Code Switching 1

Code Switching

Aaron Lloyd

EDU 341

Baker College Allen Park

 Code Switching 2

The term code switching defined as when a person switches between two languages

while speaking. This can occurs when a person who speaks more than one language, know as a

bilingual, but is not fluent in the language they are speaking. Multilinguals, people who speak

more than two languages, can code switch during their conversations. Multilinguals sometimes

code switch between more than one languages when speaking. Code switching is not like

borrowing, creoles, language transfer, or pidgins. Code-switching in spontaneous conversation

can be understood as “discourse in which words originating in two different language systems

are used side-by-side” by bilingual speakers (Backus, 2005, p. 307). Borrowing is a lexicon

issue, where code switching is not. Pidgin is the combination of multiple languages between two

speakers who don’t speak each other's language as a way to communicate. It is frequently

assumed that contact between two languages results in convergence between the two grammars

and specifically that code-switching gives impetus to that change (Backus, 2005; Gumperz &

Wilson, 1971, p. 165; Thomason, 2000, p. 311; Thomason & Kauffman, 1988, p. 68; Winford,

2008, p. 135). Other scholars say that code switching is also a psycholinguistic development

result in a bilingual’s conversation (Zainuddin 2016).

There are a handful of reasons that a speaker will code-switch. One reason is that what is

code-switched depends on the topic the speaker is discussing, code-switching may require a

specific language related word or phrase to ensure it makes sense. Another reason that

code-switching could be used in this situation is that there is a deficiency in the speaker's

knowledge in the language being spoken and reverts to second language to not ruin flow. ​The

two main reasons found currently are: that it is done due to a deficiency in the target language

and a multiple communicative purpose (​Zainuddin 2016​). ​In this situation a speaker many not
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know the particular word they are searching for to use, but knows what meaning they are looking

to convey, this is when they would code-switch. When a speaker is quoting someone,

code-switching may be the only way to communicate without changing the meaning or tone.

There are particular phrases or sayings that can’t be translated into the second language without

changing the meaning and this would lose all effectiveness or reason to use the quote. While

expressing gratitude, solidarity, feelings speakers often become emotional and subconsciously

they switch codes to make the environment a little different than usual. In some cases giving

respect in the native language of the person the speaker is trying to relay the respect to will have

a more sincere effect in the communication. Persuading someone for something can cause code

switching, this would be when a speaking is trying to influence the actions of others and believes

an accent or phrase would assist them. When this happens it is similar to adding a sincere please

or relate to them to persuade them to do what the speaker is asking. Also, they sometimes switch

code intentionally to offer they switch codes so that he or she can understand it properly. There

are times when speakers change language to express identification of different groups to fit in or

not seem out of place, this is called group identity. Many people can do this with regions or

dialects along with languages. In the United States this can be seen happening more in regions

and with dialects. Where in areas of the world where countries are more closely grouped

together, this will happen between languages. While asking someone to do something

code-switching works to share the urgency or importance of what they are saying. This works

even if the person they are speaking to doesn’t speak the language the speaker code-switches to.

When they speak the same language the listener will pick up on the work spoken in another

language and immediately know the importance. If the listener doesn’t speak the second
 Code Switching 4

language it will have an immediate impression of importance, but will need to be clarified in

shared language. Lastly the lexical need to use some technical terms or words written in another

language. Trying some words into another language might distort the exact meaning and value of

the word or term. In some cases there is no way to properly translate because the meaning or

saying is not able to be expressed correctly.

Different researchers have explored different perspectives about the phenomena of code

switching. For example, Nunan and Carter (2001) and Myers-Scotton (1993) defined the term

code switching in terms of its typical characteristics. code switching is the alternation of the two

languages (or more) in the same discourse, or the alternation of linguistic varieties within the

same conversations. Gumperz (1982) defined code switching in terms of its grammatical system,

while Adendorff (1996) defined code switching as a communicative resource in the classroom,

enabling teachers and students to accomplish a considerable range of social and educational

objectives. According to Gumperz, the switch can happen within words, phrases, clauses, or

sentences, which is only a switch in the language, not an integration of words, clauses, or

sentences into the another language. That means that code switching that happens within the

same speech belongs to two different grammatical systems or subsystems.

The biggest issue when reviewing case studies on code-switching is that the vast majority

of case studies focused on particular instances of code-switching. Very few were focused on the

overall subject of code switching, but rather on specific use of code-switching in the use of

pronouns, context, situational factors, social factors, age ranges, and many more. The issue with

so many different focuses on the case studies is that there isn’t consistency to draw detail

conclusions because they are small sample sizes and variety of focuses. While the combinations
 Code Switching 5

of languages used in many of the studies were not of issue, since code-switching happens

between any combination of languages, the multitude of age ranges used is an issue. This wide

range made finding studies with similar focuses and similar age groups very challenging and

problematic. Many researchers were focused on code-switching between languages of their

region or where they are teaching, this cause very few studies found to be between speakers of

similar combinations of languages. English was by far the most used in many of the

combinations of languages spoken by the subjects in many of the studies. If there were a good

number of case studies with a similar focus then they could be viewed as a large sample size by

grouping them together. So the task is finding particular parts of each study to use in an overall

review.

The general rules for code-switching is considered universal across all languages, in any

combination of languages that bilingual or multilingual speakers speak. The linguistics of the

languages that code-switching happens in have to be equal or close. The grammar of the

languages have to match for code-switching to occur. The Matrix Language Frame imposes

structural constraints on code switching. All system morphemes, both tense and aspect

inflections, will come from this matrix and any switch will be governed by this matrix. The

Matrix Language Frame model of structural constraints on code-switching was presented by

Carol Myers-Scotton in her 1993 book Duelling Languages. The level of proficiency in each

language of the speaker will play a role in if or how often a speaker will code-switch.

