Numerical Model for Creep Behavior

of Axially Loaded CLT Panels

Tu T. Nguyen 1; Thang N. Dao, M.ASCE 2; Sriram Aaleti, A.M.ASCE 3;
Kobir Hossain 4; and Kenneth J. Fridley, F.ASCE 5
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Abstract: The performance of post-tensioned rocking cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels depends on the ability to maintain the post-
tensioned force in the strand. This post-tensioned force may change over time due to the creep behavior of wood, which, in turn, is a function
of time and moisture content in the CLT panels. In this study, a numerical moisture content diffusion model was developed to predict moisture
content migration through CLT panels when the ambient relative humidity changes. Fick’s second law and the moisture content diffusion
coefficients were applied to derive the differential diffusion equation for use in a numerical model. A four-element creep model was included to
estimate the creep deformation of CLT panels over time under an axial load with changing environmental conditions. Data from a series of
moisture content and creep tests under different configurations and environmental conditions were used to calibrate the proposed moisture
content diffusion and creep model for CLT panels. The moisture content diffusion model was calibrated for two relative humidity steps,
50%–70% and 70%–90%. Then, a new creep model at material level that considers the change of moisture content in CLT panels was
introduced. The viscoelastic parameters and mechano-sorptive constants were recommended for the creep model based on creep test data.
Axial strain in CLT panels varied under 2% when ambient relative humidity switched between 50% and 70%. The axial strains in CLT
panels with three layers were more sensitive to variations in surrounding relative humidity than those of CLT panels with five layers.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002219. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Cross-laminated timber (CLT); Moisture diffusion; Creep model; Wood panel; Mass timber.

Introduction Design Specification for Wood Construction (AWC 2015) adopted

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a relatively new structural system
first introduced in Europe in the early 1990s; it is categorized as a
massive timber system in the International Building Code (ICC
2009). This new construction material was developed in Europe
in the early 2000s and has recently spread to North America, Japan,
and New Zealand. It has been utilized in over one hundred con-
struction projects around the world [see CLT Handbook, Chap. 1
(Gagnon and Pirvu 2011)]. CLT allows the construction of midrise
and high-rise wood buildings, which is more difficult with light-
frame construction. Increasing interest in CLT in North America
has led to the publication of CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Tim-
ber (Gagnon and Pirvu 2011), the American National Standard—
Standard for Performance Rated Cross-Laminated Timber
(ANSI/APA PRG 320) developed by the ANSI, APA, and CLT
Standard Committee (2012), and the US edition of the CLT
Handbook (Karacabeyli and Douglas 2013). In 2015, the National
1
Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Civil, Construction, and Environmental
Engineering, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0205.
2 material fails. Creep rate can be influenced by many factors, such
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil, Construction, and Environmental
Engineering, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0205 (correspond-
ing author). Email: tndao@eng.ua.edu; thang19676@yahoo.co
3
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil, Construction, and Environmental
Engineering, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0205.
4
Ph.D. Student, Dept. of Civil, Construction, and Environmental
Engineering, Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0205.
5
Professor and Senior Associate Dean, College of Engineering, Univ. of
Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0205.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on January 3, 2018; approved
on June 5, 2018; published online on October 19, 2018. Discussion per-
iod open until March 19, 2019; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445.
CLT design provisions, the first design specification worldwide to
do so. All these publications summarize the state-of-the-art under-
standing of CLT behavior and identify the need to better understand
the behavior of CLT structures.
Recently, many researchers have tried to apply CLT materials
in tall wood buildings, either using traditional wood connections
(Asiz and Smith 2011; Bolvardi et al. 2016), post-tension rocking
panels (Ho et al. 2016; Akbas et al. 2017), or both. In these ap-
plications, CLT panels often experience large axial loads that may
cause long-term creep deformation that affects building perfor-
mance during extreme events like earthquakes or high wind. Creep
is time-dependent deformation under a certain application of stress
and is often characterized by creep rate or the change of creep
deformation over time. The creep strain curve, as shown in Fig. 1,
is used to express three different stages of creep (Skrzypek and
Hetnarski 1993).
In the primary stage, creep rate often increases rapidly, followed
by a relatively uniform secondary stage. In the tertiary stage, creep
rate accelerates significantly and ends at the point at which the
as applied sustained load, exposure temperature, relative humidity
(RH), and time. These factors change material properties on differ-
ent levels; therefore, the creep of a material might be more suscep-
tible to certain factors than another material. Wood is a hygroscopic
material; thus changes in moisture content (MC) and temperature of
the ambient environment can yield great effects on wood’s modu-
lus of elasticity (MOE) (USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products
Laboratory 2010). The creep behaviors of wood under varied
temperatures and MC are extremely complex and can be split into
two categories: viscoelastic creep and mechano-sorptive creep.
While viscoelastic creep depends on duration of loads, types of
loads, and temperature, mechano-sorptive creep in wood mainly

