Software System Safety: Nancy G. Leveson

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Software System Safety
Nancy G. Leveson
MIT Aero/Astro Dept.
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Copyright by the author, November 2004.
Accident with No Component Failures c
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Types of Accidents
Component Failure Accidents

Single or multiple component failures
Usually assume random failure
System Accidents
Arise in interactions among components
No components may have "failed"
Caused by interactive complexity and tight coupling

Exacerbated by the introduction of computers.
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Safety Reliability
Accidents in high−tech systems are changing

their nature, and we must change our approaches
to safety accordingly.
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Confusing Safety and Reliability

From an FAA report on ATC software architectures:
"The FAA’s en route automation meets the criteria for
consideration as a safety−critical system. Therefore,
en route automation systems must posses ultra−high
reliability."
From a blue ribbon panel report on the V−22 Osprey problems:

"Safety [software]: ...
Recommendation: Improve reliability, then verify by
extensive test/fix/test in challenging environments."
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Does Software Fail?

Failure: Nonperformance or inability of system or component
to perform its intended function for a specified time
under specified environmental conditions.
A basic abnormal occurrence, e.g.,

burned out bearing in a pump
relay not closing properly when voltage applied
Fault: Higher−order events, e.g.,

relay closes at wrong time due to improper functioning
of an upstream component.
All failures are faults but not all faults are failures.
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Reliability Engineering Approach to Safety
Reliability: The probability an item will perform its required

function in the specified manner over a given time
period and under specified or assumed conditions.
(Note: Most software−related accidents result from errors

in specified requirements or function and deviations
from assumed conditions.)
Concerned primarily with failures and failure rate reduction

Parallel redundancy
Standby sparing
Safety factors and margins
Derating
Screening
Timed replacements
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Reliability Engineering Approach to Safety (2)

Assumes accidents are the result of component failure.
Techniques exist to increase component reliability
Failure rates in hardware are quantifiable.
Omits important factors in accidents.

May even decrease safety.
Many accidents occur without any component ‘‘failure’’

e.g. Accidents may be caused by equipment operation
outside parameters and time limits upon which
reliability analyses are based.
Or may be caused by interactions of components

all operating according to specification
Highly reliable components are not necessarily safe.
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Software−Related Accidents
Are usually caused by flawed requirements
Incomplete or wrong assumptions about operation of

controlled system or required operation of computer.
Unhandled controlled−system states and environmental

conditions.
Merely trying to get the software ‘‘correct’’ or to make it

reliable will not make it safer under these conditions.
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Software−Related Accidents (con’t.)

Software may be highly reliable and ‘‘correct’’ and still
be unsafe.
Correctly implements requirements but specified

behavior unsafe from a system perspective.
Requirements do not specify some particular behavior

required for system safety (incomplete)
Software has unintended (and unsafe) behavior beyond

what is specified in requirements.
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A Possible Solution
Enforce discipline and control complexity
Limits have changed from structural integrity and physical
constraints of materials to intellectual limits
Improve communication among engineers
Build safety in by enforcing constraints on behavior

Example (batch reactor)
System safety constraint:
Water must be flowing into reflux condenser whenever
catalyst is added to reactor.
Software safety constraint:
Software must always open water valve before catalyst valve
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The Problem to be Solved
The primary safety problem in computer−based systems

is the lack of appropriate constraints on design.
The job of the system safety engineer is to identify the

design constraints necessary to maintain safety and to
ensure the system and software design enforces them.
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An Overview of The Approach
Engineers should recognize that reducing risk is not an

impossible task, even under financial and time constraints.
All it takes in many cases is a different perspective on the
design problem.
Mike Martin and Roland Schinzinger
Ethics in Engineering
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System Safety
A planned, disciplined, and systematic approach to
preventing or reducing accidents throughout the life
cycle of a system.
‘‘Organized common sense ’’ (Mueller, 1968)
Primary concern is the management of hazards:

Hazard
identification
evaluation
elimination
control
through
analysis
design
management
MIL−STD−882
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System Safety (2) � ) * *

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Hazard analysis and control is a continuous, iterative process

throughout system development and use.
Conceptual Design Development Operations

development
Hazard identification
Hazard resolution
Verification
Change analysis
Operational feedback
Hazard resolution precedence:

1. Eliminate the hazard
2. Prevent or minimize the occurrence of the hazard
3. Control the hazard if it occurs.
4. Minimize damage.
Management
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Process Steps
1. Perform a Preliminary Hazard Analysis

Produces hazard list
2. Perform a System Hazard Analysis (not just Failure Analysis)

Identifies potential causes of hazards
3. Identify appropriate design constraints on system, software,

and humans.
4. Design at system level to eliminate or control hazards.
5. Trace unresolved hazards and system hazard controls to

software requirements.
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Specifying Safety Constraints
Most software requirements only specify nominal behavior

Need to specify off−nominal behavior
Need to specify what software must NOT do
What must not do is not inverse of what must do
Derive from system hazard analysis
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Process Steps (2)
6. Software requirements review and analysis

Completeness
Simulation and animation
Software hazard analysis
Robustness (environment) analysis
Mode confusion and other human error analyses
Human factors analyses (usability, workload, etc.)
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Process Steps (3)
7. Implementation with safety in mind

Defensive programming
Assertions and run−time checking
Separation of critical functions
Elimination of unnecessary functions
Exception−handling etc.
8. Off−nominal and safety testing
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Process Steps (4)
9. Operational Analysis and Auditing

Change analysis
Incident and accident analysis
Performance monitoring
Periodic audits
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0 1 3 5 7 7 9 : ; < 1
A Human−Centered, Safety−Driven Design Process
System
Human Factors System Safety
Engineering
L F Q A P ? g O N O N P Q R G V C N V A F
Preliminary Task Analysis Q A \ ?

