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DOI: 10.1002/ett.3559
1 I N T RO DU CT ION
Crowdsensing is one of the main applications of the Internet-of-things (IoT) networks in which we aim to collect infor-
mation from a large number of devices/sensors. As an example, we can consider a scenario that many sensors have
been distributed in a large field to crowdsource a particular environmental metric (like soil humidity/temperature). Such
IoT/crowdsensing application should support a massive number of low power devices that need transmitting data to an
access point (AP) located in the area. These networks are usually uplink dominated in which each device/sensor/user
needs only low data rate, and they become active sporadically (only a few of them may need to transmit simultane-
ously). The power constraint also promotes the need to have low complexity procedures with low signaling overhead for
IoT devices.1
The current cellular network is not able to fulfill the requirements of IoT network because 4G networks designed mainly
to support user equipments which need high data rates for a relatively few number of devices. To have high spectral effi-
ciency, 4G networks can use complex signaling which consumes more power and is not useful for IoT networks. Therefore,
novel transmit/receive procedures are needed to support IoT networks that can support crowdsensing applications.2,3
Multiple access (MA) scheme is one of the areas that should be reviewed such that it can support access to many num-
bers of devices with their IoT requirements.4,5 Several studies have been conducted in this area to present new methods
to support a large number of devices.6,7 These schemes can be categorized into three groups: (1) codebook-based MA, (2)
sequence-based MA, and (3) interleaver-based MA.8,9
In codebook-based MA schemes, the key feature is to map the devices data to a multidimensional codeword of a code-
book. Two examples of such schemes are sparse code MA (SCMA)10 and pattern division MA (PDMA).11 Codewords in
SCMA have the same number of zero elements, but codewords in PDMA have a different number of zeros according to
the channel state of each device.12 To recover devices data in this group, an iterative message passing algorithm (MPA) is
Trans Emerging Tel Tech. 2019;30:e3559. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ett © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1 of 16
https://doi.org/10.1002/ett.3559
2 of 16 MOOSAVI AND POURAHMADI
used as a near-optimal solution, and since it is based on maximum likelihood, its complexity is relatively high compared
to the other groups.13,14
The key feature of the second group is to work on the spreading code of devices and, instead of using orthogonal
sequences, they design nonorthogonal spreading codes and explain how to allocate these sequences to devices. A novel
scheme in this group is multiuser shared access (MUSA) scheme.13,15 In this group, minimum mean square error (MMSE)
with parallel or successive interference cancelation (PIC/SIC) have been considered as a less complicated receiver than
MPA; hence, it would be useful in terms of computational complexity.16
The idea of the third group is to increase the capacity of MA by spreading the data of a device (using inter-
leaver/scrambler) across a long signal stream. This leads to different superposition patterns between possible transmitters,
and thus, it obtains the interference averaging effect. One of the most well-known schemes of interleaver/scrambler-based
MA is interleaver division MA (IDMA).17,18 In IDMA, through a device-specific bit-level interleaver, interdevice interfer-
ence is suppressed by overlapped signal experience. In this group, due to computational complexity, it is difficult to use
MMSE detection or MPA (as input bits are spread widely); therefore, an elementary signal estimator with PIC (ESE-PIC)
is used for signal detection. ESE-PIC exploits soft estimation and cancelation with average complexity.19
To support crowdsensing applications, some of the above methods, like MUSA, have tried to design short spreading
codes while keeping the acceptable block error rate (BLER) when we have a network with a large number of devices.
This property makes these codes more suitable for crowdsensing applications as these devices/sensors usually do not
need to send lots of data in each transmission and also due to power constraints, long spreading codes are not suitable for
such settings.
In this paper, we aim to keep the short length property of the code and also make sure that the proposed method works
for a large number of devices while we avoid signaling overhead in the network (IoT/crowdsensing devices, especially the
ones that has power constraints are very susceptible to high signaling overhead). The core idea of the proposed scheme is
to design the spreading code by taking advantages of an important property of a crowdsensing network that the devices
are usually activated sporadically. More precisely, although there could be many devices in the network (say M), only a
small fraction of them (say up to K devices) will be activated at each time. Therefore, instead of the requirement that we
need to have M spreading codes with low mutual interference that they all can coexist with each other, effectively, we
only need to design the spreading code that any K of them can operate at the same time (keep the acceptable BLER). It
means that we need to have M spreading codes that opportunistic selection of each K of them constitute a good set of
spreading codes. Note that the opportunistic term that we have used here is different from the opportunistically successful
transmission which has been discussed in previous studies. In this scheme, opportunistic term is used for that although
all M codes cannot be used simultaneously (they generate very high interference over each other), any K out of M devices
can coexist with each other.