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Fig. 1. Creep strain curve.
occurs due to changes in environmental conditions (Nordstrom and
Sandberg 1994). The influence of applied load on wood properties
have been studied by numerous investigators. Some researchers have
tried to determine the conditions in which creep in wood can be
considered as a linear viscoelastic material. In one of these studies,
Schaffer (1982) concluded that wood demonstrated nearly linear
behavior at a stress level up to 40% of its short-term strength under
constant environmental conditions. Later, Nakai and Grossman
(1983) compared deflection data collected from tests on a series of
beams subjected to constant and repeatedly changing loads under
constant ambient environmental conditions. This study showed that
nonlinear behavior at high stress occurs when loads exceed about
50% of the short-term ultimate strength.
Besides load influences, the effects of environmental factors on
wood creep have also been investigated by many researchers. For
example, Gerhards (1980) says, “Moisture has the least effect on
parallel-to-grain properties of modulus of elasticity (E) and tensile
strength and the greatest effect on compressive strength parallel-
to-the-grain.” The author also pointed out that the effects of temper-
ature on the properties of wood increased at higher MC. Gerhards’
conclusions have been confirmed by other studies, such as Fridley
et al. (1992b). Fridley et al. (1992b) investigated hygrothermal
effects on the MOE and modulus of rupture by performing bend-
ing tests on the selected structural Douglas-fir 2 × 4 lumber. They
concluded that the sample’s MOE and modulus of rupture were
affected by the ambient temperature and moisture. They also pro-
posed the quadratic functions of relative temperature and relative
MC to account for the effects of changing the surrounding environ-
mental conditions on lumber properties.
In recent decades, there has been growing interest in using
composite wood-based materials for structures. Researchers have
studied the time-dependent deformations for these types of material
under the variant of environmental conditions. Gowda et al. (1996)
reported results of long-term bending creep tests on glulam beams
at low load levels under natural conditions. The creep data collected
from tests on eight separate glulam beams in a heated room envi-
ronment were compared with creep data from glulam beams under
natural conditions. The conclusion was that there was no difference
in the creep of glulam beams between heated and nonheated
environments, and the creep deformation alone after 4 years was
about 60% of elastic deformation. Yazdani et al. (2004) tested
the long-term creep behavior of structural composite lumber
T-section beams under exposed weather conditions with frequent
wetting and drying. They concluded that the creep deformations of
© ASCE 04018224-2
J. Struct. Eng., 2019, 145(1): 04018224
T-section beams made with laminated veneer lumber were margin-
ally smaller in comparison with those of parallel strand lumber
beams. More recently, Pirvu and Karacabeyli (2014) performed
creep tests on nine CLT billets. Their experiments showed
that the material satisfied the three criteria specified in ASTM
D6815-09 (ASTM 2015a), namely (1) decreasing creep rates after
90=120 days of loading, (2) fractional deflections less than 2.0
after 90-day loading, and (3) higher creep recovery than 20% after
30 days of unloading.
The data for creep studies in wood and composite wood-based
materials, including laminated members, were primarily collected
from bending tests. Very few researchers have addressed the creep
of laminated members subjected to compression stress under the
influence of environmental factors. Through creep studies, re-
