peel of this fruit, like powerful phenolic antioxidants,
such as ellagic acid, corilagin, geranin and ellagitannins, making them
potential candidates in the food and medical industry, and the fact that
they possess convincing anti-bacterial activity, the biosynthesis of ZnO
nanoparticles using N. lappaceum peel extract was an intelligent ap-
proach (since the higher constituents of polyphenols are necessary for
the formation of metal oxide nanocrystals through the ligation of
transition metal ions). The preparation of the peel extract was initiated
by thoroughly washing the peels, slicing it into fine pieces and then
drying at 50 °C until it was completely dried. Then 3 g of this dried peel
was weighed after which, it was boiled for 10 min in a mixture con-
taining ethanol and double distilled water (ratio of 1:2). Finally, the
resulting mixture (i.e. the required extract) was filtered to be used for
the biosynthesis process. The difference of this method with the former
methods of extract preparation is clearly the use of dried powder in-
stead of the fresh plant parts. Similarly, S. Ambika and M. Sundrarajan
used the dried powders of Vitex negundo leaves [63] for the biosynthesis
of ZnO nanoparticles. However, in their method, after the leaves were
dried and converted into the powder form, the extract powder was
mixed with ethanol, left for 2 h at 60 °C and finally, filtered. According
to them, the as-prepared extract could be used as a capping or hydro-
lysing agent for the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles.
The extract preparation from plant parts therefore follows either of
the two basic procedures; i) washing the plant part, finely cutting, then
boiling and, ii) washing, drying, grinding and finally, boiling. However,
differences amongst the synthesized plant extracts exist as a result of
using different plants or plant parts or boiling temperature and time.
208
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
3.1. Procedure for the Biosynthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles Using Plant
Extracts
For the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles, the plant extracts are
used as reductants of the zinc salts (like zinc acetate, zinc nitrate, zinc
chloride). The main idea is to reduce the zinc salt, without using any
perilous chemicals or base (like sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydro-
xide), then allow the complexation of zinc ion with the complexes
present in the plant extract and finally, produce ZnO nanoparticles,
where the bio-complexes would act as capping agents and prevent the
particles from agglomerating. Most of the methods presented in lit-
erature show similarity in the synthesis procedure of ZnO nanoparticles
with little or minute modifications. Sangeetha et al. [64], used zinc
nitrate [Zn(NO3)2] as a precursor of zinc and dissolved it in the as-
prepared Aloe vera extract solution under constant stirring. When the
dissolution of the mixture was complete, the solution was then vigor-
ously stirred at 150 °C for 5–6 h. This was then cooled at room tem-
perature, centrifuged, washed and finally dried at 80 °C for 7–8 h, and
thereby, ZnO nanoparticles were obtained. N. Ain Samat and R. Md Nor
[73] used zinc acetate (Zn(OAc)2.2H2O) as a zinc precursor. They
added varying concentrations of zinc acetate into the as-prepared ex-
tract of Citrus aurantifolia, then stirred the solution at 90 °C for 3 h. This
resulted in the formation of white precipitate, which was washed and
finally dried at 100 °C for 6 h. This method also resulted in the forma-
tion of ZnO nanoparticles. The difference between the above two
methods is the use of two different precursors, namely, zinc nitrate and
zinc acetate, temperature and heating time of the mixture solution, and
also, different drying temperatures of the white precipitate obtained.
Thus, it can be inferred that, according to the choice and availability of
resources with the researcher, these conditions may be varied. With
certain modifications, similar procedure was followed by P. Rajiv et al.
[74], R. Yuvakkumar et al. [72], T. Karnan et al. [62], A. Diallo et al.
[75], Y. Zheng et al. [76], F.T. Thema et al. [77], S. Vijayakumar et al.
[78], P.C. Nagajyothi et al. [79]. Some other procedures employed for
the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles include the synthesis procedure
followed by S. Ambika and M. Sundrarajan [63], where they mixed a
solution of zinc acetate to the already prepared extract solution of Vitex
negundo leaves under vigorous stirring for nearly 5 h. The resultant
precipitate was then left undisturbed for 24 h. This was then followed
by centrifugation, filtration and drying processes. Finally, the resultant
product was calcined at 450 °C so to obtain the ZnO nanoparticles. As
may be observed, in addition to the drying process, calcination of the
sample has also been carried out in their process. Similar processes
were followed by many other researchers [80–82]. An approach, dif-
ferent from the previously defined ones, has been put forward by D.
Suresh et al., where they have employed the solution-combustion
technique/green-combustion technique using the leaf extract of Cassia
fistula. The extract was used as the fuel [83]. Their process involved the
use of zinc nitrate as the zinc precursor, which was dissolved in the as-
prepared aqueous leaf extract solution. This mixture was then subjected
to combustion in a pre-heated muffle-furnace (maintained at
400 ± 10 °C). After 5 min, the completion of the reaction was con-
firmed by the appearance of white coloured precipitate, indicating the
formation of ZnO nanoparticles. There are still other methods available
in literature whose inclusion has not been made in this review owing to
their similarity with the ones presented here.
Through the explanations given above, it may be concluded that the
use of only plant extracts and a zinc precursor, nanoparticles of ZnO
may be formed. Depending on the type of plant extracts, zinc pre-
cursors, experimental parameters, and most importantly, the methods
employed, variations in the morphology and size of the nanoparticles
may be obtained. However, the use of low temperature synthesis pro-
cess as described by many of the researchers [62,64,72–79] may be
more considerate than those methods involving higher temperatures,
i.e. calcination [80–82].
Further, confirmation on the formation of ZnO nanoparticles may be
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

obtained from characterization techniques like UV–Visible (UV–Vis) Zinc metal salts with themselves. Alternatively, these phytochemicals
spectroscopy, Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Scanning are the main biochemicals responsible for the reduction of the metal
electron microscopy (SEM), Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), X- salts leading to the formation of ZnO nanoparticles. Moreover, these
ray photo-electron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction spectroscopy phytochemicals play the role of capping agents, thereby, producing ZnO
(XRD), and others. nanoparticles having narrow size distribution. The common phyto-
The following sections deal with differences and similarities be- chemicals present in plants belonging to the Rutaceae family include
tween biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles based on reports available in carotenoids, coumarins, limonoids, flavonoids, etc. [14,81,86,87].
literature. The biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles are, however, not possible
with every plant present in the surrounding. There is a maximum
probability of succeeding by using plants which contain polyphenols (or
4. Common Plants Used in the Biosynthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles flavonoids) [60,61,63,72], since they are very good reducing as well as
and its Probable Cause good capping/stabilizing agents. In addition, they easily form com-
plexation with zinc metal salts and thereby, on carrying out hydrolysis
The relation between different plants may be accounted by the type followed by calcinations, the formation of ZnO nanoparticles may be
of family (eight major taxonomic ranks) they are classified into, as achieved.
majority of plants belonging to the same family often have similar
patterns, chemicals and medicinal properties (for example, the Rosa 5. The Experimental Parameters during Biosynthesis Affecting the
family have five petals, typically numerous stamens, and contain tannic UV–Visible Spectra
acid, which is used as an astringent). From literature, most common
family that were used for the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles are An important optical characterization technique is the UV–Visible
Fabaceae (which include Aspalathus linearis, Cassia fistula, Pongamia (UV–Vis) absorption spectroscopy through which absorbance and op-
pinnata and Trifolium pratense) and Rutaceae (which include Citrus tical band gap energy of the nanoparticles under study may be ob-
aurantifolia, Agathosma betulina, Citrus limon and Limonia acidissima), tained. The literature survey on the UV–Vis analysis of the biosynthe-
followed by Apocynaceae, Solanaceae and Lamiaceae (list of plants, sized ZnO nanoparticles provide evidence for the formation of ZnO
their families and plant's parts used for the biosynthesis of ZnO nano- nanoparticles. According to Sangeetha et al. [64], the as-synthesized
particles are given in Table 3). Fig. 9 presents the pictures of plants ZnO nanoparticles using Aloe vera extract had a wider band gap energy
commonly used for producing ZnO nanoparticles. as compared to the chemically synthesized one. This further indicates
Plants belonging to the family Fabaceae are rich in polyphenols, that the size of the nanoparticles formed through biosynthesis was
flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, etc. [75,83–85]. These phytochemicals much smaller than the latter. Madan et al. [61] reported the band gap
are the main ingredients responsible for the formation of complexes of energy of ZnO nanoparticles biosynthesized using Azarichta indica, be-
longing to the family Meliaceae, to be 3.87 eV, corresponding to the
Table 3 absorption peak at 377 nm, which they infer to the quantum size effects
List of plants and their parts used for the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles in the nano-regime. Many researchers have reported that on increasing
(already reported in literature).
the extract concentration, the formation of smaller particles with wider
Sr. no. Family Botanical name Plant part used band gap energies may be achieved [61,74,90]. In the work reported by
Madan et al., the amount of neem (Azarichta indica) extract was varied
1. Acanthaceae Adhotoda vasica [21] Leaf
2. Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum Leaf
from 4, 10, 12, 15 and 20 mL. The UV–Vis spectra obtained from these
Allium cepa [80] Leaf samples showed absorption bands at 376, 373.55, 372.34, 372 and
3. Apiaceae Petroselinum crispum [80] Bulb 371.98 nm, respectively. From this, it may be observed that the ab-
4. Apocynaceae Calotropis procera [88] sorption peak shifts towards the lower wavelengths with an increase in
Carissa edulis [89] Fruit
the extract amount, thereby, leading to a steady increase in their optical
6. Asphodelaceae Aloe barbadensis miller [64,90] Leaf
7. Asteraceae Parthenium hysterophorus L [74] Leaf band gap energies. The corresponding band gap energies were 3.29,
8. Boraginaceae Anchusa italic [91] Flower 3.31, 3.33, 3.33 and 3.33 eV, respectively. However, in this report,
9. Burseraceae Boswellia ovalifoliolata [92] Bark there is not much difference in the band gap energy. This may be be-
10. Caricaceae Carica papaya [93] Milk cause of the fact that only when the particle size is comparable to the
11. Combretaceae Terminalia chebula [94] Fruit
14. Fabaceae Aspalathus linearis [75] Flower
Bohr exciton radius, does the particle truly show quantum confinement
Cassia fistula [83] Leaf effects.
Pongamia pinnata [84] Leaf The UV–Vis absorption spectra, as collected from earlier reports
Trifolium pratense [85] Flower have been represented in Fig. 10 (refs. [61,64,74,90]). Another inter-
16. Lamiaceae Vitex negundo [63] Flower
esting observation has been reported by K. Ali et al. [90]. They have
Plectranthus amboinicus [78] Leaf
18. Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa [71] Leaf studied the variation of both concentration and pH on the formation of
19. Meliaceae Azarichta indica [61] Leaf ZnO nanoparticles using Aloe vera skin extract.
20. Moringaceae Moringa oleifera [95,96] Leaf pH variation from 5.0 to 10.0 was studied. Their work revealed that
21. Myrtaceae Corymbia citriodora [76] Leaf the optimum pH required for the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles was
22. Oleaceae Nyctanthes arbortristis [97] Flower
8.0. Low absorption was noticed for lower pH range (5.0 to 7.0). Based
23. Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus niruri [82] Leaf
24. Polygalaceae Polygala tenuifolia [79] Root on this observation, they concluded that at a lower pH, instead of nu-
25. Rosaceae Rosa canina [99] Fruit cleation, aggregation was dominant. Calcination temperature is yet
26. Rubiaceae Coffea arabica [100] Fruit another factor which equally determines the size of the as-synthesized
27. Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia [73] Fruit
ZnO nanoparticles [104–106]. Azizi et al. [91] observed the decrease in
Agathosma betulina [87] Leaf
Citrus limon [81] Fruit band gap energy from 3.30 eV to 3.27 eV with increasing calcination
Limonia acidissima [14] Leaf temperature, from 100 °C to 200 °C, respectively. The same reason (as
29. Sapindaceae Nephelium lappaceum L. [62,72] Fruit peel above) may be applicable here as well, i.e. the agglomeration of par-
30. Solanaceae Physalis alkekengi [101] Leaf ticles at comparatively higher temperature. In the work reported by D.
Solanum nigrum [102] Leaf
Suresh et al., the intrinsic band-gap absorption of ZnO nanoparticles
Solanum lycopersicum [103] Flower
31. Theaceae Camelia sinensis [18,60] Leaf was obtained at 370 nm using Cassia fistula extract [83]. The appear-
ance of this peak has been attributed to the electron transitions from the