In short, the proposed MA scheme works in a sparse activated network, and each of the M network devices has a
spreading sequence where
• the spreading code has a short length,
• the scheme is grant free (low signaling overhead),
• the code is not constant for a device and changes per symbol,
• the spreading code has low interference as long as less than K devices get activated.
The performance of the opportunistic multiple access (OMA) (It should be noted that in this paper OMA means oppor-
tunistic multiple access and it should not be confused with orthogonal multiple access) scheme has been evaluated in
different network settings and to show its superiority we have compared the results with that of a few other possible
methods.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. The system model and the structure of the transceiver is described in
Section 2. In Section 3, we introduce the design of the OMA scheme and the design of the spreading codes. Simulation
results are provided in Section 4, and finally, Section 5 concludes this paper.
2 S Y ST E M MO D E L
FIGURE 1 Sparse device activation (eg, red dots show active devices)
As for MA and to keep the low overhead and, similar to MUSA, we have assumed that devices are using short length
spreading codes. The short length of the spreading code (and existence of large number of devices, M) implies that there
are not enough orthogonal spreading codes that can be simply assigned to each of the devices; in this paper, we are trying
to propose one way to accommodate a large number of devices with such short length spreading codes.
2.2 Transmitter
The structure of the transmitter is shown in Figure 2. Assuming that {u1 , u2 , … , uK } are the K devices which are active
in this time slot, {di1 , di2 , , diK } are the ith (1 ≤ i ≤ b) symbols of the data block (of length b) that each device wants to
send at this slot.
Symbol i of device j (di𝑗 ) is first encoded, ci𝑗 , and then modulated with x-QAM modulation where x is the size of mod-
ulation constellation, mi𝑗 . For notation simplicity, in Figure 2, we have removed the superscript i noting that it is for one
time slot.
In common spreading mechanism, each modulated symbol of device uj , ie, mi𝑗 , is multiplied by spreading code of uj ,
sj = [sj [1], sj [2], … , sj [L]] (a code sequence with length L) and generates L samples of mi𝑗 × [s𝑗 [1], s𝑗 [2], … , s𝑗 [L]] which
will be transmitted through the channel.
Vector tj of length b × L represents the vector resulted from the concatenation of the spread samples of all b symbols
of data block that device j is transmitting
The nth sample of all devices, tj [n], j = 1, 2, … , K, is simultaneously transmitted toward destination (over the same
time/frequency resources). The received signal r (for duration of 1 ≤ n ≤ b × L) is then
∑
K
r[n] = h𝑗 tj [n] + , (1)
𝑗=1
4 of 16 MOOSAVI AND POURAHMADI
where hj is the channel gain between device j and the AP, and it models the channel path-loss and small-scale fading
which is modeled as a random variable with normalized expectation. hj assumed to be constant during transmission of
one data block (of size b × L), and is a complex-valued zero mean Gaussian noise.
Equation (1) shows the superposition of all M devices, by x, we refer to the data of all active devices in a particular
time n, ie,
x = [t1 [n], t2 [n], … , tK [n]]T . (2)
The above procedure is the common structure for spreading the codes of devices. The structure of the proposed OMA
transmitter is similar to the above except that the spreading code of device j, sj , is not fixed for all data symbols of user
j and it can change from symbol i to i + 1. Therefore, in the rest of this paper, we will use si𝑗 notation to emphasize the
possibility of changing the spreading code from a symbol to another.
In the above equation, E is the expectation operation and from Wang et al21 and Yang,22 we have
( )−1
W∗i = Ri + N0 A−2 , (5)
where N0 is the noise covariance matrix, and A is the active devices' power matrix which captures the total effect of
path-loss and fading in this time slot. In (5), Ri is the correlation matrix between spreading codes used for the ith time
slot. Rlm is the inner product of the spreading codes that have been assigned to devices l and m for transmission of symbol
i, ie, For R, we have
⟨ ⟩
Ri [lm] = sil , sim , (6)
where si𝑗 is the spreading code for the ith symbol of device j. Note that since the spreading codes might change for each
symbol, the receiver should use the corresponding Wi for detection of ith symbol.