searchers have also focused on developing models that have the
ability to capture the creep behavior of wood and wood-based ma-
terials. Many creep models have been proposed; for example, the
power law model was studied by various researchers, such as
Clouser (1959), Hoyle et al. (1985), and Gerhards (1985). This
model did not include thermal effects on creep. Later, a three-
element model and the Burger model were used by Senft and
Suddarth (1971) to account for thermal effects on wood creep.
These models produced good results in Senft and Suddarth’s ex-
periments, which were affirmed by Yazdani et al. (2004). Later,
a five-element model was used by Fridley et al. (1992a) to account
for mechano-sorptive effects on wood creep behavior.
Although the creep of wood structures under different environ-
mental conditions and loading patterns has been widely investi-
gated (Gerhards 1980; Schaffer 1982; Nakai and Grossman 1983;
Fridley et al. 1992b; Nordstrom and Sandberg 1994), very little
work has focused on investigating the effects of the surrounding
environmental conditions on the creep of CLT structures. Previous
work has only focused on stressed laminated timber structures in
bridges (Sarisley and Accorsi 1990; Wacker 2009). No work has
been reported on the creep behavior of axially loaded CLT panels.
Because of the effects of the orthogonal arrangement of layers and
structural adhesive, CLT is more susceptible to creep than other
wood-based products (Mohammad et al. 2012). Special attention
is needed on the creep behavior of axially loaded CLT panels in
tall wood buildings. The goal of this study was to develop a numeri-
cal creep model to quantify the creep behavior of axially loaded
CLT panels over time. The effects of changing the surrounding
environmental conditions on the creep behavior of CLT material
were also included. This was enabled by creating a numerical mois-
ture diffusion model to predict the change in MC within CLT panels
over time. Experimental data from a series of creep and MC tests
under different ambient environmental conditions were used to
calibrate the numerical models.
Moisture Content Diffusion Model
Wood structures are susceptible to serviceability issues under vary-
ing surrounding temperatures and RH. These factors are directly
related to changes in MC in structural components, which has a
great effect on the serviceability of this type of structure. MC in
a specimen can migrate from a point of higher MC to a point of
lower MC; this is referred to as the sorption process. The absorption
process applies if a specimen gains moisture from the ambient envi-
ronment. The term desorption is used to describe the process of a
specimen losing its moisture to the surrounding environment. In
general, both the absorption and desorption processes can be con-
sidered parts of the diffusion process. Depending on the ambient
environment and the saturation point, moisture movement can
J. Struct. Eng.
 happen as liquid water or water vapor. This study only focused on Equilibrium Moisture Content Tests
the diffusion of water vapor and its effects on the creep behavior of
When a CLT specimen is exposed to new RH conditions, it takes
CLT panels. A numerical model was developed to predict MC dif-
time for the specimen to adjust to a new equilibrium MC. Three sets
fusion in CLT material when subjected to change in the surround-
of small CLT specimens (No. 2 SPF lumber) (APA 2017) with di-
ing environment.
mensions of 15.2 × 12.7 × 9.53 cm (6 × 5 × 3.75 in:) were put
For a steady state one-dimensional diffusion problem, Fick’s
into an environmental chamber at three different RH conditions
second law (Fick 1855) is applied as
until equilibrium was reached (weight change in 10 days was less