209
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

Fig. 9. Common plants belonging to the families Fabeaceae and Rutaceae used in the biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles as reported; figures: (a). Asphalathus linearis,
(b). Cassia fistula, (c). Pongamia pinnata, (d). Trifolium pratense, (e). Citrus aurantifolia, (f). Agathosma betulina, (g). Citrus limon, (h). Limonia acidissima.

valence band to the conduction band (O2p-Zn3d). According to Azizi
et al., the wavelength peaks of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using
Anchusa italic [91] increased from 372 nm to 382 nm with increasing
annealing temperature. This change in the peak position indicated
changes in morphology, size, and surface microstructure of the parti-
cles.
The explanations presented above, clearly states that the bio-
synthesized ZnO nanoparticles may have smaller particle size dis-
tribution as compared to the chemically synthesized ones [64]. As has
been observed, many factors were responsible for the formation of
smaller particles; increasing the concentration of plant extracts led to
smaller particles while, an increase in the calcination temperature re-
sulted into agglomeration (or the formation of larger particles); higher
pH supported optimum absorbance rather than lower pH. When nu-
cleation was oppressed by agglomeration, larger particles resulted.
Considering all these factors and optimizing the same, one may obtain
ZnO nanoparticles of the desired size.
However, in these works, UV–Vis studies has only been applied to
confirm the formation of ZnO nanoparticles and to calculate the optical
band gap energy. Although, XRD analysis provides the particle size of
the nanoparticles under study, confirmation of the same may be put
forward through UV–Vis studies [107,108].

Fig. 10. Examples of UV–Vis absorption spectra (as reported); figures: (a). Ref. [64], (b). Ref. [61], (c). Ref. [90], and (d). Ref. [74], respectively.

210
P. Basnet et al.
Fig. 11. FTIR spectra of biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles, as reported; figures: (a). Ref. [102], (b). Ref. [80], (c). Ref. [109], and (d). Ref. [96], respectively.
5.1. Importance of FTIR Spectra for the Biosynthesized ZnO Nanoparticles
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is another very im-
portant characterization technique through which the presence of plant
extracts may be confirmed through the bonding information, in addi-
tion to the presence of ZnO bonds. FTIR figures extracted from litera-
ture of the biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles have been given in
Fig. 11.
As far as getting an idea about the mechanism through which the
biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles is taking place, a comparison be-
tween the FTIR spectra of the extract before synthesis, and the FTIR
spectra of the biosynthesized sample could be helpful. Through com-
parison, it might be possible to point out those phytochemicals re-
sponsible for the reduction of zinc salts (i.e. as reducing agents) and
those responsible for the stabilization process (i.e. as capping/stabi-
lizing agents). However, not many researchers have shown this com-
parison; the work reported by M. Stan et al. [80] or Sangeetha et al.
[64] and still many others present the FTIR spectra of only the sample
after biosynthesis. In the work reported by M. Ramesh et al. [102], a
comparison between the FTIR spectra of the leaf extract of Solanum
nigrum and ZnO nanoparticles after biosynthesis has been depicted. In
both the spectra, presence of amide III band was observed, which may
be attributed to the random coil of protein (1240–1261 cm−1). They
also found carboxyl side groups in the amino acid residues of protein
molecules (1404 cm−1) and the bands representing the carbonates
(1126, 1030 and 605 cm−1). Through this observation, they confirmed
that the biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles using Solanum nigrum leaf
extract was surrounded by phytochemicals (like proteins) and meta-
bolites (like terpenoids) containing functional groups. They further
confirmed that the carbonyl groups from the amino acid residues and
proteins had a strong ability to bind with zinc metal ion. Therefore, the
proteins could be responsible for the formation and stability of ZnO
nanoparticles, in accordance to their study. According to K. Elumalai
et al. [95], changes in the IR absorption and shifts in the band positions
provide evidence for the presence of functional groups of alcohols,
phenols, amines, in the biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles. N. Matinise
211
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
et al. [96] further confirmed not only the formation of ZnO nano-
particles through FTIR studies, but they also showed which phyto-
chemicals were responsible for the synthesis and which for the stabi-
lization purpose. According to them, those phytochemicals whose
bands were seen larger in the spectrum of the extract but small in the
spectrum of the synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were the ones re-
sponsible for reducing the zinc salt (zinc nitrate) into ZnO. In their
study, L-ascorbic acid, chlorogenic acid and quercetin were involved in
the formation of ZnO nanoparticles.
These descriptions clearly indicate that the presence of phyto-
chemicals, like proteins, terpenoids, acids, and other polyphenols pro-
vide an ambience for ZnO nanoparticles formation and stabilization.
5.2. Particle Size as Calculated from XRD Studies and TEM/SEM Analysis
X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies is yet another very important char-
acterization tool for phase identification and crystallite-size determi-
nation. In addition to XRD, TEM and SEM are useful techniques as far as
the studies related to morphology, structure, shape, size, orientations,
microstructures, and others are concerned.
From literature, it may be observed that, most of the as-synthesized
ZnO nanoparticles do not share accord with the crystallite size calcu-
lated from XRD and the particle size calculated from SEM/TEM. The
probable reason may be the agglomeration of ZnO nanoparticles due to
which the particle size becomes bigger than the crystallite size. Fig. 12
provides the XRD pattern and TEM images [64,102].
ZnO samples, formed using Aloe barbadensis Miller leaf extract, as
reported by Sangeetha et al. [64], showed similar particle size of about
35 nm in both XRD and TEM analysis. This may be possible due to the
stability of the as-prepared sample. A similar observation has been re-
ported by M. Ramesh et al. where the synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles
was performed using Solanum nigrum extract [102]. In their study, both
TEM and XRD studies revealed particle/crystallite size of about
29.79 nm. Contrary to this, the study reported by R. Yuvakkumar et al.
using rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) peel extract for the biosynthesis
of ZnO nanopowders [72], crystallite size of approximately 50 nm was
P. Basnet et al.
Fig. 12. Comparison of the XRD and TEM analysis; figures: (a). Ref. [64], and (b). Ref. [102].
obtained through XRD, while SEM analysis provided particle size of
about 440 nm. In this case, it may, therefore, be understood that ag-
glomeration of the crystals might have taken place.
Agglomeration, leading to the formation of aggregates, is undesir-
able in nanoparticle fabrication [111]. A higher concentration of the
bio-extract may lead to more stable nanoparticles because of the ex-
istence of higher number of capping agents. As has been observed, si-
milarity in the size, as calculated through XRD and SEM/TEM studies,
may be inferred to the stability of the ZnO nanoparticles.
A table proving information about the plants used, type of mor-
phology of the nanoparticles, their size from XRD and SEM/TEM ana-
lysis, in addition to the functional groups responsible for the bio-
synthesis and stabilization has been given in Table 4.
5.3. Formation of Different ZnO Nanostructures Using Different Plant
Extracts Based on Literature
Morphologies or structures of nanoparticles depend on a number of
factors [113–115]. Nanoparticles may form any structure, such as
spheres, rods, tubes, wires, forests, bunches, brushes, needles. In this
review, different structures formed, as a result of different plant extracts
used, have been given. Some images of spherical ZnO nanoparticles
have been shown in Fig. 13.
Many researchers have obtained spherical ZnO nanoparticles like
Sangeetha et al. using Aloe barbadensis miller [64], N. Ain Samat, R. Md
Nor using Citrus aurantifolia [73], Davar et al. using Citrus limon extract
[81], M. Anbuvannan using Phyllanthus niruri [82], S. Ambika, M.
Sundrarajan using Pongamia pinnata [84], M. Ramesh et al. using
212
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
Solanum nigrum [102], P. Sutradhar and M. Saha using tea leaves ex-
tract [112], P. C. Nagajyothi et al. using Polygala tenuifolia [79], Thema
et al. using Agathosma betulina [87], T. Taranath and B. N. Patil using
Limonia acidissima [14], T. Karnan and S. Selvakumar using Nephelium
Lappaceum L [62]., O. J. Nava et al. using Camellia sinensis [112], Rana
et al. using Terminalia chebula fruit extract [94] and N. Matinise et al.
using Moringa oleifera [96].
Some researchers have obtained hexagonal ZnO nanoparticles like
S. Azizi et al. using Anchusa italic [91], M. H. Koupaei et al. using coffee
extract [100] while other researchers have obtained particles with a
combination of morphologies; for example, K. Ali et al. obtained
spherical, oval and hexagonal ZnO nanoparticles using Aloe vera extract
[90], H. R. Madan et al. obtained mushroom, bullet-shaped, nanobuds
and nanobundles morphologies of ZnO nanoparticles using Azarichta
indica [117], S. M. Hassan et al. obtained rod-shaped ZnO nanoparticles
using black solid tea waste [118], S. C. Sharma obtained hexagonal to
prism to nanobuds to nanoflowers of ZnO nanoparticles using Carica
papaya milk extract [93], J. Fowsiya et al. obtained flower shaped ZnO
nanoparticles using Carissa edulis [89], H. Colak and E. Karakose ob-
tained pyramid-like ZnO nanoparticles using Citrus aurantifolia [73], B.
Banumathi et al. and S. Sonia et al. obtained a mixture of spherical and
hexagonal ZnO nanoparticles using Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus
extract [119] and Adhatoda vasica leaf extract [21], respectively.
Therefore, through this observation, it may be concluded that the
desired morphologies of ZnO nanoparticles may be obtained using
different plant extracts, acting as reducing and stabilizing agents, and
other experimental factors, like differences in extract preparation, cal-
cinations, experimental duration and temperature. Fig. 14 shows the
 Table 4
P. Basnet et al.