] X
A R Q A P V C V N N E R _ P ?
X
A N
Preliminary Hazard Analysis

Operator Goals and Hazard List
Responsibilities
e Q A Q
]
V P Q N O N P Q R V A F
Fault Tree Analysis
Task Allocation Principles X
_ Q
]
V P ?
X
A V C
]
Q d E ?
]
Q R Q A P N
Safety Requirements and

Constraints
Operator Task and V A F F Q N ? G A B
X
A N P
]
V ? A P N
Training Requirements
System Hazard Analysis
j
C C
X
B V P Q P V N W N V A F
Completeness/Consistency
G Q A Q
]
V P Q N O N P Q R F Q N ? G A
Analysis
> ? A B C E F ? A G H J L M
Operator Task Analysis Simulation and Animation
Simulation/Experiments J
X
F Q C V A F Q \ V C E V P Q
X
_ Q
]
V P
X ]
State Machine Hazard

Usability Analysis P V N W N V A F B
X
R _
X
A Q A P
Analysis
C V B W Q [ V \ ?
U U X Y U X ]
Other Human Factors > N O N P Q R F Q N ? G A M

Deviation Analysis (FMECA)
Evaluation
(workload, situation Mode Confusion Analysis
awareness, etc.)
Q N ? G A V A F B A N P E B P
h X ]
Human Error Analysis

B R _ A Q A P N b B A P C N V A F
X X X ] X
F ? N _ C V O N b P
]
V ? A ? A G R V P Q
]
? V C N b
Timing and other analyses

V A F _ Q V P R V A E V C N
X ] X ]
Safety Verification
f
Q
]
? g ? B V P ?
X
A
Safety Testing
Software FTA
Operational Analysis a
? Q C F P Q N P ? A G b ? A N P V C C V P ?
X
A b
Operational Analysis
Performance Monitoring
V A F P
]
V ? A ? A G
Change Analysis
Incident and accident analysis
Periodic audits
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V P ?
X
A N
Periodic audits
Change Analysis
Performance Monitoring
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Preliminary Hazard Analysis
1. Identify system hazards
2. Translate system hazards into high−level

system safety design constraints.
3. Assess hazards if required to do so.
4. Establish the hazard log.
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System Hazards for Automated Train Doors
Train starts with door open.
Door opens while train is in motion.
Door opens while improperly aligned with station platform.
Door closes while someone is in doorway
Door that closes on an obstruction does not reopen or reopened

door does not reclose.
Doors cannot be opened for emergency evacuation.

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System Hazards for Air Traffic Control

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Controlled aircraft violate minimum separation standards (NMAC).

Airborne controlled aircraft enters an unsafe atmospheric region.
Controlled airborne aircraft enters restricted airspace without
authorization.
Controlled airborne aircraft gets too close to a fixed obstable
other than a safe point of touchdown on assigned runway (CFIT)
Controlled airborne aircraft and an intruder in controlled airspace
violate minimum separation.
Controlled aircraft operates outside its performance envelope.
Aircraft on ground comes too close to moving objects or collides
with stationary objects or leaves the paved area.
Aircraft enters a runway for which it does not have clearance.
Controlled aircraft executes an extreme maneuver within its
performance envelope.
Loss of aircraft control.
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Exercise: Identify the system hazards for this cruise−control system
The cruise control system operates only when the engine is running.
When the driver turns the system on, the speed at which the car is
traveling at that instant is maintained. The system monitors the car’s
speed by sensing the rate at which the wheels are turning, and it
maintains desired speed by controlling the throttle position. After the
system has been turned on, the driver may tell it to start increasing
speed, wait a period of time, and then tell it to stop increasing speed.
Throughout the time period, the system will increase the speed at a
fixed rate, and then will maintain the final speed reached.
The driver may turn off the system at any time. The system will turn
off if it senses that the accelerator has been depressed far enough to
override the throttle control. If the system is on and senses that the
brake has been depressed, it will cease maintaining speed but will not
turn off. The driver may tell the system to resume speed, whereupon
it will return to the speed it was maintaining before braking and resume
maintenance of that speed.
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Hazards must be translated into design constraints.

HAZARD DESIGN CRITERION
Train starts with door open. Train must not be capable of moving with
any door open.
Door opens while train is in motion. Doors must remain closed while train is in
motion.
Door opens while improperly aligned Door must be capable of opening only after
with station platform. train is stopped and properly aligned with
platform unless emergency exists (see below).
Door closes while someone is in Door areas must be clear before door
doorway. closing begins.
Door that closes on an obstruction An obstructed door must reopen to permit

does not reopen or reopened door removal of obstruction and then automatically
does not reclose. reclose.
Doors cannot be opened for Means must be provided to open doors

emergency evacuation. anywhere when the train is stopped for
emergency evacuation.
Example PHA for ATC Approach Control
HAZARDS REQUIREMENTS/CONSTRAINTS
1. A pair of controlled aircraft 1a. ATC shall provide advisories that

violate minimum separation maintain safe separation between
standards. aircraft.
1b. ATC shall provide conflict alerts.
2. A controlled aircraft enters an 2a. ATC must not issue advisories that
unsafe atmospheric region. direct aircraft into areas with unsafe
atmospheric conditions.
(icing conditions, windshear
areas, thunderstorm cells) 2b. ATC shall provide weather advisories
and alerts to flight crews.
2c. ATC shall warn aircraft that enter an
unsafe atmospheric region.
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Example PHA for ATC Approach Control (2)
3. A controlled aircraft enters 3a. ATC must not issue advisories that
restricted airspace without direct an aircraft into restricted airspace
authorization. unless avoiding a greater hazard.
3b. ATC shall provide timely warnings to
aircraft to prevent their incursion into
restricted airspace.
4. A controlled aircraft gets too 4. ATC shall provide advisories that

