SPE #####

Estimation of Residual Gas Saturation with Water Influx

Gustavo Pimentel, Nicole Ayupe. Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de la Sierra (UPSA), Bolivia.
• The reservoir is considered as a tank
Abstract
• The porous space is initially occupied by gas and
The residual gas saturation is the volume of gas in the tank
connate water
that is not produced, but its value depends on many factors, in
• The composition of gas does not change during the
this case the intrusion of water will be taken into account.
There are several methods created by several authors to exploitation of the reservoir
determine this variable, three were chosen: Method of Ahmed • The gas-water ratio in solution is equal to 0
and McKinney [1], Method of Lee and Wattenbarger [2] and • The isothermal reservoir is considered
Holtz Method [3], of which two are theoretical and one • The properties of fluids and rocks are considered
experimental. These methods are based on material balances uniform
through which we can obtain the residual gas saturation, this
MBM has many more uses than just predicting the future
variable is calculated and compared by the methods of [1] and behavior of the reservoir, such as:
[2]
• Determine the original gas in place (OGIP)
Introduction
• Determine the volume of water in situ
• Estimate the recovery of hydrocarbons with different
Nowadays, natural gas is a highly coveted hydrocarbon due to
depletion mechanisms
its great energy contribution and its stability with the • Determine the total amount of fluids in situ
environment, so in the gas producing countries, the
• Predict the future behavior of the reservoir (production,
exploration and production of natural gas deposits increased. pressure decline, water intrusion, etc.)
The problem arises when it is determined that these gas
reservoirs have an intrusion of water because this causes the The data required by the MBM consist of: Production history,
entrapment of the gas and at a certain moment of production
PVT analysis of the fluid, Primary, secondary or tertiary
we only produce water. One of the most important variables is production mechanisms, etc.
the saturation of residual gas, since with it it is possible to
The material balance equations are dependent on many
estimate the recovery of gas in deposits that have the presence variables, which are only known many times when the well
of an influx of water. The residual gas saturation can be
test is performed, the most known Material Balance Equation
calculated by several methods, since over time many authors (MBE) is used for volumetric reservoirs:
created correlations to estimate this value or find them with
additional data, in some cases the saturation of residual gas
can be very low, as in other cases. Greater, since it depends on
the type of aquifer it presents, it can be strong, weak or
Where:
normal.
P = Pressure
The purpose of this document is to estimate the saturation of
Z = Gas compressibility factor
waste gas in a gas field using the methods
Gp = Production of gas accumulated
Method of Ahmed and McKinney [1]
G = Volume of gas in situ
Method of Lee and Wattenbarger [2]
Sub-index i = Initial
Holtz method [3]
When graphing P / Z vs Gp a linear downward trend is
Theory
obtained since P / Z decreases with gas production (fig 1),
Material Balance Method (MBM) [4]
then the line is extrapolated until P / Z = 0, this in order to
MBM is the application of the law of conservation of mass for
obtain the value of OGIP and to perform an economic
reservoirs of gas and oil. MBM for gas reservoirs is based on
profitability analysis on the well, that is, until the production
the fact that the pore space of the reservoir emptied by the
of the well will be profitable to close the well.
production is completely filled by the remaining fluids and by
This equation is only used for volumetric reservoirs, since
the expansion of the rock. MBM is widely used in reservoir
other types of reservoirs present more data that greatly affect,
engineering thanks to its great predictive potential.
for example, the presence of an aquifer.
To better understand the use of MBM for gas reservoirs,
certain conditions have to be met when using MBM:
2 ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION WITH WATER DRIVE SPE ######

We=Influjo de agua acumulado

Cw=Compresibildiad del agua
Cf=Compresibilidad del gas
∆P=Diferencia de presión

Because the compressibility of the gas is much greater than

that of the water and formation, the expansion of the water is
considered negligible, leaving the equation:

(1)