Morphology, crystallite size, particle size of the ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using the corresponding plant extracts and the functional groups present.
Sl. no. Plants used for the bio-synthesis Morphology of the nano- Crystallite size of XRD Particle size of TEM/SEM studies Functional groups/phytochemicals present Ref.
of ZnO nanoparticles particles studies (nm) (nm)

1. Aloe barbadensis Miller Spherical 35 25–40 OeH of phenol, amines, OeH of alcohol and CeH of alkanes, the amide of protein and [64]
enzymes.
2. Physalis alkekengi Triangular and elongated 72.5 50–200 – [101]
3. Citrus aurantifolia Spherical 100 50–200 – [73]
4. Parthenium hysterophorus L. Spherical and hexagonal 22–35 and 75–90 27 ± 5 and 84 ± 2 NeH bending & NeH stretching mode, phosphorus compound, secondary sulfonamide, [74]
monosubstituted alkyne, amine salt, vinyl cis-tri substituted
5. Nephelium lappaceum L. Needle like 50.95 447 OeH stretching, HeOeH bending [72]
6. Solanum nigrum Quasi-spherical 20–30 29.79 OeH, aldehydic CeH, amide III bands of protein, carboxyl side group, CeN of amine, [102]
carbonyl group
7. Vitex negundo Spherical 38.17 75–80 OH, CeH, C = C stretching band [63]
8. Allium sativum Spherical 9 14 OeH bending of adsorbed water molecules, CeOeH bending of carboxylic acid, CeN [80]
stretching vibrations of amines, CeH due to the asymmetric stretching, COO–
stretching of polyphenols, SeC due to organo sulfur compound
9. Allium cepa Spherical 18 21 OeH bending of adsorbed water molecules, CeOeH bending of carboxylic acid, CeN [80]
stretching vibrations of amines, CeH due to the asymmetric stretching, –CH2OH
vibrational frequency of carbohydrates, left-handed helix of DNA
10. Petroselinum crispum Spherical 55 70 OeH bending of adsorbed water molecules, CeOeH bending of carboxylic acid, CeN [80]
stretching vibrations of amines, CeH due to the asymmetric stretching, COO–
stretching of polyphenols and carbohydrates bands
11. Azarichta indica Spherical 8.4 9.6–25.5 Amide II stretching bands, CeN stretching band of aliphatic, aromatic amide, an [61]
aliphatic amine, alcohol, phenol, secondary amine, CeH of alkane and aromatic,
C]CeH of alkynes, C]O, CeC of an alkane.

213
12. Cassia fistula Sponge-like 5–15 5–15 – [83]
13. Corymbia citriodora Polyhedron 21 20–120 OH– stretching and NeH bending functional groups, –CeH stretching of (alkanes), [76]
CeH (aromatics) and –C]CeH (alkynes), C]C bending and CeC stretching of
aromatic rings, CeN stretching mode of aliphatic amines
14. Agathosma betulina Quasi-spherical 19.4 12–26 OeH of hydroxyl group, ZneO stretching band [87]
15. Citrus limon Semi-spherical 20 50 OeH stretching vibration, asymmetry and symmetry vibration of –COOH group, One [81]
transmission band due to CeO bond; citric acid and sucrose residues
16. Moringa oleifera Cauliflower-like 16–37 16–31 OeH, CeH of alkane, C]O of alcohol, carboxylic acid [96]
17. Phyllanthus niruri Quasi-spherical 25.61 25.61 OeH, CeH, CeO stretching, aromatic aldehyde. [82]
18. Plectranthus amboinicus Spherical and hexagonal 20–50 20–50 ZneO, CeO of CeOeSO3, phosphorus compound [78]
19. Pongamia pinnata Spherical 26 100 OeH stretching, C]O stretching of carboxylic acid or their ester, CeOeH bending [84]
mode.
20. Solanum lycopersicum Spherical 60–70 40–100 polyphenols, carboxylic acid, polysaccharide, amino acids and proteins [103]
21. Aloe vera Spherical, oval and hexagonal 15 8–18 OeH of phenol, amines, OeH of alcohol and CeH of alkanes, the amide of protein and [90]
enzymes
22. Anchusa italic Hexagonal 10.8 and 16.2 8 and 14 tannins, saponins, fatty acids, flavonoids, diisobutyl phthalate, hexahydrofarnesyl [91]
acetone, tannins and flavonoid
23. Azarichta indica Plates, bullets, flower, prismatic 9–38 10–30 –OH group of H2O molecules, CO2, carbonate moieties [61]
tip, closed pine cone
24. Carica edulis Flower 50–55 50–55 flavonoids, phenolic and terpenoid [15]
25. Citrus aurantifolia Pyramid-like 35 50 – [86]
26. Coffee Hexagonal 27.9 20–38 citric acid, chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid [100]
27. Limonia acidissima Spherical 12–53 12–53 amino acid residue, peptide of protein, phenol molecules, SieOeSi stretching vibration [14]
of proteins, aromatic ring proteins and amide bonds
28. Nephelium lappaceum Spherical 25.67 25–40 polyphenols, alkaloids, flavanoids and vitamins [62]
(continued on next page)
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

different morphologies of the as-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles

[112]
[97]

[94]

[21]
[88]
Ref.
[21,61,100].