The SIC detection procedure, as shown in Figure 3, can be summarized as follows. The first MMSE detector is used to
FIGURE 3 MMSE-SIC receiver. MMSE, minimum mean square error; SIC, successive interference cancelation
MOOSAVI AND POURAHMADI 5 of 16
decode the data stream of the first device (with highest received power). If the first stream is successfully decoded, then
we remove its contribution from the received stream (by first encoding and modulating the detected symbols, multiplying
it by channel gain (which should have been estimated at the receiver since it needs to decode the user's data stream),
and then subtracting it from the received signal). The second MMSE detector has to deal only with the interference from
u3 up to uK since u1 has been already removed from the received signal. This process is continued until the final MMSE
detector determines the transmitted signal of the last active device.23
Error propagation in SIC receiver is a potential issue, and it occurs when the receiver incorrectly detects the first device
message and therefore (in cancelation step) not only it does not remove the contribution of that device but also it adds more
interference to the system. To prevent, error propagation, in OMA, we have assumed that each device transmits parity
bits and the receiver performs cancelation only if it can verify the correctness of the detected signal using its parity bits.
3 O M A S C HE ME
The design of the OMA scheme is presented in the following three sections.
First, in Section 3.1, we want to look at the requirement for grant-free access for crowdsensing networks and, using
that, we define the required properties that the new spreading codes should have. In Section 3.2, the step-by-step design
of short-length spreading codes is discussed. In the last part, Section 3.3, we have analyzed the consideration to have
successful SIC operation at the receiver.
way, there is no need for changing the spreading code based on the block length. The decision on the block length b is
selected based on what transmitter/receiver has decided based on their higher layers protocols.
We want to emphasize that the idea of OMA is that we do not need to design M proper (orthogonal, low
cross-correlation) spreading schemes, but we need to design M schemes such that, if any K of them becomes active, they
still generate low interference over each other and so the SIC receiver detect them successfully. In the following, we
present the details of the spreading scheme and explain the required SIC-receiver considerations.
1, 3, … , 1, (8)
The positive side, however, is that since the AP knows which devices are deployed in the network, it knows the M
possible sequences that potentially might be used in the network. This enables the OMA receiver to search over all of the
possible spreading sequences and determine the corresponding spreading sequence by calculating the parity bits of the
detected signal and comparing it with the transmitted parities.
Note that although the spreading sequences of each device in (8) is generated randomly, it is fixed for each device as
long as it is in the network. For example, when a device powers up, it selects one spreading sequence (as described before)
and during the initialization informs the AP about the spreading sequence that it has selected (this happens only once
upon power ups). After that, whenever this device has a data block to transmit, it uses this sequence for spreading the
symbols. Note that this scheme hugely simplifies the receiver structure as the receiver does not need to check all possible
spreading code combination at each sample. Instead, assuming there are M devices, the AP has information about their
spreading sequences, and it only checks if any of the M spreading sequences are a match to the received data.
For example, the receiver at first, check the first potential spreading sequence and detect the data using that sequence
and calculate its CRC. Then, check if the calculated CRC is equal to the received CRC, it means that the device associated
with that spreading sequence was active. If the CRC is not correct, the receiver continues its search for next spreading
sequence until finds the right one or declares a fail in detection. In addition, as mentioned in Section 2.3, to prevent error
propagation, the signal cancelation of SIC only happens if the detected signal has correct CRC.
We should note that this scheme has high complexity especially when the number of devices gets larger, but since
the search procedure is at the AP side (where there is not critical power constraint), it does not violate the low-power
requirement of crowdsensing devices.
4 S I M UL ATION R E SU LT S
It is assumed that all active devices are synchronized, and the transmitter uses Turbo code (with a code rate of 1/2)
and quadrature phase-shift keying as the encoding and modulation blocks. Unsynchronized devices would increase the
complexity of transmitting/receiving procedures, and we are not considering that in this study.