close to a fixed obstacle or maintain safe separation between
terrain other than a safe point of aircraft and terrain or physical obstacles.
touchdown on assigned runway.
5. A controlled aircraft and an 5. ATC shall provide alerts and advisories

intruder in controlled airspace to avoid intruders if at all possible.
violate minimum separation
standards.
6. Loss of controlled flight or loss 6a. ATC must not issue advisories outside
of airframe integrity. the safe performance envelope of the
aircraft.
6b. ATC advisories must not distract
or disrupt the crew from maintaining
safety of flight.
6c. ATC must not issue advisories that

the pilot or aircraft cannot fly or that
degrade the continued safe flight of
the aircraft.
6d. ATC must not provide advisories

that cause an aircraft to fall below
the standard glidepath or intersect
it at the wrong place.
Classic Hazard Level Matrix c
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SEVERITY
I II III IV
Catastrophic Critical Marginal Negligible
A Frequent I−A II−A III−A IV−A
B Moderate I−B II−B III−B IV−B
C Occasional I−C II−C III−C IV−C

LIKELIHOOD
D Remote I−D II−D III−D IV−D
E Unlikely I−E II−E III−E IV−E
F Impossible I−F II−F III−F IV−F
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Another Example Hazard Level Matrix

A B C D E F
Frequent Probable Occasional Remote Improbable Impossible
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Catastrophic ¢ § ¡ ¢ § ¡ ¢ § ¡
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Critical
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III
5 6 8 10 12 12
Negligible ¬ ¢ © ¢ £ ¤ ¡ ¥
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10 11 12 12 12 12
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Hazard Causal Analysis
Used to refine the high−level safety constraints into more

detailed constraints.
Requires some type of model (even if only in head of analyst)
Almost always involves some type of search through the

system design (model) for states or conditions that could lead
to system hazards.
Top−down
Bottom−up
Forward
Backward
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Forward vs. Backward Search
Initiating Final Initiating Final

Events States Events States
A W nonhazard A W nonhazard
B X HAZARD B X HAZARD
C Y nonhazard C Y nonhazard
D Z nonhazard D Z nonhazard
Forward Search Backward Search

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FTA and Software

Appropriate for qualitative analyses, not quantitative ones
System fault trees helpful in identifying potentially hazardous

software behavior.
Can use to refine system design constraints.
FTA can be used to verify code.

Identifies any paths from inputs to hazardous outputs or
provides some assurance they don’t exist.
Not looking for failures but incorrect paths (functions)
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Fault Tree Example

Explosion
and
Relief valve 1 Relief valve 2

Pressure does not open does not open
too high
or or
Computer does Valve Operator does

Valve not know to Operator
failure not open failure inattentive
valve 1 open valve 2
or and
Sensor Computer Computer Valve 1 Open

Failure output does not issue Position Indicator
too late command to Indicator Light fails
open valve 1 fails on on
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Example Fault Tree for ATC Arrival Traffic

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Example Fault Tree for ATC Arrival Traffic (2)

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Requirements Completeness
Most software−related accidents involve software requirements

deficiencies.
Accidents often result from unhandled and unspecified cases.
We have defined a set of criteria to determine whether a

requirements specification is complete.
Derived from accidents and basic engineering principles.
Validated (at JPL) and used on industrial projects.
Completeness: Requirements are sufficient to distinguish

the desired behavior of the software from
that of any other undesired program that
might be designed.
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Requirements Completeness Criteria (2)

How were criteria derived?
Mapped the parts of a control loop to a state machine
I/O
I/O
Defined completeness for each part of state machine

States, inputs, outputs, transitions
Mathematical completeness
Added basic engineering principles (e.g., feedback)
Added what have learned from accidents

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Requirements Completeness Criteria (3)
About 60 criteria in all including human−computer interaction.

(won’t go through them all they are in the book)
Startup, shutdown Robustness
Mode transitions Data age
Inputs and outputs Latency
Value and timing Feedback
Load and capacity Reversibility
Environment capacity Preemption
Failure states and transitions Path Robustness
Human−computer interface
Most integrated into SpecTRM−RL language design or simple
tools can check them.
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Requirements Analysis
Model Execution, Animation, and Visualization
Completeness
State Machine Hazard Analysis (backwards reachability)
Software Deviation Analysis
Human Error Analysis
Test Coverage Analysis and Test Case Generation
Automatic code generation?
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Model Execution and Animation
SpecTRM−RL models are executable.
Model execution is animated
Results of execution could be input into a graphical

visualization
Inputs can come from another model or simulator and

output can go into another model or simulator.
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Design for Safety
Software design must enforce safety constraints
Should be able to trace from requirements to code (vice versa)
Design should incorporate basic safety design principles
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Safe Design Precedence
HAZARD ELIMINATION
Substitution
Simplification
Decoupling
Elimination of human errors
Reduction of hazardous materials or conditions Decreasing cost
HAZARD REDUCTION Increasing effectiveness
Design for controllability
Barriers
Lockins, Lockouts, Interlocks
Failure Minimization
Safety Factors and Margins
Redundancy
HAZARD CONTROL
Reducing exposure
Isolation and containment
Protection systems and fail−safe design
DAMAGE REDUCTION
..
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STAMP
(Systems Theory Accident Modeling and Processes)
STAMP is a new theoretical underpinning for developing

more effective hazard analysis techniques for complex systems.
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Accident models provide the basis for