OeH vibrations, phenolic hydroxyl group, carbonyl group (C]O) (phenolic acids and
tannins), aromatic C]C stretching vibrations, CeO group (carboxylic acid and esters)
–OH, alkynes, stretching bands of C‚O functional groups, amine of the protein amide
6. Applications of the Biosynthesized ZnO Nanoparticles: A

Hydroxyl group, aldehydes, amines, aromatic ring, aldehydes, terpenoids, phenolic

C]C stretch in aromatic rings and a C]O stretch in polyphenols, CeH (aromatic) Photocatalyst and an Antimicrobial Agent

ZnO nanoparticles have lot of applications in different field as dis-

cussed in Introduction (Section 1.2) part. However, the photocatalytic
and antimicrobial activities of biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles are
very prominent now a days. Accordingly, in this review, only these two
alkaloids, glycosides, phenols, reducing sugars and proteins

applications have been specified.

Dyes, emanating as a waste from the textile industry, may not be
functional groups, CeC stretching of aromatic rings

properly disposed resulting in, deteriorated quality of water, en-

dangering the lives of aquatic species. In this regard, research for a
linkages, aromatic amines, aliphatic amines

method to overcome such problem, without causing any harm to the

Functional groups/phytochemicals present

environment, has led to the discovery of photocatalysis, a method to

degrade organic pollutants (dyes) [120]. ZnO nanoparticles are
amongst the most preferred photocatalysts, because of their properties
like non-toxicity, high electron-hole mobility, better stability, and cost
effectiveness. An overview of the degradation of methylene blue dye by
ZnO nanoparticles has been presented in Fig. 15.
M. Stan et al. [80] conducted a comparative study of the bio-
synthesized ZnO nanoparticles using Allium sativum, Allium cepa and
compounds

Petroselinum crispum and bare ZnO based on the degradation efficiency

of methylene blue dye. In their research, they revealed the order of
degradation as ZnO (Allium sativum) > ZnO (Allium cepa) > ZnO
(Petroselinum crispum) > ZnO. The superiority of these biosynthe-
Particle size of TEM/SEM studies

sized ZnO nanoparticles as compared to bare ZnO was attributed to the

small size of the particles and number of defects, since both these fac-
tors would lead to higher number of reaction sites on the surface of the
catalyst. An important parameter in photocatalysis is the amount of
catalyst loading and concentration of the dye under consideration. It
has been reported by D. Suresh et al. [83] that the concentration of dye
in solution was inversely proportional to the photocatalytic degradation
8 ± 0.5

efficiency because as the concentration of the dye solution increases,

12–32

10–12
15–25
(nm)

path of photons entering the solution decreases, thereby, resulting in a

12

lower number of active species (OH radicals and holes) available for the
degradation process. They also reported the effect of catalyst loading,
Crystallite size of XRD

i.e. effect of the amount of catalyst in the dye solution. With increase in
the amount of catalyst (ZnO nanoparticles), the degradation efficiency
studies (nm)

increased markedly. However, after a certain point, the saturation level

was achieved. An explanation may be attributed to the fact that as the
10–12
16.58

9.04

amount of catalyst increased, more number of reaction sites were

12

24

available and hence, the photocatalytic activity was enhanced. This

enhancement then decreased sharply because increased amount of the
catalyst formed agglomerates and then sediment, causing the surface
Morphology of the nano-

area to decrease, thereby, decreasing the number of reaction sites.

Another important parameter is the morphology of ZnO nano-
Roughly spherical

particles because different structures possess various degrees of reac-

tion sites wherein, the adsorption and reactions of the reactive species
and dye molecules occur. S.C. Sharma [93] reported an experiment
Spherical

Spherical

Spherical
particles

Round

where different structures of ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized and

their photodegradation efficiency towards Alizarin Red-S dye was stu-
died. One may notice the degradation efficiency to be in the order:
Plants used for the bio-synthesis

nano-flower > agglomerated nano-buds > agglomerated prismatic

tip > nano-buds > prismatic tip [87]. Nano-flowers proved to be the
most efficient photocatalyst amongst others, probably because of the
Nyctanthes arbor-tristris
of ZnO nanoparticles

higher number of reaction sites. Determination of the end products of

Terminalia chebula

Calotropis procera

degraded dye must be carried out so to provide evidence for the ex-
Adhatoda vasica
Camelia sinensis

istence of non-harmful yield. J. Fowsiya et al. [89] performed a study to

Table 4 (continued)

determine the final products of the degraded Congo red dye using its
mass fragment via cleavage of the benzene ring, cleavage of C]S bonds
of the aromatic ring, cleavage of C]N and C]C bonds of the chro-
mophore and NeN cleavage. T. Karnan et al. [62] reported the pho-
Sl. no.

tocatalytically degraded products of methyl orange dye solution by ZnO

29.

30.

31.

32.
33.

nanoparticles to be CO2, NO2 and NO. The UV–Vis plots of some

214
P. Basnet et al.
Fig. 13. Spherical ZnO nanoparticles formed through biosynthesis; figures: (a). Ref. [14], (b). Ref. [112], (c). Ref. [94], (d). Ref. [116].
photocatalytically degraded dyes and the mechanism involved have
been presented in Fig. 16.
Considering parameters, such as size and morphology of ZnO na-
noparticles, amount of ZnO nanoparticles taken for the study, con-
centration of the dye solution, and intensity of the light source em-
ployed, efficiency of the degradation process may be increased. It is
desirable that the photocatalyst taken should be stable and should
provide more than at least three times comparable efficiency to the first
time. Therefore, turn over number of the catalyst should be considered
while carrying out the photocatalytic degradation processes.
The anti-microbial activity of ZnO may be enhanced many-folds by
employing the biosynthesis using plant extracts [109,110]. Anti-
microbial activity may be tested against pathogenic fungus or bacteria,
since most of them are harmful to the environment, agriculture and
human beings. When outer portion of the bacterial cell, i.e. the plasma
membrane, encounter ZnO nanoparticles, the structure disrupts and the
cell's permeability changes. ZnO nanoparticles then moves up to the
cytoplasm, where it builds up and hinder the normal functioning of the
cell. It generates species like hydrogen peroxide and reactive oxygen
species (like hydroxyl radicals and singlet oxygen), which in turn causes
cell death [97,98]. The effect of the as-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles
against microbes may be confirmed through the zone of inhibition; the
higher the zone of inhibition, the greater the effect of ZnO nano-
particles. The zone of inhibition is inversely proportional to the size of
the nanoparticles under investigation [74], i.e. smaller the particles,
greater the zone of inhibition. The size-dependent antifungal activity of
ZnO nanoparticles, biologically synthesized using Parthenium hyster-
ophorus, was studied by P. Rajiv et al., where they observed greater
anti-fungal activity of smaller sized ZnO nanoparticles as compared to
those having larger particle size. Moreover, through their study, it was
observed that the resistance of fungus towards the adverse effects of
ZnO nanoparticles varied from one species to another; higher zone of
inhibition was achieved with A. flavus as compared to F. culmorum.
Another parameter which determines the extent of zone of inhibition is
the concentration of ZnO sample. The concentration dependent result
was described by T.C. Taranath and B. Patil, where ZnO nanoparticles
215
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
were prepared using Limonia acidissima L. leaf extract and its effect
towards a highly pathogenic bacterium, namely, Mycobacterium tu-
berculosis (responsible for causing tuberculosis) was studied. Their
study revealed that higher the concentration of ZnO nanoparticles,
more was the inhibition. Moreover, a detailed mechanism of the effect
of ZnO nanoparticles against M. tuberculosis bacterium has been cited in
their work [14]. The effect of concentration was mainly attributed to
the fact that the membrane permeability of the microbes increased,
thereby, facilitating more number of ZnO nanoparticles to enter. This
eventually caused membrane disruption changing the cell's metabolism,
which finally led to cell death [61]. There are still many other works
reported in literature stating the size dependent effect of ZnO nano-
particles towards bacterial inhibition [21,65,85,91,93]. The bacterial
colony found in cotton fabrics were inhibited in the study reported by
R. Yuvakkumar et al., using the biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles
prepared by Nephelium lappaceum peel extract [72]. They made a
comparison between commercial nano ZnO, a standard antibiotic and
biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles. They found the results to be similar
in all the cases. This, therefore, indicates that the use of biosynthesized
ZnO nanoparticles could be a substitute to other agents, owing to ad-
ditional advantages of the former, i.e. eco-friendliness and cost-effec-
tiveness. Fig. 17 presents the action of ZnO nanoparticles over bacteria
and the possible action mode [14,21].
The enhancement of anti-microbial activity of ZnO nanoparticles
employing plant extracts may be mainly due to the presence of in-
gredients (phytochemicals) which are themselves resistant against the
microbes. Using ZnO nanoparticles of smaller size is advantageous, as
has been described earlier. In addition, through the concentration de-
pendent results, it is well established that higher concentration leads to
better outcome. Moreover, biologically synthesized ZnO nanoparticles
presented results similar to the conventional anti-biotics, with more
research in this field, ZnO nanoparticles may provide a solution (as a
substitute to anti-biotics) with negligible side-effects.
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

Fig. 14. Different morphologies of ZnO nanoparticles formed by biosynthesis; figures: (a). Ref. [100], (b). Ref. [61], and (c). Ref. [21], respectively.