∂Φ ∂ ∂Φ than 0.1%). These specimens were then dried to determine their dry
¼ Ru ð1Þ weight.
∂t ∂u ∂u
The MC of the sample could then be calculated as
where Ru = diffusion coefficient; Φ = moisture concentration
driving potential; t = time; and u = space coordinate. W1 − W0
In mass timber, MC can travel in different directions, and the MC ¼ × 100 percent ð10Þ
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W0
diffusion equation for three-dimensional problems can be written as




∂ ∂Φ ∂ ∂Φ ∂ ∂Φ ∂Φ where MC = specimen moisture content; W 1 = weight of the speci-
Rx þ Ry þ Rz ¼ ð2Þ men measured during the tests; and W 0 is the oven-dry weight of
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
the specimen.
where Rx , Ry , Rz = diffusion coefficients (or MC capacities) in the The purpose of these tests was to estimate the equilibrium MC
x-, y-, z-directions, respectively. of CLT under different RH conditions. The results of these tests are
Using a finite-element method formulation, Eq. (2) can be con- listed in Table 1.
verted into the weak form for finite element approximation as
(Thompson 2005)
Moisture Content Diffusion Tests
½KfΦg þ ½CfΦ̇g ¼ 0 ð3Þ In the numerical model described previously, the diffusion coeffi-
where Φ̇ represents the nodal point values for the derivative of Φ cients Rx , Ry , and Rz of CLT panels need to be experimentally
with respect to time evaluated. A series of tests on MC diffusion were conducted to es-
timate these coefficients. In order to understand the effects of panel
∂Φ size on the diffusion coefficients, the CLT specimens used in the
Φ̇ ¼ ð4Þ
∂t tests were divided into three groups: 60.9 × 60.9 cm (2 × 2 ft)
three-layer panels, 30.4 × 60.9 cm (1 × 2 ft) three-layer panels,
and [K] and [C] are calculated by integrals: and 30.4 × 30.4 cm (1 × 1 ft) five-layer panels. The dimensions
Z · and number of specimens in each group are shown in Table 2.
½K ¼ ½N 0 T ½R½N 0 dV and ð5Þ In buildings, CLT panels mainly absorb/desorb moisture
V
through surfaces exposed to the environment, because panel edges
Z · have a small area and are often coved by adjacent panels or walls.
½C ¼ ½NT bNcdV ð6Þ For this reason, the experiments in this study focused on the
V
estimation of the moisture diffusion coefficient in the direction per-
where [N] is the element shape functions row matrix; [N 0 ] is the pendicular to the panel surface. To achieve this restriction, the panel
derivative of the element shape function matrix versus space coor- edges of each specimen were covered by aluminum tape, and the
dinates (Thompson 2005); [R] is the material properties matrix surfaces were exposed to controlled environmental conditions
(or the matrix of diffusion coefficients); and V = volume. The cen- during the tests, as shown in Fig. 3.
tral difference approximation was used to solve MC at each time The CLT specimens were then placed in environmental cham-
step using Eq. (3). At each time step, the MC was calculated as bers in which the temperature and RH were controlled. The envi-
ronmental chamber at the University of Alabama (UA) was built to
½CPKfΦgtþΔt ¼ ½CMKfΦ̇gt ð7Þ control temperatures ranging from 5°C (41°F) to 60°C (140°F) and
RH ranging from 20% to 98%. In this study, the chamber was set at
where a constant temperature of 22.8°C (73°F) and three levels of RH of
Δt 50%, 70%, and 90%, respectively. At the beginning, the environ-
½CPK ¼ ½C þ ½K and ð8Þ mental chamber was set at a temperature of 22.8°C (73°F) and a RH
2
of 50%. The CLT specimens were placed in the chamber until an
Δt equilibrium of MC was achieved (there was not significant change
½CMK ¼ ½C − ½K ð9Þ of weight in each specimen). The RH of the chamber was then
2
switched to 70%, and the temperature was maintained at 22.8°C
and Δt = time step. (73°F). The change in weight of each specimen was measured
Outcomes of the MC diffusion model for a five-layer spruce- to observe the moisture absorbing process in CLT. After switching
pine-fir (SPF) CLT specimen are shown in Fig. 2. The dimensions the RH, the CLT specimens absorbed moisture at a higher rate in
of the specimen were 17.1 × 60.9 × 60.9 cm (6.75 × 24 × 24 in:) the first two days because of the large difference in MC between
The original MC in the specimen was 10.6% and the MC in the new the surface and the inside of the CLT specimens. Over time, the
environment was 16.1%. absorption process slowed down as the MC inside the specimens
From Fig. 2, one can see that when the MC at the surface of the increased. In order to have a smooth curve of MC change in the
CLT panel changes to the higher value of 16.1%, the MC starts to CLT specimens, the weights of the CLT specimens were measured
travel inside the panel over time, as expected; this leads to higher every 6 h for the first two days; after that, the interval was changed
MC inside the panel. to every 12 h until the specimens were believed to be close to new

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Fig. 2. Moisture content migration in a CLT panel with time: (a) day 1; (b) day 10; (c) day 19; and (d) day 28.