Investigating and analyzing accidents
Preventing accidents
Hazard analysis
Design for safety
Assessing risk (determining whether systems are

suitable for use)
Performance modeling and defining safety metrics

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Chain−of−Events Models
Explain accidents in terms of multiple events, sequenced

as a forward chain over time.
Events almost always involve component failure, human

error, or energy−related event
Form the basis of most safety−engineering and reliability

engineering analysis:
e.g., Fault Tree Analysis, Probabilistic Risk Assessment,
FMEA, Event Trees
and design:
e.g., redundancy, overdesign, safety margins, ...
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º »
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Chain−of−Events Example
Equipment
Operating damaged
pressure .
/ 1 , # , 1 + 5 1 6 1 7
! # % & ' ) ! # + ,
# = & / # ) # 8 8 & #
J
8 & 8 / # ) , ' E C # , = 1 ! 1 F # >
1 8 , 1 + 5 1 F # 8 >
AND OR
Moisture Corrosion Weakened Tank Fragments Personnel

metal rupture projected injured
M
8 # = # 8 ' / / 1 + , 8 # 8 , 1 ' + C # 8 8 # = # 8 ' F + ! # , 1 C 8 # E & 8 , = ' 1 ) A 1 F ! ' = # ! # 8 A # # ) ) # 8 + + # C !
I I I G D
? ?
, 5 # # ) ! ' 8 , & # 8 , # # C / 1 , , A ' / 5 + # 8 8 8 , & ) , & # E # # , 1 + 5 8 / # # + , / + , 1 ' + C #

' / ' + ' , 7 , 1 + 5 6 A '
& , , 1 + 5 > ) C 1 , # / 1 E + / 8 ' + 6 ' C C + , = # 8 L ) # # + , ' + F ! # ) 8 8 ' E C # 1 F ! # + , 8 > ' , ' 8 ) # 8 8 & ' < # = >
8 , # # C , ) # # + , # = & / # 8 , # + F , A , # K , # + 8 ' # = 1 ! 1 F #
? ?
/ + , 1 / , 6 ' , A 1 ' C & # ) ' + , = & ' + F 1 + = 1 F ! # + , 1 , ' + >
! ' 8 , & # > # 8 # # 1 E C # C ' # , ' ! # >

c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ¾
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· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Chain−of−Events Example: Bhopal

E1: Worker washes pipes without inserting slip blind
E2: Water leaks into MIT tank
E3: Explosion occurs
E4: Relief valve opens
E5: MIC vented into air
E6: Wind carries MIC into populated area around plant
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ½
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· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Limitations of Event Chain Models:
Social and organizational factors in accidents

~ o j Y ] R c X o n Y i Y ] c e Y b T o ` R ` n c X Z P e R Y P Z e ` o Y z P Z X b Z b X Y o b Y m
P R e T ` l n T e T Y e Y b T o ` R ` n c f P c z Y { Y R R j Y i Y R ` S Y j R ` o n z Y } ` ] Y e T Y
Z b X Y o b Y Y f Y ] n Y Z _ q i Y ] R c X o n Y i Y ] c e Y b T o X b P R ` ] b X i X R Z c Z e Y f X Z P
Z ` b X P R Z c Z e Y f e T P e S ] ` i X j Y Z S l ] S ` Z Y m n ` P R Z m P o j j Y b X Z X ` o b ] X e Y ] X P _
O P R S T V X R Y Z [ ] _
Models need to include the social system as well as the

technology and its underlying science.
System accidents
Software error
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î
¿ À À
· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Limitations of Event Chain Models (2)
Human error
Deviation from normative procedure vs. established practice
Cannot effectively model human behavior by decomposing

it into individual decisions and actions and studying it
in isolation from the
physical and social context

value system in which it takes place
dynamic work process
Adaptation
Major accidents involve systematic migration of organizational
behavior under pressure toward cost effectiveness in an
aggressive, competitive environment.
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Í
¿ À À
· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Design
Vessel Stability Analysis
Design
Shipyard
Equipment Impaired
load added stability
Harbor
Design Truck companies
Excess load routines
Passenger management
Cargo Excess numbers
Management
Berth design
Calais
Passenger Docking Capsizing

Operations management procedure Change of
Management Standing orders docking
procedure
Berth design
Zeebrugge
Traffic
Unsafe
Scheduling Operations management heuristics
Transfer of Herald
to Zeebrugge
Vessel Captain’s planning

Crew working
Operation patterns
Operations management
Time pressure
Accident Analysis:
Operational Decision Making:
Combinatorial structure
Decision makers from separate of possible accidents
departments in operational context can easily be identified.
very likely will not see the forest
for the trees.
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ÿ
¿ À À
· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Ways to Cope with Complexity
Analytic Reduction (Descartes)

Divide system into distinct parts for analysis purposes.
Examine the parts separately.
Three important assumptions:
1. The division into parts will not distort the

phenomenon being studied.
2. Components are the same when examined singly

as when playing their part in the whole.
3. Principles governing the assembling of the components

into the whole are themselves straightforward.
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ý
¿ À À
· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Ways to Cope with Complexity (con’t.)
Statistics
Treat as a structureless mass with interchangeable parts.
Use Law of Large Numbers to describe behavior in

terms of averages.
Assumes components sufficiently regular and random

in their behavior that they can be studied statistically.
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º »
¿ À À
· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
What about software?
Too complex for complete analysis:
Separation into non−interacting subsystems distorts

the results.
The most important properties are emergent.
Too organized for statistics
Too much underlying structure that distorts

the statistics.
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ¾ ¼
¿ À À
· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Systems Theory
Developed for biology (Bertalanffly) and cybernetics (Norbert Weiner)
For systems too complex for complete analysis

Separation into non−interacting subsystems distorts results
Most important properties are emergent.
and too organized for statistical analysis
Concentrates on analysis and design of whole as distinct from parts

(basis of system engineering)
Some properties can only be treated adequately in their entirety,

taking into account all social and technical aspects.
These properties derive from relationships between the parts of
systems −− how they interact and fit together.
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ¾ »
¿ À À
· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Systems Theory (2)

Two pairs of ideas:
1. Emergence and hierarchy
Levels of organization, each more complex than one below.
Levels characterized by emergent properties

Irreducible
Represent constraints upon the degree of freedom of
components a lower level.
Safety is an emergent system property
It is NOT a component property.