On the receiver side, channel estimation is assumed ideal, MMSE-SIC procedure is used for data detection and inter-
ference cancelation. The length of the spreading code is assumed to be L = 4 and Hadamard codes of length four are
considered as the base code set. The spreading code that each device uses for each symbol of the data block changes based
on the spreading sequence that has been assigned to it. Table 1 summarizes the link layer simulation parameters.
The performance of the proposed scheme is investigated in the following three sections.
First, in Section 4.1, we want to validate our model to show that it can have a good performance in terms of BLER.
In Section 4.2, we compare the performance of our model with Hadamard and PN spreading codes when we have a
network with a large number of devices which are activated sporadically, and it shows the restrictions of Hadamard and
PN models for such networks.
In the last part, Section 4.3, the performance of OMA is evaluated for different assumptions for the network when
(1) the number of active devices increases while the total number of devices is fixed, (2) the number of total network
devices increases when the number of active devices is fixed, (3) when the data length increased, and (4) when the code
length increased.
FIGURE 4 Block error rates (BLER) of two devices scenario with different power. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
FIGURE 5 Block error rates (BLER) of two devices scenario with same power. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
MOOSAVI AND POURAHMADI 9 of 16
FIGURE 6 Block error rates (BLER) of four devices scenario with different power. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
FIGURE 7 Block error rates (BLER) of four devices scenario with same power. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the same analysis when 4 devices are activated together and have different or same power.
Similar to the two device cases, we observe the BLER waterfall behavior, but as expected, since there is more interference
in the network, they get to BLER of 10−2 in higher SNRs.
Note that, in both previous cases, we have assumed that there are a total of M = 20 OMA capable devices (not 2
or 4 devices). Thus, to see the correct performance of the OMA, we have used Monte Carlo method and simulated the
network many times, and each time 2/4 devices (from the total of 20 devices) become active and transmit using their own
preassigned spreading sequence. The results presented here is the average BLER over all these cases.
It should be noted that there are many other advanced MA schemes including PDMA and SCMA that we did not
consider in our comparison study. This is mainly due to that these schemes do not use short spreading codes and
are not appropriate for crowdsensing applications. Schemes like MUSA13,15 are aimed for such applications and use
short spreading codes similar to PN codes that we have used in this study. The power of OMA is to enable data
transmission in a network with many potential active devices with small spreading sequences; if we let the network
uses long spreading sequences, the more advanced scheme can outperform OMA (which is not the target scenario in
this study).
Scheme I: This is the basic Hadamard scheme in which each device has a fixed special Hadamard code which is orthog-
onal to all other codes. There is no symbol-level spreading, and all bits of a device are spread with the same Hadamard
code. Note that the Hadamard codes with a short length are limited, eg, with length 4, we have just four different codes,
so Scheme I can support networks up to four devices.
Scheme II: In this scheme, devices still use Hadamard code, and the spreading code is fixed from one bit to another.
The difference compared to the Scheme I is that the same spreading code might be assigned to different devices. Thus,
it is possible in this scheme to support more than four devices at the expense that some of the devices will use the same
spreading sequence and they may cause interference on each other. Note that, as long as the number of devices is less than
the number of available Hadamard codes, we use Scheme I instead of Scheme II since, in Scheme I, we are sure about the
orthogonality of the assigned sequences.
Scheme III: In this scheme, the spreading sequences are generated based on the PN sequence. Use of PN sequences
let us support more devices (there are more PN sequences compared to Hadamard codes for the fixed length). However,
since the PN codes are not orthogonal to each other, they generate interference on each other. In Scheme III, like the
Scheme I, we assume that it is not possible to reuse the code on two devices. Therefore, we can only use this scheme
until the number of devices in the network is less than the number of PN sequences (eg, seven PN codes if the length of
spreading code is 4).
Scheme IV: This scheme is like Scheme II, just instead of Hadamard codes, devices use PN sequences. Similarly
note that as long as the number of devices is less than the number of available PN codes, we use Scheme III instead
of Scheme IV.
Scheme V: In this scheme, we use the proposed OMA scheme on which each device is assigned a spreading sequence
generated as explained in previous sections. Note that the number of spreading sequences is not limited in this case so
we can support many devices in the network.
To better understand each scheme, we first simulate their performance in a common network with no sparse activation
property. In the next part, we focus on a network with sparse activation property (M device while only up to K can become
active simultaneously) and show the superiority of the proposed scheme.