equilibrium conditions. The RH was then switched to a new level
and the same data collection procedure was used for the rest of the
MC tests. The tests were conducted for both increasing RH from
50% to 70% to 90% and for decreasing humidity from 90% back to
70%. During the tests, the weight of each specimen was measured
using a scale that has a resolution of 0.002 kg (0.03% of the small-
est panel mass). This high-resolution scale allowed the accurate
capture of the change in MC of each specimen.
To estimate the MC of each specimen, method A (oven-drying)
of ASTM D4442 (ASTM 2015b) was applied. All CLT specimens
were dried in an oven after the test, and their dry weight was
measured following the specifications of ASTM D4442 (ASTM
2015b). The dimensions and dry weight of each specimen are
shown in Table 3. The MC of the samples could then be calculated
by Eq. (10).
Fitting Moisture Content Diffusion Coefficients
In this study, a FEM subroutine was developed to estimate the MC
diffusion coefficients. By adjusting the diffusion coefficients and
the boundary conditions in the numerical model, the weight of each
CLT specimen was fitted to the experimental data from the tests.
Because of the nature of CLT materials, moisture absorbing and
desorbing rates may vary; this phenomenon was taken into consid-
eration by using two separate coefficients for the two processes.
Fig. 4 shows the fitting data for one of the tested specimens for
both absorbing and desorbing moisture (other specimens can be
seen in the Appendix). In Fig. 4, Rxai is the diffusion coefficient of
the absorbing process, and Rxd is the diffusion coefficient of the
desorbing process. The boundary condition of the MC at the sur-
face for different RHs is represented by MCi.
Since wood is a natural material, the moisture diffusion coeffi-
cients may vary from specimen to specimen. The final coefficient
for a group was estimated by performing a statistical analysis to
obtain the mean and variance value of coefficients in specimens.
Table 4 shows the MC diffusion coefficients for the three specimen
groups for different RH intervals. The MCs at the surfaces of spec-
imens predicted by numerical models at 70% RH and 90% RH
were also included In this table.
Statistical distributions were fitted to each population of three
MC diffusion coefficients; the lognormal distributions were found
to be adequate representations of the distributions of all coeffi-
cients. Fig. 5 illustrates the lognormal distribution plots for the MC
diffusion coefficient in different sample groups at different RH step

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 changes. The means and variances of the MC diffusion coefficients
are shown in Table 5.
Fig. 6 shows the lognormal distribution plots for the MC diffu-
sion coefficient of all specimens in the three groups at different RH
step changes.
The cumulative distribution for all groups for the numerical
equilibrium MC at 70% RH and 90% RH, respectively, were
plotted in Fig. 7.
Table 1. Equilibrium moisture content of CLT at different relative
humidities
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Comments on Experimental and Numerical Results
for Moisture Content Diffusion
The numerical model for MC diffusion proposed in this study as-
sumed that the material was homogeneous, which is not necessarily
true for wood, a natural material. Not only do wood properties
change in different directions (tangential, radial, and grain direc-
tions), but the properties of CLT materials also depend on the type
of glue applied, gaps between lumber in the same layer, and the
quality of the constituent lumber. In order to account for all such
variations, the statistical properties of CLT materials need to be
investigated. Such variations were not included in the numerical
model in this study. Instead, the variations were considered in
the statistics of model parameters.

Weight (g)
RH Number of MC Mean Variance
(%) specimens Equilibrium Oven dry (%) (%) (%)
50 5 829 750 10.6 10.6 0.0064 Table 3. Specimens dry weight
909 821 10.7
911 823 10.6 Group Name Dimensions (cm) Dry weight (kg)
932 842 10.7 Group 1 (3 layers) L-1 9.91 × 60.9 × 60.7 16.1
831 751 10.6 L-2 9.91 × 58.4 × 60.9 14.9
70 5 912 807 13.0 13.1 0.0289 L-3 9.91 × 60.7 × 60.9 16.3
956 846 12.9 L-4 9.91 × 60.9 × 60.7 16.2
948 837 13.1 L-5 9.91 × 60.7 × 60.7 16.3
951 840 13.1 L-6 9.91 × 60.9 × 60.9 15
911 803 13.4 Group 2 (3 layers) L-7 9.91 × 30.2 × 60.9 7.76
90 6 912 756 20.5 20.5 0.103 L-8 9.91 × 30.2 × 60.7 7.53
905 749 20.7 L-9 9.91 × 30.5 × 60.9 7.89
884 733 20.6 L-10 9.91 × 30.2 × 60.9 7.76
937 778 20.3 L-11 9.91 × 30.2 × 60.9 7.8
942 785 19.9 L-12 9.91 × 30.2 × 60.9 7.53
921 763 20.7 Group 3 (5 layers) S-1 16.9 × 30.5 × 30.5 6.62
S-2 16.9 × 30.2 × 29.9 6.62
S-3 16.9 × 30.2 × 29.9 6.94
S-4 16.9 × 30.2 × 30.2 6.8
Table 2. Specimens for moisture content and moisture diffusion tests S-5 16.9 × 29.7 × 30.2 6.76
S-6 16.9 × 30.2 × 29.9 6.58
CLT grade Sample Number
S-7 16.9 × 30.2 × 29.9 6.53
Group (Structurlam 2017) dimensions (cm) of specimens
S-8 16.9 × 30.2 × 30.2 6.94
1 V2M1 3 layers (SLT3) 9.91 × 60.9 × 60.9 6 S-9 16.9 × 29.9 × 29.9 6.76
2 V2M1 3 layers (SLT3) 9.91 × 30.4 × 60.9 6 S-10 16.9 × 29.9 × 29.9 6.44
3 V2M1 5 layers (SLT5) 16.9 × 30.4 × 30.4 11 S-11 16.9 × 30.5 × 30.2 6.94