It can only be analyzed in the context of the whole.
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ¾
¿ À À
· Á µ Â Ã Å Æ Å Ç È É ¹ Å Ê · Ë ·
Systems Theory (3)

2. Communication and control
Hierarchies characterized by control processes working at
the interfaces between levels.
A control action imposes constraints upon the activity

at one level of a hierarchy.
Open systems are viewed as interrelated components kept

in a state of dynamic equilibrium by feedback loops of
information and control.
Control in open systems implies need for communication

c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ½ ÿ
¿
É
A Systems Theory Model of Accidents

Safety is an emergent system property.
Accidents arise from interactions among

People
Societal and organizational structures
Engineering activities
Physical system components
that violate the constraints on safe component
behavior and interactions.
Not simply chains of events or linear causality,

but more complex types of causal connections.
Need to include the entire socio−technical system

c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ½ ý
¿
É
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ½
¿
É
STAMP (Systems−Theoretic Accident Model and Processes)
Based on systems and control theory
Systems not treated as a static design
A socio−technical system is a dynamic process

continually adapting to achieve its ends and to
react to changes in itself and its environment
Preventing accidents requires designing a control

structure to enforce constraints on system behavior
and adaptation.
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î ¼
¿
É
STAMP (2)
Views accidents as a control problem
e.g., O−ring did not control propellant gas release by
sealing gap in field joint
Software did not adequately control descent speed of

Mars Polar Lander.
Events are the result of the inadequate control

Result from lack of enforcement of safety constraints
To understand accidents, need to examine control structure

itself to determine why inadequate to maintain safety constraints
and why events occurred.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM OPERATIONS
Congress and Legislatures Congress and Legislatures

Government Reports Government Reports
Legislation Lobbying Legislation Lobbying
Hearings and open meetings Hearings and open meetings
Accidents Accidents
Government Regulatory Agencies Government Regulatory Agencies

Industry Associations, Industry Associations,
User Associations, Unions, User Associations, Unions,
Insurance Companies, Courts Insurance Companies, Courts
Regulations
Certification Info. Regulations
Standards Accident and incident reports
Change reports Standards
Certification Operations reports
Whistleblowers Certification
Legal penalties Maintenance Reports
Accidents and incidents Legal penalties
Case Law Change reports
Case Law
Whistleblowers
Company
Management
Safety Policy Status Reports
Company
Standards Risk Assessments
Management
Resources Incident Reports Safety Policy
Operations Reports
Policy, stds. Standards
Project Resources
Management
Hazard Analyses Operations
Safety Standards Hazard Analyses Management
Safety−Related Changes
Progress Reports
Progress Reports Change requests
Work Instructions
Design, Audit reports
Documentation Problem reports
Operating Assumptions
Safety Constraints Test reports Operating Procedures
Standards Operating Process
Hazard Analyses
Test Requirements
Review Results
Human Controller(s)
Implementation
and assurance Automated
Safety Revised Controller
Reports operating procedures
Hazard Analyses
Software revisions Actuator(s) Sensor(s)
Manufacturing Documentation Hardware replacements
Management Design Rationale Physical
Process
Work safety reports Maintenance
Procedures audits and Evolution Problem Reports
work logs Incidents
inspections Change Requests
Manufacturing Performance Audits
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î
¿
É
Note:
Does not imply need for a "controller"
Component failures may be controlled through design
e.g., redundancy, interlocks, fail−safe design
or through process
manufacturing processes and procedures
maintenance procedures
But does imply the need to enforce the safety constraints

in some way.
New model includes what do now and more
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î ¾
¿
É
Accidents occur when:

Design does not enforce safety constraints
unhandled disturbances, failures, dysfunctional interactions
Inadequate control actions
Control structure degrades over time, asynchronous evolution
Control actions inadequately coordinated among multiple

controllers.
Boundary areas
Controller 1 Process 1
Controller 2 Process 2
Overlap areas (side effects of decisions and control actions)

Controller 1
Process
Controller 2
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î ½
Process Models ¿
É
Measured
variables
Sensors Process
inputs
Human Supervisor Automated Controller

(Controller) Controls Controlled
Model of Model of Model of Model of Process
Process Interfaces Disturbances
Process Automation Displays
Process
outputs
Actuators
Controlled
variables
Process models must contain:

Required relationship among process variables
Current state (values of process variables)
The ways the process can change state
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î Î
¿
É
Relationship between Safety and Process Model

Accidents occur when the models do not match the process and
incorrect control commands are given (or correct ones not given)
How do they become inconsistent?
Wrong from beginning
e.g. uncontrolled disturbances

unhandled process states
inadvertently commanding system into a hazardous state
unhandled or incorrectly handled system component failures
[Note these are related to what we called system accidents]
Missing or incorrect feedback and not updated correctly
Time lags not accounted for
Explains most software−related accidents

Safety and Human Mental Models c ´ µ ¶
¿
µ

· ¸
É
¹

º

» Î Í
Explains developer errors
May have incorrect model of
required system or software behavior
development process
physical laws
etc.
Also explains most human/computer interaction problems

Pilots and others are not understanding the automation
What did it just do?
Why won’t it let us do that?
Why did it do that?
What caused the failure?
What will it do next?
What can we do so it does not
How did it get us into this state?
happen again?
How do I get it to do what I want?
Or don’t get feedback to update mental models or disbelieve it
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î ÿ
¿
É
Validating and Using the Model
Can it explain (model) accidents that have already occurred?
Is it useful?
In accident and mishap investigation
In preventing accidents
Hazard analysis
Designing for safety
Is it better for these purposes than the chain−of−events model?