Fig. 15. An overview of the photocatalytic dye degradation process by ZnO nanoparticles.

216
P. Basnet et al. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221

Fig. 16. (a). Degradation of Methylene blue dye by ZnO nanoparticles confirmed by UV–Visible absorption plot (ref [80]), (b). Photocatalytic degradation of congo
red by ZnO nanoparticles confirmed by UV–Visible absorption plot (ref [89]), (c). Photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange dye by ZnO nanoparticles (ref [88]),
and (d). Mechanism of photocatalytic degradation of Methyl orange dye by ZnO nanoparticles (ref [116]).

7. Conclusions
The novel properties of nanoparticles have led to new possibilities,
be it in the field of technology, science, medicine, or industries. On one
hand, the amount required to carry out a certain operation has reduced
drastically and on the other hand, the resulting effects have enhanced
many-folds. The additional advantage possessed by the biosynthesized
ZnO nanoparticles is their non-toxic and environmentally benign
nature, moreover, the economic and simple synthesis procedures have
led to more researches in the field of green synthesis. The mechanism of
synthesis involves reduction of a zinc salt into Zn2+, followed by the
formation of a complex with the most active and abundant phyto-
chemical present in the plant. Hydrolysis then results in the separation
of the phytochemical and Zn2+, wherein the ion forms Zn(OH)2.
Calcination ultimately leads to the formation of ZnO nanoparticles. As
has been described, increase in the concentration of the plant extracts,
smaller sized ZnO nanoparticles may be formed. Also, calcination of the
so-formed ZnO nanoparticles lead to agglomeration. Biosynthesis of
ZnO nanoparticles is gaining momentum due to the enhancement in its
anti-microbial activity. Microbial inhibition is a necessity, since mi-
crobes, e.g. fungi are pathogenic in nature, which in addition to causing
harm to humans, deteriorate agriculture, in the world where scarcity of
food has always posed a global problem, and bacteria, which causes a
variety of infections in humans and other living creatures. In this
regard, biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles has proven its efficiency to-
wards a variety of pathogenic organisms, such as pathogenic Escherichia
coli, Salmonella aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and others.
Another potential application of ZnO nanoparticles is in the pho-
tocatalytic degradation of dyes. Improperly treated dye wastes are
discarded in the water bodies, wherein they endanger the life of aquatic
species and deteriorate water quality. Although, chemically synthesized
ZnO nanoparticles have excellent degradation efficiency of these water
pollutants, the use of biosynthesized ZnO nanoparticles is more fa-
vourable because of the additional non-toxic and environmental
friendly nature. Therefore, focus should be made more on the green
synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles, which would, to some extent, help in
limiting toxicity towards the environment.
8. Future Prospects
As has been observed, biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles provide an
alternative to the conventional (physical and chemical) methods of ZnO
nanoparticles synthesis. Further, this method may be developed if more
emphasis would be paid on the study of accurate mechanisms involved,
control the experimental parameters for optimization of morphology
and size of the ZnO nanoparticles, extension of applications more to-
wards the bio-medical field and photocatalytic activity.