Fig. 3. Specimens in (a) Group 2; and (b) Group 3 for diffusion coefficient tests.

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 MC migration, different absorption coefficients should be used
for different ranges of MCs.

Creep Model for Axially Loaded CLT Panels

The Burger model has been widely used by many researchers

(Senft and Suddarth 1971; Yazdani et al. 2004) to predict creep
behavior for wood. Although this four-element model has the
ability to capture hygrothermal effects on the creep of timber, it
does not include mechano-sorptive effects. In order to account for
mechano-sorptive effects, Fridley et al. (1992a) proposed a five-
element model that included a mechano-sorptive element (Fig. 8).
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The mathematical form of this model is expressed as

 h K ·t i
Fig. 4. Fit data for diffusion moisture coefficient. σ σ − k σ:t σ
εðtÞ ¼ þ 1 − e μk þ þ 0 jΔωj½1 − e−Bω :tω 
Ke Kk μv μms
ð11Þ

Table 5 shows that the absorption coefficients of the CLT where εðtÞ = total strain at time t; σ = constant applied stress; K e ,
specimens varied between 0.183 and 0:217 cm2 · day−1 0
K k , μk , μv , and μms are model constants; Bω is a constant associated
(0.0284–0.0336 in.2 · day−1 ) for the RH range between 70% with the time required to achieve moisture equilibrium and is de-
and 90%. These values were about 4–5 times greater than the pendent on the size of the sample; jΔwj ¼ ωe − ωi ; the eventual
value reported in a study by Tong (1987) on spruce, which was equilibrium MC in the new environment is ωe ; and ωi is the initial
0.045 cm2 · day−1 (0:007 in.2 · day−1 ) in the transverse direction MC in the original environment. In Fridley et al. (1992a), the two
(a step change in RH from 65% to 80%). Note that CLT panels are hygrothermal variables ω and θ were introduced as
made of several layers of small lumber, and the gaps between two
adjacent pieces of lumber in the same layer are not glued, which M − M0
ω¼ and ð12Þ
allows moisture to migrate easily into deeper layers. Therefore, the M0
larger absorption coefficients of CLT in this study compared to
solid timber in the Tong (1987) study can be considered reason- T − T0
able. Also, from Fig. 6(d), the average absorption coefficient θ¼ ð13Þ
T0
measured with a RH of 70%–90% was about 2–3 times larger than
that measured with a RH of 50%–70%. This means that the ab- where ω is a relative MC; M = actual MC; M o = reference MC; θ is
sorption coefficient was not constant as the MC changed in the a relative temperature; T = actual temperature; and T o = reference
CLT. Therefore, in order to apply Fick’s law in the prediction of temperature. The quadratic functions of ω and θ were assumed for

Table 4. Moisture diffusion coefficients and moisture contents at the boundary of CLT panels for different relative humidity intervals
Rx (cm2 · day−1 ) MC (%)
Dimensions (cm) Specimen 50%–70% RH 70%–90% RH 90%–70% RH 70% RH 90% RH
Group 1 L-1 0.0742 0.171 0.226 14.5 18.5
9.91 × 60.9 × 60.9 L-2 0.0774 0.232 0.284 14.8 18.8
(3 layers) L-3 0.0581 0.158 0.232 14.4 18.4
L-4 0.0581 0.158 0.240 13.8 17.5
L-5 0.0684 0.148 0.208 13.6 17.7
L-6 0.0600 0.229 0.294 14.4 18.0
Group 2 L-7 0.0548 0.197 0.313 13.5 16.9
9.91 × 30.4 × 60.9 L-8 0.0613 0.229 0.288 13.9 17.3
(3 layers) L-9 0.0568 0.203 0.277 13.9 17.5
L-10 0.0613 0.210 0.284 13.6 17.2
L-11 0.0600 0.216 0.255 13.7 17.3
L-12 0.0626 0.242 0.306 13.8 17.5
Group 3 S-1 0.106 0.194 0.245 13.4 17.4
16.9 × 30.4 × 30.4 S-2 0.103 0.187 0.224 13.5 17.4
(5 layers) S-3 0.113 0.206 0.245 13.5 17.5
S-4 0.100 0.223 0.271 13.8 17.6
S-5 0.0968 0.239 0.299 13.7 17.2
S-6 0.110 0.223 0.292 13.6 17.5
S-7 0.116 0.201 0.258 13.3 17.3
S-8 0.119 0.221 0.239 13.6 17.4
S-9 0.116 0.231 0.265 13.5 17.3
S-10 0.132 0.252 0.277 13.7 17.8
S-11 0.106 0.212 0.226 13.3 17.3