c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î ý
¿
É
Using STAMP in Accident and

Mishap Investigation and
Root Cause Analysis
c ´ µ ¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » Î
¿
É
Modeling Accidents Using STAMP

Three types of models are needed:
1. Static safety control structure
Safety requirements and constraints
Flawed control actions
Context (social, political, etc.)
Mental model flaws
Coordination flaws
2. Dynamic structure
Shows how the safety control structure changed over time
3. Behavioral dynamics
Dynamic processes behind the changes, i.e., why the
system changes
c

ARIANE 5 LAUNCHER
OBC
Nozzle Booster
Executes flight program; A command Nozzles
Controls nozzles of solid
boosters and Vulcain Main engine
B command Main engine
cryogenic engine
Nozzle
Diagnostic and SRI

flight information Measures attitude of
D launcher and its C
movements in space Horizontal
velocity
Strapdown inertial
Backup SRI platform
Measures attitude of C
launcher and its
movements in space; Horizontal velocity
Takes over if SRI unable
to send guidance info
Ariane 5: A rapid change in attitude and high aerodynamic loads stemming from a
high angle of attack create aerodynamic forces that cause the launcher
to disintegrate at 39 seconds after command for main engine ignition (H0).
Nozzles: Full nozzle deflections of solid boosters and main engine lead to angle
of attack of more than 20 degrees.
Self−Destruct System: Triggered (as designed) by boosters separating from main

stage at altitude of 4 km and 1 km from launch pad.
OBC (On−Board Computer)

OBC Safety Constraint Violated: Commands from the OBC to the nozzles must not
result in the launcher operating outside its safe envelope.
Unsafe Behavior: Control command sent to booster nozzles and later to main engine
nozzle to make a large correction for an attitude deviation that had not occurred.
Process Model: Model of the current launch attitude is incorrect, i.e., it contains
an attitude deviation that had not occurred. Results in incorrect commands
being sent to nozzles.
Feedback: Diagnostic information received from SRI
Interface Model: Incomplete or incorrect (not enough information in accident report

to determine which) − does not include the diagnostic information from the
SRI that is available on the databus.
Control Algorithm Flaw: Interprets diagnostic information from SRI as flight data and
uses it for flight control calculations. With both SRI and backup SRI shut down
and therefore no possibility of getting correct guidance and attitude information,
loss was inevitable.
c

ARIANE 5 LAUNCHER
OBC
Nozzle Booster
Executes flight program; A command Nozzles
Controls nozzles of solid
boosters and Vulcain Main engine
B command Main engine
cryogenic engine
Nozzle
Diagnostic and SRI

flight information Measures attitude of
D launcher and its C
movements in space Horizontal
velocity
Strapdown inertial
Backup SRI platform
Measures attitude of C
launcher and its
movements in space; Horizontal velocity
Takes over if SRI unable
to send guidance info
SRI (Inertial Reference System):

SRI Safety Constraint Violated: The SRI must continue to send guidance
information as long as it can get the necessary information from the strapdown
inertial platform.
Unsafe Behavior: At 36.75 seconds after H0, SRI detects an internal error and
turns itself off (as it was designed to do) after putting diagnostic information on
the bus (D).
Control Algorithm: Calculates the Horizontal Bias (an internal alignment variable
used as an indicator of alignment precision over time) using the horizontal
velocity input from the strapdown inertial platform (C). Conversion from a 64−bit
floating point value to a 16−bit signed integer leads to an unhandled overflow
exception while calculating the horizontal bias. Algorithm reused from Ariane 4
where horizontal bias variable does not get large enough to cause an overflow.
Process Model: Does not match Ariane 5 (based on Ariane 4 trajectory data);
Assumes smaller horizontal velocity values than possible on Ariane 5.
Backup SRI (Inertial Reference System):

SRI Safety Constraint Violated: The backup SRI must continue to send guidance
information as long as it can get the necessary information from the strapdown
inertial platform.
Unsafe Behavior: At 36.75 seconds after H0, backup SRI detects an internal error
and turns itself off (as it was designed to do).
Control Algorithm: Calculates the Horizontal Bias (an internal alignment variable
used as an indicator of alignment precision over time) using the horizontal
velocity input from the strapdown inertial platform (C). Conversion from a 64−bit
floating point value to a 16−bit signed integer leads to an unhandled overflow
exception while calculating the horizontal bias. Algorithm reused from Ariane 4
where horizontal bias variable does not get large enough to cause an overflow.
Because the algorithm was the same in both SRI computers, the overflow
results in the same behavior, i.e., shutting itself off.
Process Model: Does not match Ariane 5 (based on Ariane 4 trajectory data);
Assumes smaller horizontal velocity values than possible on Ariane 5.
c á â ã â ä å æ ç è é ê

Titan 4/Centaur/Milstar DEVELOPMENT OPERATIONS
Space and Missile Systems Defense Contract

Center Launch Directorate (SMC) Management Command
(Responsible for administration contract administration
of LMA contract) software surveillance
oversee the process
Prime Contractor (LMA)

(Responsible for design and
construction of flight control system)
LMA System
Engineering IV&V Third Space Launch
Analex Squadron (3SLS)
LMA Quality (Responsible for ground
Software Design
Assurance Analex−Cleveland operations management)
and Development
verify design
LMA
Flight Control Software Analex Denver
IV&V of flight software
Honeywell Ground Operations
Aerospace IMS software (CCAS)
Monitor software
development and test
LMA FAST Lab
System test of INU Titan/Centaur/Milstar
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S 0 î D ó 0 ï ñ O ò í ï ð ò P î ï ð a O ï a ð 0 1 a î ï V ð 0 . 0 í ï 0 c V ò î a ð 0 ò ó ï S 0 V a E P ì O ï ò O ò í ï D 1 ì í D ï 0 N e D ï 0 ð W
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Design flaw: Design flaw:

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Dynamic Structure
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Design flaw: Design flaw:

ú ú
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No chlorinator Shallow location

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Modeling Behavioral Dynamics

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A (Partial) System Dynamics Model

of the Columbia Accident
¹ Â » Í · Â ¹
Ë ° ¾ À À
Budget
cuts
Budget cuts
directed toward
safety
Safety
System Rate of
safety safety increase
efforts
Priority of
safety programs ³ ´
º » Á Â Ã º
¼ ½ ¾ ¿ À ±
º º Ä Å º Ç
¿ ° Æ
³ µ
¯ ° ± ° ² ² ¾
¶ · ¹ ¹ º » »
Complacency
External
Rate of increase
Pressure
in complacency
Performance
Pressure
Perceived
È µ
Expectations safety Risk

· » Á Ä Ê Á º
¼ ° ²
³ µ
¯ ° ± ° ²
Launch Rate
Success
Success Rate
Accident Rate
c
Steps in a STAMP analysis:
á â ã â ä å æ ç è Ï Ñ

1. Identify
System hazards
System safety constraints and requirements
Control structure in place to enforce constraints
2. Model dynamic aspects of accident:

Changes to static safety control structure over time
Dynamic processes in effect that led to changes
3. Create the overall explanation for the accident

Inadequate control actions and decisions
Context in which decisions made
Mental model flaws
Control flaws (e.g., missing feedback loops)
Coordination flaws
c á â ã â ä å æ ç è Ï è

STAMP vs. Traditional Accident Models
Examines interrelationships rather than linear cause−effect chains

Looks at the processes behind the events
Includes entire socio−economic system
Includes behavioral dynamics (changes over time)
Want to not just react to accidents and impose controls

for a while, but understand why controls drift toward
ineffectiveness over time and
Change those factors if possible
Detect the drift before accidents occur
c á â ã â ä å æ ç è Ï ê

Using STAMP to Prevent Accidents
Hazard Analysis
Safety Metrics and Performance Auditing
Risk Assessment
c á â ã â ä å æ ç è Ï Ò

STAMP−Based Hazard Analysis (STPA)
Provides information about how safety constraints could be

violated.
Used to eliminate, reduce, and control hazards in system
design, development, manufacturing, and operations
Assists in designing safety into system from the beginning

Not just after−the−fact analysis
Includes software, operators, system accidents, management,

regulatory authorities
Can use a concrete model of control (SpecTRM−RL) that is

executable and analyzable
c
STPA − Step1: Identify hazards and translate into high−level á â ã

â

ä å

æ

ç

è Ï Ó
requirements and constraints on behavior
TCAS Hazards
1. A near mid−air collision (NMAC)
(a pair of controlled aircraft violate minimum separation
standards)
2. A controlled maneuver into the ground

3. Loss of control of aircraft
4. Interference with other safety−related aircraft systems
5. Interference with ground−based ATC system
6. Interference with ATC safety−related advisory
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STPA − Step 2: Define basic control structure

Displays
Aural Alerts
Own and Other
Airline Aircraft Information
Ops
Operating
Mgmt. Mode TCAS
Pilot
Advisories
Aircraft
Local Air Traffic

ATC Radio
FAA Controller
Ops
Mgmt. Aircraft
Advisories
Pilot
Operating TCAS
Airline Mode
Ops
Own and Other
Flight Data Mgmt. Aural Alerts Aircraft Information
Displays
Processor
Radar
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STPA − Step 3: Identify potential inadequate control actions that

could lead to hazardous process state
In general:
1. A required control action is not provided

2. An incorrect or unsafe control action is provided.
3. A potentially correct or inadequate control action is
provided too late (at the wrong time)
4. A correct control action is stopped too soon
c á â ã â ä å æ ç è Ï Ï

For the NMAC hazard:

TCAS:
1. The aircraft are on a near collision course and TCAS does
not provide an RA
2. The aircraft are in close proximity and TCAS provides an
RA that degrades vertical separation
3. The aircraft are on a near collision course and TCAS provides
an RA too late to avoid an NMAC
4. TCAS removes an RA too soon.
Pilot:
1. The pilot does not follow the resolution advisory provided
by TCAS (does not respond to the RA)
2. The pilot incorrectly executes the TCAS resolution advisory.
3. The pilot applies the RA but too late to avoid the NMAC
4. The pilot stops the RA maneuver too soon.
c á â ã â ä å æ ç è Ï Ô
STPA − Step 4: Determine how potentially hazardous control
actions could occur.

Eliminate from design or control or mitigate in
design or operations
In general:
Can use a concrete model in SpecTRM−RL
Assists with communication and completeness of analysis
Provides a continuous simulation and analysis environment

to evaluate impact of faults and effectiveness of mitigation
features.
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Step 4a: Augment control structure with process models for each
control component
Step 4b: For each of inadequate control actions, examine parts of

control loop to see if could cause it.
Guided by set of generic control loop flaws

Where human or organization involved must evaluate:
Context in which decisions made
Behavior−shaping mechanisms (influences)
Step 4c: Consider how designed controls could degrade over time
INPUTS FROM OWN AIRCRAFT c Ú Û Ü Û Ý Þ ß à á â ã
Radio Altitude
Radio Altitude Status Aircraft Altitude Limit Õ Ö × Ø Ù
Barometric Altitude Config Climb Inhibit

Barometric Altimeter Status Own MOde S address
Air Status Altitude Climb Inhibit
Altitude Rate Increase Climb Inhibit Discrete
Prox Traffic Display Traffic Display Permitted
TCAS
Own Aircraft Model Other Aircraft (1..30) Model