217
P. Basnet et al.
Fig. 17. (a). Photograph showing antibacterial activity using ZnO NPs 4 mL neem plant extract (L.H·S: Gram negative bacteria and R.H·S: Gram positive bacteria)
[21]; (b). Possible mechanism of ZnO nanoparticle's activity on Mycobacterium tuberculosis [14].
Acknowledgement
Authors sincerely acknowledge Dr. Ramdas Pai & Mrs. Vasanthi Pai
Endowment fund reference no. SMU/VC/2015-70 and Department of
Science & Technology, Government of India vide reference no SR/WOS-
A/CS-120/2013 under Women Scientist Scheme for financial support.
References
[1] A.P. Dowling, Development of nanotechnologies, Mater. Today 7 (2004) 30–35,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1369-7021(04)00628-5.
[2] S. Eustis, M.A. El-Sayed, Why gold nanoparticles are more precious than pretty
gold: noble metal surface plasmon resonance and its enhancement of the radiative
and nonradiative properties of nanocrystals of different shapes, Chem. Soc. Rev.
35 (2006) 209–217, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/B514191E.
[3] X. Luo, A. Morrin, A.J. Killard, M.R. Smyth, Application of nanoparticles in elec-
trochemical sensors and biosensors, Electroanalysis 18 (2006) 319–326, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1002/elan.200503415.
[4] I. Kim, A.J. Worthen, K.P. Johnston, D.A. DiCarlo, C. Huh, Size-dependent prop-
erties of silica nanoparticles for Pickering stabilization of emulsions and foams, J.
Nanopart. Res. 18 (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11051-016-3395-0.
[5] B. Liu, Y. Ma, D. Zhao, L. Xu, F. Liu, W. Zhou, L. Guo, Effects of morphology and
concentration of CuS nanoparticles on alignment and electro-optic properties of
nematic liquid crystal, Nano Res. 10 (2017) 618–625, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
s12274-016-1321-5.
[6] P. Van Dong, C. Ha, L. Binh, J. Kasbohm, Chemical synthesis and antibacterial
activity of novel-shaped silver nanoparticles, Int. Nano Lett. 2 (2012) 9, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1186/2228-5326-2-9.
[7] S.M. Dizaj, F. Lotfipour, M. Barzegar-Jalali, M.H. Zarrintan, K. Adibkia,
Antimicrobial activity of the metals and metal oxide nanoparticles, Mater. Sci.
Eng. C 44 (2014) 278–284, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2014.08.031.
[8] L. Saikia, D. Bhuyan, M. Saikia, B. Malakar, D.K. Dutta, P. Sengupta,
Photocatalytic performance of ZnO nanomaterials for self sensitized degradation
218
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
of malachite green dye under solar light, Appl. Catal. A Gen. 490 (2015) 42–49,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2014.10.053.
[9] G. Rytwo, T. Klein, S. Margalit, O. Mor, A. Naftali, G. Daskal, A continuous-flow
device for photocatalytic degradation and full mineralization of priority pollutants
in water, Desalin. Water Treat. 57 (2016) 16424–16434, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1080/19443994.2015.1077749.
[10] T.I. Chanu, D. Samanta, A. Tiwari, S. Chatterjee, Effect of reaction parameters on
photoluminescence and photocatalytic activity of zinc sulfide nanosphere syn-
thesized by hydrothermal route, Appl. Surf. Sci. 391 (2017) 548–556, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.05.045.
[11] D. Samanta, T.I. Chanu, P. Basnet, S. Chatterjee, Organic dye degradation under
solar irradiation by hydrothermally synthesized ZnS nanospheres, J. Mater. Eng.
Perform. (2018) 1–6, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11665-018-3214-0.
[12] T.I. Chanu, D. Samanta, A. Tiwari, S. Chatterjee, Effect of reaction parameters on
morphology and photoluminescence of intrinsic and Mn-doped ZnS microspheres
synthesized by hydrothermal method, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. (2017) 1–7, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11665-017-3064-1.
[13] J. Sarkar, M. Ghosh, A. Mukherjee, D. Chattopadhyay, K. Acharya, Biosynthesis
and safety evaluation of ZnO nanoparticles, Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 37 (2014)
165–171, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00449-013-0982-7.
[14] T.C. Taranath, B.N. Patil, Limonia acidissima L. leaf mediated synthesis of zinc
oxide nanoparticles: a potent tool against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Int. J.
Mycobacteriology (2016) 4–11, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmyco.2016.03.004.
[15] S. Ahmed, S.A. Chaudhry Annu, S. Ikram, A review on biogenic synthesis of ZnO
nanoparticles using plant extracts and microbes: a prospect towards green chem-
istry, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 166 (2017) 272–284, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.jphotobiol.2016.12.011.
[16] D. Samanta, T.I. Chanu, S. Chatterjee, Citrus limetta juice as capping agent in
hydrothermal synthesis of ZnS nanosphere for photocatalytic activity, Mater. Res.
Bull. 88 (2017) 85–90, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2016.11.019.
[17] S. Goutham, S. Kaur, K.K. Sadasivuni, J.K. Bal, N. Jayarambabu, D.S. Kumar,
K.V. Rao, Nanostructured ZnO gas sensors obtained by green method and com-
bustion technique, Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 57 (2017) 110–115, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2016.09.037.
[18] A.C. Dhanemozhi, V. Rajeswari, S. Sathyajothi, Green synthesis of zinc oxide na-
noparticle using green tea leaf extract for supercapacitor application, Mater.
P. Basnet et al.
Today Proc. 4 (2017) 660–667, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.01.070.
[19] N. Wang, M. Liu, H. Tan, J. Liang, Q. Zhang, C. Wei, Y. Zhao, E.H. Sargent,
X. Zhang, Compound homojunction:heterojunction reduces bulk and interface
recombination in ZnO photoanodes for water splitting, Small 13 (2017) 1–7,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/smll.201603527.
[20] C.B. Ong, L.Y. Ng, A.W. Mohammad, A review of ZnO nanoparticles as solar
photocatalysts: synthesis, mechanisms and applications, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev.
81 (2018) 536–551, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.08.020.
[21] S.S. Sonia, L.J.K.H. Linda Jeeva Kumari, R.K. Ruckmani, S.M. Sivakumar,
Antimicrobial and antioxidant potentials of biosynthesized colloidal zinc oxide
nanoparticles for a fortified cold cream formulation: a potent nanocosmeceutical
application, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 79 (2017) 581–589, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
msec.2017.05.059.
[22] A. Kolodziejczak-Radzimska, T. Jesionowski, Zinc oxide-from synthesis to appli-
cation: a review, Materials (Basel) 7 (2014) 2833–2881, http://dx.doi.org/10.
3390/ma7042833.
[23] Y.C. Kong, D.P. Yu, B. Zhang, W. Fang, S.Q. Feng, Ultraviolet-emitting ZnO na-
nowires synthesized by a physical vapor deposition approach, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78
(2001) 407–409, http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1342050.
[24] P.S. Venkatesh, K. Jeganathan, Investigations on the growth and characterization
of vertically aligned zinc oxide nanowires by radio frequency magnetron sput-
tering, J. Solid State Chem. 200 (2013) 84–89, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc.
2013.01.024.
[25] E. Pál, I. Dékány, Structural, optical and photoelectric properties of indium-doped
zinc oxide nanoparticles prepared in dimethyl sulphoxide, Colloids Surf. A
Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 318 (2008) 141–150, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
colsurfa.2007.12.028.
[26] C.R. Gorla, N.W. Emanetoglu, S. Liang, W.E. Mayo, Y. Lu, M. Wraback, H. Shen,
Structural, optical, and surface acoustic wave properties of epitaxial ZnO films
grown on (0112) sapphire by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition, J. Appl.
Phys. 85 (1999) 2595–2602, http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.369577.
[27] H. Zhang, D. Yang, X. Ma, D. Que, Synthesis and field emission characteristics of
bilayered ZnO nanorod array prepared by chemical reaction, J. Phys. Chem. B 109
(2005) 17055–17059, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp051204a.
[28] W.J.E. Beek, M.M. Wienk, R.A.J. Janssen, Efficient hybrid solar cells from zinc
oxide nanoparticles and a conjugated polymer, Adv. Mater. 16 (2004) 1009–1013,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adma.200306659.
[29] G. Nam, M.S. Kim, J. Lee, J.Y. Leem, S.H. Lee, J.H. Jung, J.S. Kim, Growth and
optical properties of sol-gel ZnO thin films grown on R-plane sapphire substrates,
J. Korean Phys. Soc. 62 (2013) 1154–1159, http://dx.doi.org/10.3938/Jkps.62.
1154.
[30] J.W. Soares, J.E. Whitten, D.W. Oblas, D.M. Steeves, Novel photoluminescence
properties of surface-modified nanocrystalline zinc oxide: toward a reactive scaf-
fold, Langmuir 24 (2008) 371–374, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/la702834w.
[31] I. Kadlcak, J. Kuritka, The Effect of ZnO Modification on Rubber Compound
Properties, vol. 3, (2009), pp. 347–352 http://www.cps.utb.cz.
[32] K. Eda, Zinc Oxide Varistors, IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag. 5 (1989) 28–30, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1109/57.44606.
[33] S. Mahmud, M.J. Abdullah, G.A. Putrus, J. Chong, A.K. Mohamad, Nanostructure
of ZnO fabricated via French process and its correlation to electrical properties of
semiconducting varistors, Synth. Reactivity Inorg. Met-Org. Nano-Met. Chem. 36
(2006) 155–159, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15533170500524462.
[34] C. He, T. Sasaki, Y. Shimizu, N. Koshizaki, Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using
nanosecond pulsed laser ablation in aqueous media and their self-assembly to-
wards spindle-like ZnO aggregates, Appl. Surf. Sci. 254 (2008) 2196–2202, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2007.09.007.
[35] H. Usui, Y. Shimizu, T. Sasaki, N. Koshizaki, Photoluminescence of ZnO nano-
particles prepared by laser ablation in different surfactant solutions, J. Phys.
Chem. B 109 (2005) 120–124, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp046747j.
[36] Q.A. Drmosh, M.A. Gondal, Z.H. Yamani, T.A. Saleh, Spectroscopic characteriza-
tion approach to study surfactants effect on ZnO2 nanoparticles synthesis by laser
ablation process, Appl. Surf. Sci. 256 (2010) 4661–4666, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.apsusc.2010.02.068.
[37] R.A. Ismail, A.K. Ali, M.M. Ismail, K.I. Hassoon, Preparation and characterization
of colloidal ZnO nanoparticles using nanosecond laser ablation in water, Appl.
Nanosci. 1 (2011) 45–49, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13204-011-0006-3.
[38] R. Aghababazadeh, B. Mazinani, A. Mirhabibi, M. Tamizifar, ZnO nanoparticles
synthesised by mechanochemical processing, J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 26 (2006)
312–314, http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/26/1/075.
[39] Z.-P. Sun, L. Liu, L. Zhang, D.-Z. Jia, Rapid synthesis of ZnO nano-rods by one-step,
room-temperature, solid-state reaction and their gas-sensing properties,
Nanotechnology 17 (2006) 2266–2270, http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/
17/9/032.
[40] S. Kim, M. Kim, T. Kim, H. Baik, K. Lee, Evolution of space-efficient and facet-
specific ZnO 3-D nanostructures and their application in photocatalysis,
CrystEngComm 15 (2013) 2601–2607, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C2CE26557E.
[41] S.H. Ko, D. Lee, H.W. Kang, K.H. Nam, J.Y. Yeo, S.J. Hong, C.P. Grigoropoulos,
H.J. Sung, Nanoforest of hydrothermally grown hierarchical ZnO nanowires for a
high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cell, Nano Lett. 11 (2011) 666–671, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1021/nl1037962.