FIGURE 8 Block error rates (BLER) of nonsparse network with two devices. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
FIGURE 9 Block error rates (BLER) of nonsparse network with four devices. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
FIGURE 10 Block error rates (BLER) of network with two (out of 20) active devices. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
FIGURE 11 Block error rates (BLER) of network with four (out of 20) active devices. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
applicable (they can support up to seven device networks with spreading code of length 4), so there are not BLER results
for these schemes.
As can be seen, device-1 BLER for Scheme II and IV rapidly deteriorates when the number of active devices increases,
whereas Scheme V maintains its waterfall behavior. In Schemes II and IV, if the activated devices select different codes
(like two orthogonal Hadamard codes), they can simultaneously transmit with no interference, and they will have good
BLER; however, if they select similar spreading code, their transmitted signal will get mixed up over the air, and it cannot
be recovered at the destination. Clearly, when the number of possible active devices increases, the chance of collision
increases, which decreases the average performance of the network. This is the reason that we see poor performance of
Schemes II and IV in Figure 12.
On the other hand, when the number of devices increases, OMA maintains its performance since it has many differ-
ent spreading sequences and each device is associated to one of them when it is deployed in the network. Whenever
each device wants to transmit, it uses that sequence (which is different from others) and does not need to select a code
randomly. This scheme, therefore, prevents two devices use the same spreading sequence which is the main reason that
OMA can maintain its performance. Note that, as previously seen in Section 4.2.1, the spreading sequences of OMA are
MOOSAVI AND POURAHMADI 13 of 16
FIGURE 12 Block error rates (BLER) of network with six (out of 20) active devices. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
FIGURE 13 Different activation with 40 devices in a network. BLER, block error rates; SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
not completely orthogonal, so the performance of OMA is not as good as Hadamard code or PN sequence of Figure 8
and Figure 9.
FIGURE 14 Block error rates (BLER) analysis for four active devices. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
FIGURE 15 Block error rates (BLER) analysis for different data length. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
of more device scenarios may be justified noting that the more spreading sequence may contain some spreading codes
with not good cross-correlation property with others. It is the reason that, on average, they have slightly worst results.
To study the affect of data length on our system, we evaluate the BLER of the system when we change the block length.
In Figure 15, as expected, we can see that by increasing the data length the BLER increases; it is due to that the block will
be in error if any of its bits received incorrectly, so larger blocks experience higher BLERs.
To follow the short block-length requirement of the crowdsensing network, in the previous simulations, we have only
considered spreading code of length 4. We have observed, in such networks, as long as the number of simultaneous active
users is less than about 4/6, the OMA has satisfactory performance (regardless of how many potential users are in the
network). Although this is a good property, if the number of simultaneous active users goes beyond that limit, OMA
will loose its performance, meaning that the code length of 4 (even with OMA) cannot guaranty the required BLER. In
such settings, therefore, we need to increase the length of the spreading code. As the final simulation, and to show the
good performance of OMA in other code lengths, we have changed the code length from 4 to 8. Figure 16 shows that by
spreading code length to 8, we can support more than 4 active users in a 20-user network with acceptable BLER.
MOOSAVI AND POURAHMADI 15 of 16
FIGURE 16 Block error rates (BLER) analysis for spreading code length 8. SNR, signal-to-noise ratio
5 CO N C LU S I O N
In this paper, a novel MA scheme called OMA is proposed. This scheme is suitable for crowdsensing applications where
we need a grant-free uplink transmission for many devices in the network where only a small fraction of devices are
active simultaneously, and they only send a small amount of data each time. For data transmission, OMA uses spreading
codes that may change within a symbol of one data block. The design of such symbol-level spreading sequence is based
on the facts that we do not need to have spreading codes equal to the total number of devices M; instead, it suffices to have
spreading sequences that maintain low cross-interference when any k(k < < M) devices become active simultaneously.
To see the performance of OMA, it has been simulated in different network settings which demonstrates the gain that
can be expected when we use OMA as the access technology.
ORCID
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How to cite this article: Moosavi SN, Pourahmadi V. Opportunistic multiple access (OMA) for crowdsensing
networks with sparse activation. Trans Emerging Tel Tech. 2019;30:e3559. https://doi.org/10.1002/ett.3559