Status Altitude Reporting
Status Climb Inhibit Increase Climb Inhibit
Inhibited Inhibited On ground Yes
On Airborne No
System Start Not Inhibited Not Inhibited
Unknown Unknown Unknown Lost
Fault Detected Unknown
Descent Inhibit Increase Descent Inhibit Classification
RA Sense
Inhibited Inhibited Other Traffic
Not Inhibited Not Inhibited Proximate Traffic None
Sensivity Level Climb
Unknown Unknown Potential Threat
Threat Descend
1 None
2 Unknown
Current RA Sense Altitude Layer Unknown
3
4 None RA Strength
Climb Layer 1 Crossing
5
6 Descend Layer 2 Not Selected Non−Crossing
7 Unknown Layer 3 VSL 0 Int−Crossing
Layer 4 VSL 500 Own−Cross
Current RA Level Unknown VSL 1000 Unknown
VSL 2000
None Nominal 1500
VSL 0 Reversal
Increase 2500
VSL 500 Unknown Reversed
VSL 1000 Not Reversed
VSL 2000 Unknown
Unknown
Other Bearing Range

Other Bearing Valid Mode S Address
Other Altitude Sensitivity Level
Other Altitude Valid Equippage
INPUTS FROM OTHER AIRCRAFT
c Ú Û Ü Û Ý Þ ß à á â á
Measured Õ Ö × Ø Ù
variables
Sensors Process
inputs
Human Supervisor Automated Controller

(Controller) Controls Controlled
Model of Model of Model of Model of Process
Process Interfaces Disturbances
Process Automation Displays
Process
outputs
Actuators
Controlled
variables
STPA − Step 4b: Examine control loop for potential to cause c Ú Û Ü Û Ý Þ ß à á â ä
inadequate control actions Õ Ö × Ø Ù
Inadequate Control Actions (enforcement of constraints)

Design of control algorithm (process) does not enforce constraints
Process models inconsistent, incomplete, or incorrect (lack of linkup)
Flaw(s) in creation or updating process
Inadequate or missing feedback
Not provided in system design
Communication flaw
Inadequate sensor operation (incorrect or no information provided)
Time lags and measurement inaccuracies not accounted for
Inadequate coordination among controllers and decision−makers

(boundary and overlap areas)
Inadequate Execution of Control Action

Communication flaw
Inadequate "actuator" operation
Time lag
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STPA − Step4c: Consider how designed controls could degrade

Õ Ö × Ø Ù
over time.
E.g., specified procedures ==> effective procedures
Use system dynamics models?
Use information to design protection against changes:

e.g. operational procedures
controls over changes and maintenance activities
auditing procedures and performance metrics
management feedback channels to detect unsafe changes
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Õ Ö × Ø Ù
Comparisons with Traditional HA Techniques

Top−down (vs. bottom−up like FMECA)
Considers more than just component failures and failure events
Guidance in doing analysis (vs. FTA)
Handles dysfunctional interactions, software, management, etc.
Concrete model (not just in head)
Not physical structure (HAZOP) but control (functional) structure
General model of inadequate control
HAZOP guidewords based on model of accidents being
caused by deviations in system variables
Includes HAZOP model but more general
Compared with TCAS II Fault Tree (MITRE)

STPA results more comprehensive

Software System Safety: Nancy G. Leveson

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.

Software System Safety

MIT Aero/Astro Dept.

Component Failure Accidents

Caused by interactive complexity and tight coupling

Accidents in high−tech systems are changing

Confusing Safety and Reliability

From a blue ribbon panel report on the V−22 Osprey problems:

Does Software Fail?

A basic abnormal occurrence, e.g.,

Fault: Higher−order events, e.g.,

Reliability Engineering Approach to Safety

Reliability: The probability an item will perform its required

(Note: Most software−related accidents result from errors

Concerned primarily with failures and failure rate reduction

Reliability Engineering Approach to Safety (2)

Omits important factors in accidents.

Many accidents occur without any component ‘‘failure’’

Or may be caused by interactions of components

Highly reliable components are not necessarily safe.

Are usually caused by flawed requirements

Incomplete or wrong assumptions about operation of

Unhandled controlled−system states and environmental

Merely trying to get the software ‘‘correct’’ or to make it

Software−Related Accidents (con’t.)

Correctly implements requirements but specified

Requirements do not specify some particular behavior

Software has unintended (and unsafe) behavior beyond

Improve communication among engineers

Build safety in by enforcing constraints on behavior

The Problem to be Solved

The primary safety problem in computer−based systems

The job of the system safety engineer is to identify the

An Overview of The Approach

Engineers should recognize that reducing risk is not an

‘‘Organized common sense ’’ (Mueller, 1968)

Primary concern is the management of hazards:

System Safety (2) � ) * * 

Hazard analysis and control is a continuous, iterative process

Conceptual Design Development Operations

Hazard resolution precedence:

1. Perform a Preliminary Hazard Analysis

2. Perform a System Hazard Analysis (not just Failure Analysis)

3. Identify appropriate design constraints on system, software,

4. Design at system level to eliminate or control hazards.

5. Trace unresolved hazards and system hazard controls to

Specifying Safety Constraints

Most software requirements only specify nominal behavior

What must not do is not inverse of what must do

Derive from system hazard analysis

Process Steps (2)

6. Software requirements review and analysis

Process Steps (3)

7. Implementation with safety in mind

8. Off−nominal and safety testing

Process Steps (4)

9. Operational Analysis and Auditing

A Human−Centered, Safety−Driven Design Process

Preliminary Task Analysis Q A \ ?

Preliminary Hazard Analysis

Safety Requirements and

Operator Task Analysis Simulation and Animation

State Machine Hazard

System Safety (2) � ) * *