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Fig. 5. Cumulative distribution plot of Rx for different groups (1 in: ¼ 2.54 cm): (a) Rxa2 for Specimens L1–L6 at 70%–90% RH;
(b) Rxd for Specimens L1–L6 at 90%–70% RH; (c) Rxa2 for Specimens S11–S23 at 70%–90% RH; and (d) Rxd for Specimens S11–S23 at
90%–70% RH.

Table 5. Moisture content diffusion coefficients and equilibrium moisture content for different relative humidities and specimens
Groups Number of specimens Parameters RH (%) Mean Variance Distribution
2 −1
(1) 3 layers 6 Rx (cm · day ) 50–70 0.066 0.000072 Lognormal
70–90 0.183 0.001348
9.91 × 60.9 × 60.9 90–70 0.248 0.001132
MC (%) 70 14.2 0.202
90 18.1 0.251
(2) 3 layers 6 Rx (cm2 · day−1 ) 50–70 0.059 0.000009
70–90 0.216 0.000277
9.91 × 30.4 × 60.9 90–70 0.287 0.000450
MC (%) 70 13.7 0.0234
90 17.3 0.0428
(3) 5 layers 11 Rx (cm2 · day−1 ) 50–70 0.110 0.000069
70–90 0.217 0.000343
16.9 × 30.4 × 30.4 90–70 0.259 0.000694
MC (%) 70 13.5 0.0311
90 17.4 0.0392
All specimens 23 Rx (cm2 · day−1 ) 50–70 0.086 0.000699
70–90 0.208 0.000886
90–70 0.264 0.000948
MC (%) 70 13.8 0.146
90 17.5 0.193

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Fig. 6. Distribution of Rx for all groups at different relative humidity levels (1 in: ¼ 2.54 cm): (a) Rxa1 for all groups at 50%–70% RH; (b) Rxa2 for all
groups at 70%–90% RH; (c) Rxd for all groups at 90%–70% RH; and (d) Rx for all groups for different RH changes.

Fig. 7. Distribution of equilibrium moisture content for all groups: (a) at 70% RH; and (b) at 90% RH.

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 Viscoelastic Creep Tests for CLT
The creep of CLT material under changing ambient environmental
conditions can be divided into viscoelastic and mechano-sorptive
portions. Because variation in the MC of a specimen has a limited
effect on viscoelastic creep behavior, creep test data under a con-
stant environmental condition can be used to evaluate the viscoelas-
tic creep model constants (K e , K k , and μk ). A series of creep tests
were performed in the environmental chambers at the University of
Alabama with a constant ambient RH of 50% and temperature of
22.8°C (73°F). The influence of CLT thickness on creep behavior
was examined using the three-layer and five-layer CLT test sam-
ples. Aside from the effects of CLT thickness, three stress levels,
0.05, 0.10, and 0.15 fc0 (fc0 ¼ 24.1 MPa is the CLT compressive
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strength) were applied to the specimens to investigate the effects