After adjusting it in terms of P / Z, a corrected equation will

be obtained with which the P / Z vs. Gp relation can be
performed again to carry out the aforementioned analysis.
There is also a well-known method to determine what type of
Fig. 1. Relationship P / Z vs Gp for a volumetric reservoir aquifer is present in the reservoir as well as for mathematical
[1] calculations that will not be taken into account because it is
There are cases in which the relation P / Z and Gp presents not the main theme of this paper, which is Havlenna and
some non-linear deviation upwards which may be due to the Odeh Method [# #].
following problems:
• Wrong data Methods
• Retrograde Gas Reservoir
• Presence of an aquifer Ahmed and Mckinney Method
When the problem is the presence of an aquifer, it has to be The graph P / Z vs Gp is a method applied to solve a material
analyzed to what type it belongs to perform the respective balance for gas under conditions of depletion by thrust. The
mathematical calculations and obtain a corrected P / Z and extrapolation of the line to atmospheric pressure or to zero in
Gp relation. the case of gauge pressure, provides an estimate of the volume
of gas in situ (OGIP). If it presents a water push, the
extrapolation in the graph (Fig. 1) can still have a linear
trend, but resulting in an erroneous value of the OGIP. If the
reservoir has a water impulse, it will have two unknowns
even if the production, temperature and specific gas gravity
data are known, these unknowns are OGIP and cumulative
water inflow (We). In order to use the material balance to
calculate the OGIP, a method to estimate the We was
developed.
From equation (1), Ahmed developed an equation (2) to be
applied to a graphical method (Fig. 3) from which we can
obtain the value of We having it as the only incognita. Of
course you can also get the same value by clearing equation
(1) but this would take a little more time.
Fig. 2. Relationship P / Z vs Gp for a reservoir with the
presence of an aquifer [1]
When the reservoir presents the presence of an aquifer, or
also a non-volumetric reservoir, it is necessary to modify the (2)
MBE since the intrusion of water must also be taken in the
mathematical calculations.
Water Water Influx This graph (Fig. 3) can be used to estimate the value of We,
Underground Gas Expansion
=
Expansion + since at any time the difference between the horizontal line
withdrawal
+ (value of G) and the straight line (G + C) will result in the
value of C.

where:
Bg=Factor de volumen de formación del gas
Bw=Factor de volumen de formación del agua
Wp=Produccion de agua acumulada
SPE ##### ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION WITH WATER DRIVE
Fig. 3. Effect of the influx of water on the calculation of
the OGIP
Generally in volumetric reservoirs the recovery factor (FR) is
in a range between 50% - 70%, while in non-volumetric
reservoirs (with water thrust) the range increases to 80% -
90%, this is because the thrust of water generally eludes and
traps gas, as well as variations in reservoir heterogeneity.
That is why Ahmed and McKinney developed a method with
which you can estimate the amount of gas trapped in the
region flooded by the invasion of water in five steps:
ECUACION
Nomenclature
PV=Volumen poral del reservorio, cf
PVw=volumen poral de la zona invadida por agua,
cf
Sgr=Saturacion de gas residual, fraction
Sw=Saturacion de agua, fraction
G= Volumen de gas in situ, cf
Gp=Produccion de gas acumulado, scf
Bg= Factor de volumen de formación del gas, cf/scf
Bw= Factor de volumen de formación del agua,
cf/scf
Z=Factor de compresibilidad del gas
Sub-indice i=inicial
Step 1. Express the volumetric equation of G in terms of PV
(3)
Step 2. Calculate the PVw in the area invaded by wáter
(4)
Step 3. Calculate the volume of gas trapped
(5)
3
Step 4. Calculate the number of moles of gas trapped in the
area invaded by water
(6)
This is done to show that at a higher pressure, the amount of
gas trapped will increase according to Dake [##]
Step 5. Calculate the gas saturation at any pressure
(7)
Lee and Wattenbarger Method
Many times the gas reservoirs are not completely closed by
some seal formation, but these have an influx of water from
an aquifer. Invasion of water occurs when the pressure
between the reservoir-aquifer boundary is reduced after the
production of the reservoir. That is why Lee and Wattenbarger
derived the equation for a volumetric reservoir assuming that
the pore volume of the reservoir occupied by gas will remain
constant throughout the productive life of the reservoir.
However, in gas reservoirs with water influx, the pore volume
decreases in the same way that water enters the reservoir.
That is why Lee and Wattenbarger saw that if they could
calculate the initial and residual gas saturation at
abandonment, then they could use the volumetric equation to
calculate the gas reserves of a reservoir of gas with water
influx.
They began the equation (8) for the production of
accumulated gas in terms of initial and residual water
saturation, where the difference between 1 and the residual
water saturation (fraction) is equivalent to the residual gas
saturation.
(8)
Donde:
A=Area del reservorio, acres
h=Espesor del reservorio, ft
=Porosidad, fraccion
Sw=Saturacion de agua, fraccion
Sgr=Saturacion de gas residual, fraccion
4 ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION WITH WATER DRIVE SPE ######