Code-Switching is classified in three categories of types: inter-sentential, intra-sentential, and

tag-switching. Inter-Sentential (Extra-Sentential) is when the language switch is done at sentence

boundaries. This is seen most often between fluent bilingual speakers. An example in
 Code Switching 6

Assyrian-English switching one could say, "Ani wideili. What happened?" ("Those, I did them.

What happened?"). In order for this to occur the sentences must be related to one another.

Intra-Sentential (Code Mixing) is when the shift is done in the middle of a sentence. The speaker

is usually unaware of the shift. Usually a word or phrase is all that is code-switched when done

mid sentence or thought. An example in Spanish-English switching one could say, "La onda is to

fight y jambar." ("The in-thing is to fight and steal.") This is sometimes referred to as

“Code-Mixing”. Tag-Switching is when there is an insertion of a tag from one language into an

utterance that is in another language. An example in Turkish students use some boundary words

like ama (but) or yani (I mean) while speaking English.

Historically, code-switching has been discouraged in educational institutions, perceived

as a sign of language decay, or as having a negative influence on the individuals' proficiency in

one or both languages (Aitchison, 1991). This idea is outdated and currently teachers are also

including intentional code-switching in their teaching repertoire to assist in students learning.

They will switch languages when they are trying to elaborate a thought or idea. When teaching

new concepts, vocabulary words, or just trying to give detailed instructions the use of the native

language of the student can increase comprehension. The students may not be understanding the

lesson or topic clearly enough to complete an assignment, but when the teacher switches to their

native language and back the teaching method allows them to associate the meaning or

instructions spoken in their native language with the words or sentences in the second language.

According to Fakeye (2012), code-switching should be encouraged in educational settings, so

that learners are motivated to learn new things and are able to maintain good rapport with their

teachers. This allows students to use the impromptu translation to build fluent comprehension
 Code Switching 7

quicker than if they had to decipher the meaning in their lesser or newer language. One of the

other benefits is that the teacher will be able to check for understanding of the lesson or

comprehension with the student in their native language, which they should be able to express

with more details and clearly. In the conclusion to a study done by Gulzar it states: So it is

strongly recommended that use of code-switching as a strategy should be introduced for teaching

English in the bilingual classroom discourse but keeping in view the level of the students

(Code-switching: Awareness about Its Utility in Bilingual Classrooms).

Many of the case studies discovered different things about code-switching, which there

are many aspects to study. One ​study found that code-switching was used in both pedagogical,

which is asking questions or giving explanations, and in social functions, such as directing or

injecting humor (Promnath 2016). In this study they were looking at the interaction between

teachers and students to see how code-switching affected the learning process. This study

described how code-switching is useful in the classroom and can be a tool to help students learn

and comprehend lessons easier and quicker. Another was a study done to see the perceptions of

code-switching between monolingual and bilingual. Their hypothesis was that monolinguals

would perceive code-switching as a sign of linguistic incompetence and that bilinguals would

perceive code-switching as indicative of a unique cognitive ability. There was no significant

difference between the two groups perception. The results added a view on how code-switching

is perceived, but doesn’t help to explain the cognitive process or any effects. ​The results of the

present study suggest that, although monolinguals may not perceive bilingual code-switching as

a sign of incompetence, monolinguals may not fully appreciate the cognitive complexity

involved in code-switching (​Parama 2017​). An interesting result happened in this study, they
 Code Switching 8

were ​asking the question whether mixed compounds and French nominal groups in Brussels

Dutch are to be seen as code-switches or as borrowings.​ This was part of their findings: ​For

theories of codeswitching and borrowing these facts are interesting because they show that there

may be some intermediate categories between classical borrowing and classical code-switching

(Treffers-Daller 2005). In some cases the use of language can look similar between two or more

classifications. This was a case where it could be argued for either borrowing or code-switching.

A study done on the development of bilingual proficiency came to the determinations that

one point was taken for granted--codeswitching is, due to the communicative importance, a vital

part of bilingual proficiency. Codeswitching must be included in the analysis and testing of

bilingual proficiency. As shown here, codeswitching develops in a parallel fashion to second

language acquisition (Hansen 2003). Hansen also shows that how code-switching is used by the

speakers in the study is directly related to the speaker's linguistic proficiency. An interesting

hypothesis seems to come up in Hansen’s research, he finds certain indications that show some

use of code-switching is directly connected with teenagers that are multilingual. Which leads

Hansen to state that code-switching may signal a milestone where a teenagers stops being a

teenager and starts on the path to being an adult.

Code-switching is used by bilinguals and multilinguals in multiple methods during

specific situations. Code-Switching was once looked down upon, as if the speaker was of lesser

intelligence or not able to comprehend either language. During the last twenty or so years there

has been a great deal of research done on many aspects of code-switching to determine how the

brain process multiple languages and what causes code-switching to be so prominent with these

speakers. Much of the recent research is starting to figure out the hows and whys, but it is now
 Code Switching 9

understood as a step in learning multiple languages. That code switching is not a bad thing or

done because of lack of knowledge or intelligence, but rather as a process of the brain using two

or more languages. With the understanding we have know educators are already incorporating

the use of code-switching in the classrooms with great success. There is still a need to find best

practices for the use of code-switching in the classroom.There are many studies still planned and

ongoing to break down every aspect of code-switching in a large age range and each piece of

linguistics. Reviewing all these case studies show that as much research that has been done on

code-switching in all the age ranges, different languages, and particular parts of linguistics, that

there is still so much we have to learn about this phenomena known as code-switching.
 Code Switching 10

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