[42] T. Alammar, A.-V. Mudring, Sonochemical synthesis of 0D, 1D, and 2D zinc oxide
nanostructures in ionic liquids and their photocatalytic activity, ChemSusChem 4
(2011) 1796–1804, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201100263.
[43] S. Ameen, M.S. Akhtar, M. Nazim, H.S. Shin, Rapid photocatalytic degradation of
crystal violet dye over ZnO flower nanomaterials, Mater. Lett. 96 (2013) 228–232,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2013.01.034.
219
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
[44] A. Gupta, J.R. Saurav, S. Bhattacharya, Solar light based degradation of organic
pollutants using ZnO nanobrushes for water filtration, RSC Adv. 5 (2015)
71472–71481, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C5RA10456D.
[45] J.H. Zeng, B. Bin Jin, Y.F. Wang, Facet enhanced photocatalytic effect with uni-
form single-crystalline zinc oxide nanodisks, Chem. Phys. Lett. 472 (2009) 90–95,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2009.02.082.
[46] M. Farahmandjou, S. Jurablu, Co-precipitation synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) na-
noparticles by zinc nitrate precursor, Int. J. Bio. Inorg. Hybrid Nanomater. 3
(2014).
[47] K. Akhil, J. Jayakumar, G. Gayathri, S.S. Khan, Effect of various capping agents on
photocatalytic, antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of ZnO nanoparticles, J.
Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 160 (2016) 32–42, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphotobiol.2016.03.015.
[48] B. Baruwati, D.K. Kumar, S.V. Manorama, Hydrothermal synthesis of highly
crystalline ZnO nanoparticles: a competitive sensor for LPG and EtOH, Sensors
Actuators B Chem. 119 (2006) 676–682, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2006.
01.028.
[49] N. Talebian, S.M. Amininezhad, M. Doudi, Controllable synthesis of ZnO nano-
particles and their morphology-dependent antibacterial and optical properties, J.
Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 120 (2013) 66–73, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphotobiol.2013.01.004.
[50] S. Kunjara Na Ayudhya, P. Tonto, O. Mekasuwandumrong, V. Pavarajarn,
P. Praserthdam, Solvothermal synthesis of ZnO with various aspect ratios using
organic solvents, Cryst. Growth Des. 6 (2006) 2446–2450, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1021/cg050345z.
[51] J. Becker, K.R. Raghupathi, J.St. Pierre, D. Zhao, R.T. Koodali, Tuning of the
crystallite and particle sizes of ZnO nanocrystalline materials in solvothermal
synthesis and their photocatalytic activity for dye degradation, J. Phys. Chem. C
115 (2011) 13844–13850, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp2038653.
[52] M. Vafaee, M.S. Ghamsari, Preparation and characterization of ZnO nanoparticles
by a novel sol-gel route, Mater. Lett. 61 (2007) 3265–3268, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.matlet.2006.11.089.
[53] K.-F. Lin, H.-M. Cheng, H.-C. Hsu, L.-J. Lin, W.-F. Hsieh, Band gap variation of size-
controlled ZnO quantum dots synthesized by sol–gel method, Chem. Phys. Lett.
409 (2005) 208–211, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2005.05.027.
[54] M. Ristić, S. Musić, M. Ivanda, S. Popović, Sol-gel synthesis and characterization of
nanocrystalline ZnO powders, J. Alloys Compd. 397 (2005), http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.jallcom.2005.01.045.
[55] J. Lee, A.J. Easteal, U. Pal, D. Bhattacharyya, Evolution of ZnO nanostructures in
sol-gel synthesis, Curr. Appl. Phys. 9 (2009) 792–796, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cap.2008.07.018.
[56] J.N. Hasnidawani, H.N. Azlina, H. Norita, N.N. Bonnia, S. Ratim, E.S. Ali,
Synthesis of ZnO nanostructures using sol-gel method, Procedia Chem. 19 (2016)
211–216, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proche.2016.03.095.
[57] Ö.A. Yildirim, C. Durucan, Synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles elaborated by
microemulsion method, J. Alloys Compd. 506 (2010) 944–949, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jallcom.2010.07.125.
[58] M. Hasanpoor, M. Aliofkhazraei, H. Delavari, Microwave-assisted synthesis of zinc
oxide nanoparticles, Procedia Mater. Sci. 11 (2015) 320–325, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.mspro.2015.11.101.
[59] S.D. Lee, S.H. Nam, M.H. Kim, Y.D. Kim, J.H. Boo, Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles
by spray-pyrolysis method and their photocatalytic effect, INEC 2010 - 2010 3rd
Int. Nanoelectron. Conf. Proc. 2010, pp. 572–573, , http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/
INEC.2010.5425147.
[60] O.J. Nava, P.A. Luque, C.M. Gómez-Gutiérrez, A.R. Vilchis-Nestor, A. Castro-
Beltrán, M.L. Mota-González, A. Olivas, Influence of Camellia sinensis extract on
zinc oxide nanoparticle green synthesis, J. Mol. Struct. 1134 (2017) 121–125,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2016.12.069.
[61] T. Bhuyan, K. Mishra, M. Khanuja, R. Prasad, A. Varma, Biosynthesis of zinc oxide
nanoparticles from Azadirachta indica for antibacterial and photocatalytic appli-
cations, Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 32 (2015) 55–61, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.mssp.2014.12.053.
[62] T. Karnan, S.A.S. Selvakumar, Biosynthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles Using Rambutan
(Nephelium lappaceum L.) Peel Extract and their Photocatalytic Activity on Methyl
Orange Dye, Elsevier Ltd, 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2016.07.
029.
[63] S. Ambika, M. Sundrarajan, Antibacterial behaviour of Vitex negundo extract as-
sisted ZnO nanoparticles against pathogenic bacteria, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B
Biol. 146 (2015) 52–57, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.02.020.
[64] G. Sangeetha, S. Rajeshwari, R. Venckatesh, Green synthesis of zinc oxide nano-
particles by aloe barbadensis miller leaf extract: structure and optical properties,
Mater. Res. Bull. 46 (2011) 2560–2566, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.
2011.07.046.
[65] A.B. Moghaddam, M. Moniri, S. Azizi, R.A. Rahim, A. Bin Ariff, W.Z. Saad,
F. Namvar, M. Navaderi, R. Mohamad, Biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by a new
Pichia kudriavzevii yeast strain and evaluation of their antimicrobial and anti-
oxidant activities, Molecules 22 (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/
molecules22060872.
[66] N. Padmavathy, R. Vijayaraghavan, Enhanced bioactivity of ZnO nanoparticles -
an antimicrobial study, Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9 (2008), http://dx.doi.org/10.
1088/1468-6996/9/3/035004.
[67] Q.I. Rahman, M. Ahmad, S.K. Misra, M. Lohani, Effective photocatalytic de-
gradation of rhodamine B dye by ZnO nanoparticles, Mater. Lett. 91 (2013)
170–174, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2012.09.044.
[68] G. Zhang, X. Shen, Y. Yang, Facile synthesis of monodisperse porous ZnO spheres
by a soluble starch-assisted method and their photocatalytic activity, J. Phys.
P. Basnet et al.
Chem. C 115 (2011) 7145–7152, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp110256s.
[69] T. Dayakar, K. Venkateswara Rao, K. Bikshalu, V. Rajendar, S.H. Park, Novel
synthesis and structural analysis of zinc oxide nanoparticles for the non enzymatic
glucose biosensor, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 75 (2017) 1472–1479, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.msec.2017.02.032.
[70] S. Iravani, Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles using plants, Green Chem. 13
(2011) 2638, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c1gc15386b.
[71] N. Bala, S. Saha, M. Chakraborty, M. Maiti, S. Das, R. Basu, P. Nandy, Green
synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Hibiscus subdariffa leaf extract: effect of
temperature on synthesis, anti-bacterial activity and anti-diabetic activity, RSC
Adv. 5 (2015) 4993–5003, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C4RA12784F.
[72] R. Yuvakkumar, J. Suresh, A.J. Nathanael, M. Sundrarajan, S.I. Hong, Novel green
synthetic strategy to prepare ZnO nanocrystals using rambutan (Nephelium lap-
paceum L.) peel extract and its antibacterial applications, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 41
(2014) 17–27, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2014.04.025.
[73] N. Ain Samat, R. Md Nor, Sol-gel synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Citrus
aurantifolia extracts, Ceram. Int. 39 (2013) S545–S548, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.ceramint.2012.10.132.
[74] P. Rajiv, S. Rajeshwari, R. Venckatesh, Bio-fabrication of zinc oxide nanoparticles
using leaf extract of Parthenium hysterophorus L. and its size-dependent antifungal
activity against plant fungal pathogens, Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol.
Spectrosc. 112 (2013) 384–387, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2013.04.072.
[75] A. Diallo, B.D. Ngom, E. Park, M. Maaza, Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by
Aspalathus linearis: structural & optical properties, J. Alloys Compd. 646 (2015)
425–430, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2015.05.242.
[76] Y. Zheng, L. Fu, F. Han, A. Wang, W. Cai, J. Yu, J. Yang, F. Peng, Green bio-
synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Corymbia ci-
triodora leaf extract and their photocatalytic activity, Green Chem. Lett. Rev. 8
(2015) 59–63, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17518253.2015.1075069.
[77] S. Vijayakumari, C. Krishnakumar, P. Arulmozhi, S. Mahadevan, N. Parameswarii,
Biosynthesis, characterization and antimicrobial activities of zinc oxide nano-
particles from leaf extract of Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC, Microb. Pathog. 116
(2018) 44–48, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2018.01.003.
[78] S. Vijayakumar, G. Vinoj, B. Malaikozhundan, S. Shanthi, B. Vaseeharan,
Plectranthus amboinicus leaf extract mediated synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles
and its control of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilm and blood
sucking mosquito larvae, Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 137 (2015)
886–891, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2014.08.064.
[79] P.C. Nagajyothi, S.J. Cha, I.J. Yang, T.V.M. Sreekanth, K.J. Kim, H.M. Shin,
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of zinc oxide nanoparticles synthe-
sized using Polygala tenuifolia root extract, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 146
(2015) 10–17, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.02.008.
[80] M. Stan, A. Popa, D. Toloman, A. Dehelean, I. Lung, G. Katona, Enhanced pho-
tocatalytic degradation properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by using
plant extracts, Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 39 (2015) 23–29, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.mssp.2015.04.038.
[81] F. Davar, A. Majedi, A. Mirzaei, Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and its
application in the degradation of some dyes, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 98 (2015)
1739–1746, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jace.13467.
[82] M. Anbuvannan, M. Ramesh, G. Viruthagiri, N. Shanmugam, N. Kannadasan,
Synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic activity of ZnO nanoparticles pre-
pared by biological method, Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 143
(2015) 304–308, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2015.01.124.
[83] D. Suresh, P.C. Nethravathi, H. Rajanaika Udayabhanu, H. Nagabhushana,