Bg=Factor de volumen de formación del Step 1. Develop the porosity-permeability relationship

gas,Rb/Mscf Step 2. Develop a function for irreducible water saturation of
Sub-indice i=inicial capillary pressure data
Step 3. Determine a relationship for Sgrm as a function of
The recovery factor (FR) is: porosity
Step 4. Combine the equations to obtain Sgrm based on the
initial gas saturation.
The relationship between porosity and permeability was
(9) determined by generating an equation of best fit between the
two properties. A conventional cross-plot of porosity vs.
permeability shows a strong exponential fit and a power law
From equations (8) and (9) it was derived assuming that the with less than 1 order of magnitude of variation.
volumetric sweep efficiency (Ev) for gas was 100%, this being
an ideal value. Generally, the Ev varies in reservoirs with an
influx of water since large volumes of gas are trapped by the
advance of water, by variations in the heterogeneity of the
reservoir (ie natural fractures) and discontinuities (ie sealing
faults and low permeability), the invasion Water does not flow
through some portions of the reservoir effectively, resulting in
high residual saturation in areas where water does not flow
and a higher abandonment pressure than volumetric
reservoirs. That is why we added the Ev in the volumetric
equation.

Fig. 4. A power-law equation gives a strong empirical fit to

porosity-permeability data.
The permeability varied up to a high end of a darcy with a
(10)
porosity of 30% and a low end of 1 millidarcy to 14%
porosity. The power law equation was chosen because it was
And it can be expressed in a similar way to the equation (8) the one that best fit the data, resulting in the following
permeability equation.

(11) (13)

An expression for the initial water saturation is determined by

So the FR also changes: assuming that the geometry of the pores controls the petro
physical interrelationships. Because the way in which a data
set is radiated from a point of low porosity-permeability is a
(12) function of pore geometry, the relationship of log (k) / ø
should also give a measure of the geometry of the pores.

Because the gas is very often diverted and trapped by water

invasion, the recovery factors of the water-boosted gas
reservoirs can be significantly lower than the volumetric
reservoirs produced by a gas expansion. Additionally, the
presence of reservoir heterogeneities, such as low
permeability, can also reduce RF.

Holtz Method
Holtz developed a methodology to derive an empirical model
for maximum residual gas saturation (Sgrm) in gas
reservoirs. This method is based on the concept that the petro
physical properties are interrelated according to the geometry
of the pores of the rock. This method has four steps which
are:
SPE ##### ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION WITH WATER DRIVE
Fig. 5. The log(k)/f relationship is a function of pore type and
pore geometry [##]
The application of this pore-geometry measurement facilitates
the development of an equation for the initial gas saturation.
The log (k) / ø corresponds to variations in capillary
characteristics. The capillary pressure curves showing lower
irreducible water saturations correspond to relationships log
(k) / ø
Fig. 6. The character of Capillary pressure curves displays a
strong correlation with log(k)/ ratios because they indicate
pore type and geometry
This relationship leads to equation 14, which is used to
calculate the irreducible water saturation.
(14)
A robust model of residual gas saturation was developed from
field data. A strong relationship between increasing porosity
and decreasing residual gas saturation is documented. The
trend is linear, and the best fitting equation is given in
equation 15. This relationship predicts a lower limit of Sgrm
of 0.125, corresponding to a non-consolidated sandstone
porosity limit and an upper limit of 0.5, which corresponds to
a porosity of 0.05, and Sgrm equal to the initial gas saturation
5
(15)
The last step to develop the Sgrm model is to integrate
equations 13, 14 and 15. They must be integrated in such a
way that Sgrm is a Swirr function so that the initial condition
of Sgrm is less than or equal to the initial gas saturation.
This initial condition is met with the development of an
initial-residual non-wetting phase curve (IR curve).
These curves represent the characteristics of a single rock
sample. The end point of the curve is the Sgrm value. As the
sandstone becomes cleaner, better ordered and less cemented
(higher porosity), the curves move away from line 1 to 1 and
increase in slope and Sgrm decreases.
Therefore, the empirical relationship sought should follow
this trend.
Where the trend of line 1 to 1 intersects, which represents the
economic limit of the deposit. Equation 16 applies:
(16)
Substituting Sgrm of Equation 15 and Swirr of Equation 14
and then solving in terms of porosity just replacing Equation
6 ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION WITH WATER DRIVE SPE ######

14, we obtain an expression that gives the porosity to which Using equation 19, a set of Swirr-Sgrm values can be
Equation 16 is sustained: determined. Substituting this set of values as constants and
applying them in equation 20, a group of IR curves is
obtained to vary the quality of the rock.