S.C. Sharma, Green synthesis of multifunctional zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles
using Cassia fistula plant extract and their photodegradative, antioxidant and an-
tibacterial activities, Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 31 (2015) 446–454, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2014.12.023.
[84] M. Sundrarajan, S. Ambika, K. Bharathi, Plant-extract mediated synthesis of ZnO
nanoparticles using Pongamia pinnata and their activity against pathogenic bac-
teria, Adv. Powder Technol. 26 (2015) 1294–1299, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
apt.2015.07.001.
[85] R. Dobrucka, J. Długaszewska, Biosynthesis and antibacterial activity of ZnO na-
noparticles using Trifolium pratense flower extract, Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 23 (2016)
517–523, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2015.05.016.
[86] H. Çolak, E. Karaköse, Green synthesis and characterization of nanostructured ZnO
thin films using Citrus aurantifolia (lemon) peel extract by spin-coating method, J.
Alloys Compd. 690 (2017) 658–662, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.
08.090.
[87] F.T. Thema, E. Manikandan, M.S. Dhlamini, M. Maaza, Green synthesis of ZnO
nanoparticles via Agathosma betulina natural extract, Mater. Lett. 161 (2015)
124–127, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2015.08.052.
[88] V.V. Gawade, N.L. Gavade, H.M. Shinde, S.B. Babar, A.N. Kadam, K.M. Garadkar,
Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by using Calotropis procera leaves for the
photodegradation of methyl orange, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 28 (2017)
14033–14039, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10854-017-7254-2.
[89] J. Fowsiya, G. Madhumitha, N.A. Al-Dhabi, M.V. Arasu, Photocatalytic degrada-
tion of Congo red using Carissa edulis extract capped zinc oxide nanoparticles, J.
Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 162 (2016) 395–401, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphotobiol.2016.07.011.
[90] K. Ali, S. Dwivedi, A. Azam, Q. Saquib, M.S. Al-Said, A.A. Alkhedhairy,
J. Musarrat, Aloe vera extract functionalized zinc oxide nanoparticles as na-
noantibiotics against multi-drug resistant clinical bacterial isolates, J. Colloid
Interface Sci. 472 (2016) 145–156, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2016.03.021.
[91] S. Azizi, R. Mohamad, A. Bahadoran, S. Bayat, R.A. Rahim, A. Ariff, W.Z. Saad,
Effect of annealing temperature on antimicrobial and structural properties of bio-
220
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles using flower extract of Anchusa italica, J.
Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 161 (2016) 441–449, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphotobiol.2016.06.007.
[92] N. Supraja, T.N.V.K.V. Prasad, T.G. Krishna, E. David, Synthesis, characterization,
and evaluation of the antimicrobial efficacy of Boswellia ovalifoliolata stem bark-
extract-mediated zinc oxide nanoparticles, Appl. Nanosci. 6 (2016) 581–590,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13204-015-0472-0.
[93] S.C. Sharma, ZnO nano-flowers from Carica papaya milk: degradation of alizarin
red-S dye and antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Staphylococcus aureus, Optik (Stuttg) 127 (2016) 6498–6512, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijleo.2016.04.036.
[94] N. Rana, S. Chand, A.K. Gathania, Green synthesis of zinc oxide nano-sized
spherical particles using Terminalia chebula fruits extract for their photocatalytic
applications, Int. Nano Lett. 6 (2016) 91–98, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40089-
015-0171-6.
[95] K. Elumalai, S. Velmurugan, S. Ravi, V. Kathiravan, S. Ashokkumar, Facile, eco-
friendly and template free photosynthesis of cauliflower like ZnO nanoparticles
using leaf extract of Tamarindus indica (L.) and its biological evolution of anti-
bacterial and antifungal activities, Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc.
136 (2015) 1052–1057, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2014.09.129.
[96] N. Matinise, X.G. Fuku, K. Kaviyarasu, N. Mayedwa, M. Maaza, ZnO nanoparticles
via Moringa oleifera green synthesis: physical properties & mechanism of forma-
tion, Appl. Surf. Sci. 406 (2017) 339–347, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.
2017.01.219.
[97] P. Jamdagni, P. Khatri, J.S. Rana, Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles
using flower extract of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis and their antifungal activity, J.
King Saud Univ. - Sci. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.10.002.
[98] R.B. Agua, R. Branquinho, M.P. Duarte, E. Mauricio, A.L. Fernando, R. Martins,
E. Fortunato, Efficient coverage of ZnO nanoparticleson cotton fibres for anti-
bacterial finishing using a rapid and low cost insitu synthesis, New J. Chem. 42
(2018) 1052–1060, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C7NJ03418K.
[99] S. Jafarirad, M. Mehrabi, B. Divband, M. Kosari-Nasab, Biofabrication of zinc
oxide nanoparticles using fruit extract of Rosa canina and their toxic potential
against bacteria: a mechanistic approach, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 59 (2016) 296–302,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2015.09.089.
[100] M.H. Koupaei, B. Shareghi, A.A. Saboury, F. Davar, A. Semnani, M. Evini, Green
synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their effect on the stability and activity of
proteinase K, RSC Adv. 6 (2016) 42313–42323, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/
C5RA24862K.
[101] J. Qu, X. Yuan, X. Wang, P. Shao, Zinc accumulation and synthesis of ZnO na-
noparticles using Physalis alkekengi L, Environ. Pollut. 159 (2011) 1783–1788,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.04.016.
[102] M. Ramesh, M. Anbuvannan, G. Viruthagiri, Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles
using Solanum nigrum leaf extract and their antibacterial activity, Spectrochim.
Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 136 (2015) 864–870, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
saa.2014.09.105.
[103] A. Singh, N.B. Singh, I. Hussain, H. Singh, V. Yadav, S.C. Singh, Green synthesis of
nano zinc oxide and evaluation of its impact on germination and metabolic ac-
tivity of Solanum lycopersicum, J. Biotechnol. 233 (2016) 84–94, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jbiotec.2016.07.010.
[104] E.G. Mornani, P. Mosayebian, D. Dorranian, K. Behzad, Effect of calcination
temperature on the size and optical properties of synthesized ZnO nanoparticles, J.
Ovonic Res. 12 (2016) 75–80, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00339-015-9019-1.
[105] N.M. Al-Hada, E. Saion, A.H. Shaari, M.A. Kamarudin, S.A. Gene, The influence of
calcination temperature on the formation of zinc oxide nanoparticles by thermal-
treatment, Appl. Mech. Mater. 446–447 (2014) 181–184, http://dx.doi.org/10.
4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.446-447.181.
[106] R. Ashraf, S. Riaz, Z.N. Kayani, S. Naseem, Effect of calcination on properties of
ZnO nanoparticles, Mater. Today Proc. (2015) 5468–5472, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.matpr.2015.11.071.
[107] S. Baset, H. Akbari, H. Zeynali, M. Shafie, Size measurement of metal and semi-
conductor nanoparticles via UV–Vis absorption spectra, Dig. J. Nanomater.
Biostructures. 6 (2011) 709–716 http://www.chalcogen.ro/709_Baset.pdf.
[108] W. Haiss, N.T.K. Thanh, J. Aveyard, D.G. Fernig, Determination of size and con-
centration of gold nanoparticles from UV–Vis spectra, Anal. Chem. 79 (2007)
4215–4221, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac0702084.
[109] K. Elumalai, S. Velmurugan, S. Ravi, V. Kathiravan, G. Adaikala Raj, Bio-approach:
plant mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their catalytic reduction of
methylene blue and antimicrobial activity, Adv. Powder Technol. 26 (2015)
1639–1651, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2015.09.008.
[110] U. Kadiyala, E.S. Turali-Emre, J.H. Bahng, N.A. Kotov, J.S. VanEpps, Unexpected
insights into antibacterial activity of zinc oxidenanoparticles against methicillin
resistant Staphylococcusaureus (MRSA), Nanoscale 10 (2018) 4927–4939, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1039/C7NR08499D.
[111] S. Bazazi, N. Arsalani, A. Khataee, A.G. Tabrizi, Comparison of ball milling-hy-
drothermal and hydrothermal methods for synthesis of ZnO nanostructures and
evaluation of their photocatalytic performance, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 62 (2018)
265–272, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2018.01.004.
[112] P. Sutradhar, M. Saha, Synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using tea leaf extract
and its application for solar cell, Bull. Mater. Sci. 38 (2015) 653–657, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1080/17458080.2015.1059504.
[113] M. Gusatti, C.E.M. Campos, D.A.R. Souza, V.M. Moser, N.C. Kuhnen, H.G. Riella,
Effect of reaction parameters on the formation and properties of ZnO nanocrystals
synthesized via a rapid solochemical processing, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 13
(2013) 8307–8314, http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2013.7924.
[114] V.R. Venu Gopal, S. Kamila, Effect of temperature on the morphology of ZnO
P. Basnet et al.
nanoparticles: a comparative study, Appl. Nanosci. 7 (2017) 75–82, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/s13204-017-0553-3.
[115] R. Krishnapriya, S. Praneetha, A.V. Murugan, Investigation of the effect of reaction
parameters on the microwave-assisted hydrothermal synthesis of hierarchical
jasmine-flower-like ZnO nanostructures for dye-sensitized solar cells, New J.
Chem. 40 (2016) 5080–5089, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C6NJ00457A.
[116] T. Karnan, S.A.S. Selvakumar, Biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using rambutan
(Nephelium lappaceum L.) peel extract and their photocatalytic activity on methyl
orange dye, J. Mol. Struct. 1125 (2016) 358–365, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
molstruc.2016.07.029.
[117] H.R. Madan, S.C. Sharma, D. Suresh Udayabhanu, Y.S. Vidya, H. Nagabhushana,
H. Rajanaik, K.S. Anantharaju, S.C. Prashantha, P. Sadananda Maiya, Facile green
fabrication of nanostructure ZnO plates, bullets, flower, prismatic tip, closed pine
cone: their antibacterial, antioxidant, photoluminescent and photocatalytic
221
Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology, B: Biology 183 (2018) 201–221
properties, Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 152 (2016) 404–416,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2015.07.067.
[118] S.S.M. Hassan, H.I. Abdel-Shafy, M.S.M. Mansour, Removal of pharmaceutical
compounds from urine via chemical coagulation by green synthesized ZnO-na-
noparticles followed by microfiltration for safe reuse, Arab. J. Chem. (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.04.009.
[119] B. Banumathi, B. Malaikozhundan, B. Vaseeharan, Invitro acaricidal activity of
ethnoveterinary plants and green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles against
Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, Vet. Parasitol. 216 (2016) 93–100, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.12.003.
[120] V.C. Ghantani, M.K. Dongare, S.B. Umbarkar, Nonstoichiometric calcium pyr-
ophosphate: a highly efficient and selective catalyst for dehydration of lactic acid
to acrylic acid, RSC Adv. 4 (2014) 33319, , http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/
C4RA06429A.