(17)

The solution to Equation 17 results in a porosity of 0.18 and a

permeability of 4.9 md at a Sgrm value of 0.37. This value of
Sgrm represents the highest value expected in the reservoir.
Combining equations 13, 14 and 15 with equation 18 and
solving for Sgi in terms of the results of Sgrm in a function to
describe their relationship:

(18)

Fig. 7 From the empirically derived equations initial residual

nonwetting phase curves (IR curves) can be generated to
(19) display petro physical rock character at varying rock quality

Applications
Note: The Ahmed method and the read method will be
applied to estimate the residual gas saturation, the holtz
method will not be used as it is an experimental method.

We were given the following data from the Eton

reservoir(acronym).

The interrelation between porosity, initial gas saturation and

Sgrm can be seen that the porosity decreases slowly, along
with Sgi, and Sgrm increases rapidly. However, this rapid
increase in Sgrm decreases as small increases in porosity
result in large increases in Sgi. This relationship represents
the end points of a set of IR curves for the variable quality of
the rock within the gas reservoir.
Generalized initial-residual curve model (IR curve)
The curves must remain below line 1 to 1 and end at a given
Sgrm-Sgi position. Modified Land equation 20 meets these
criteria;

Fig. 8. Data table of the Eton reservoir

(20)
To estimate the residual gas saturation according to both
methods, it is necessary to have the following data:
SPE ##### ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION WITH WATER DRIVE 7

DATOS
G
Gp
Bg
Sg
Bgi
Swi
We
Wp
Bw
Sgi
Fig. 9. Data required for the calculation of the Sgr

As you can see, the amount of missing data is extensive so we

opted to make use of three programs to determine these
values, IPM-MBAL, IPM-GAP and Excel.
The initial production date was 01/10/2009 and the forecast
date for the saturation estimate is 01/10/2020
Steps to obtain the missing data:
Fig. 10. Surface facility data
1st Step Obtain the specific gravity of the gas (sg) of the gas
mixture provided (Fig. 12)
6th Step Once armed and with all the data, run the
2nd step Enter the production history (Fig. 12) And the sg to
simulation until the year 2020.
IPM-MBAL, as well as assume missing data required by said
7th Step Once the simulation is finished, we proceed to
program.
analyze the data for possible errors. If it is correct, we proceed
3rd step If it is not known whether the reservoir has water
to obtain the necessary data.
intrusion or not, it is necessary to plot the P / Z method in the
8th Step Prepare a table to calculate the value of Bg and Bgi
same program.
4th Step Then use the Havlenna and Odeh method to achieve
an acceptable fit of the graph and obtain the value of the
Steps to calculate Sgr:
OGIP
5th Step Arming and entering the dimensions of the
1st Step Modify the equations of both methods according to
equipment (Fig. 14) Of the surface facility for gas production
SgrEcuacion de Tarek Ahmed and Mckinney
in IPM-GAP.

Ecuacion de Lee and Wattenbarger

2nd step Calculate We for Sgr by the method of Ahmed using

the following equation:

3rd step Calculate the value of Sgr by both methods and

compare.
8 ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION WITH WATER DRIVE SPE ######

Results

Fig. 13. Result of the simulation in GAP

Fig. 11. Grafica P/Z

Fig. 13. Excel table

Fig. 12. Correction by the Fetkovich Steady State method and

adjustment in the Havlenna and Odeh graph
Conclusion
La determinación de saturación de gas residual es una de las
más importantes cuando nuestro reservorio presenta intrusión
Fig. 13. Valor de OGIP de agua. Los resultados son obtenidos mediante parámetros
esenciales como la relación permeabilidad y porosidad,
además que estos resultados son más precisos debido a que
SPE ##### ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL GAS SATURATION WITH WATER DRIVE 9

son basados en balances de materia y una combinación de

balances de materia con volumétricos

Acknowledgments

References
1.Tarek Ahmed, Paul D. McKineey “Advanced Reservoir
Engineering” ELSEVIER, 2005.
2.John Lee, Robert A. Wattenbarger “Gas Reservoir Engineering”
SPE, 1996.
3.M.H Holtz,”Residual Gas Saturation to Aquifer Influx: A
Calculation Method for 3-D Computer Reservoir Model
Construction” SPE 75502, 2002.
4.New Mexico Tech University, “Chapter 1, Gas Material Balance”