Fig. 8. Five-element creep model.
predicting hygrothermal effects on wood properties K e , K k , μk ,
and μv .
In the past, most of the creep models were developed to predict
the creep behavior at the structural component level. Fridley’s creep
model (Fridley et al. 1992a) included the size-dependent constant
Bω associated with the time required to achieve moisture equilib-
rium. For this reason, new test data is required to calibrate the
model every time the size of the member changes. Since lumber
is usually manufactured in fixed dimensions, this model worked
well for lumber. In CLT buildings, CLT panels vary in size depend-
ing on the number of stories and the design of each component.
Therefore, a new creep model at the material level is favorable
in predicting the creep behavior of CLT panels, and a modification
of the five-element model was introduced. Also, in contrast to
bending creep behavior, the compression stress in axially loaded
CLT panels is often designed to be in the range of 5%–15% of
the peak failure stress, and tertiary creep behavior can be neglected.
In this modified model, the tertiary creep phase was not included;
thus, the viscous term σ:t=μν for describing secondary effects was
removed. The mathematical form is expressed by the equation
 h
σ σ K ·t i σ
− k
εðtÞ ¼ þ 1 − e μk þ · ΔMC ð14Þ
Ke Kk μω
where μω = mechano-sorptive constant; ΔMC = moisture con-
tent difference from original environment to new environment,
ΔMC ¼ MCa − MCi ; MCi = initial reference moisture content;
and MCa = moisture content of specimen at time t. The advantage
of this modified four-element model was that it could be used to
predict the creep behavior of specimens at different specimen sizes.
of stress levels on the creep behavior of CLT. Table 6 shows
details of the specimens and the actual forces that were applied
on each group.
The compression stresses applied to CLT specimens must
stay steady during creep tests. To maintain constant compression
stresses, the entire testing system was placed on spring supports
as illustrated in Fig. 9(b). This test setup reduced the effect of
relaxation in the post-tension rods due to creep deformation in
the wood and helped the stresses in the wood stay constant.
Two strain gauges were used for each specimen to measure
strain on the front and the back sides of the specimen [Fig. 9(a)].
The tensioned forces were monitored by load cells placed on top of
the specimens. These devices were connected to a data acquisition
system placed outside the environmental chamber. In order to
obtain more strain data in different locations on CLT panels,
demountable mechanical (DEMEC) strain gauges were also used
to manually collect strain data. Detailed locations for the DEMEC
strain gauges are shown in Fig. 9(a). Experimental strain data were
collected and fitted with the numerical model to obtain the creep
model constants. Fig. 10 shows fitted viscoelastic model param-
eters using data from the strain gauges and the DEMEC strain
gauges for one of the specimens.
The results of the creep model constants for the three different
groups and stress levels are listed in the Appendix. Statistical dis-
tributions were fitted to each group for the three model parameters.
The lognormal distributions were found to be an adequate represen-
tation of the distribution for all model parameters. Figs. 11–13
illustrate the lognormal distribution plots for parameters in multiple
sample groups. The mean and deviation of each of the four param-
eters are shown in Table 7.
Comments on Creep Test Results and Fitted Data
The test data reveal that at a stress level of 5% fc0 , three-layer
CLT panels showed clearer creep trends but larger parameter

Table 6. Details of specimens and stress levels

Actual force (kN)
Number of
Group Stress Force (kN) Left Mid Right Dimensions (cm) specimens
(1) 3 layers L 0.05 f c0 72.5 72 9.91 × 60.9 × 244 1
(2) 3 layers 0.10 f c0 145 75.2 80.1 9.91 × 60.9 × 60.9 4
76.5 72.5
(3) 5 layers L 0.05 f c0 126 124 17.1 × 60.9 × 244 1
(4) 5 layers 0.10 f c0 252 128 128 17.1 × 60.9 × 60.9 4
127 127
(5) 5 layers 0.15 f c0 378 121 126 131 17.1 × 60.9 × 60.9 4
113 122 132

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Fig. 9. Creep test setup for a five-layer, 15% fc0 specimen: (a) schematic location; and (b) ready specimen.

Fig. 10. Fitted model constants for a three-layer, 10% f c0 specimen (1 in: ¼ 2.54 cm): (a) data from DEMEC strain gauges; and (b) data from strain
gauges.

variance than five-layer CLT panels over three months. At this
stress level, creep behavior takes a longer time to reach the creep
deformation limit, especially for five-layer CLT panels. For this
reason, fitted parameters do not seem to be reliable for the long-
term prediction of creep deformation, especially in five-layer CLT
panels—at least for the time interval that was examined. To have
better fitted parameters, longer-duration creep tests are recom-
mended for future studies. Some creep tests at this stress level
are ongoing in the UA labs in order to achieve a more robust data
set. Creep deformation at stress levels of 10% and 15% fc0 showed
clearer patterns, as can be seen in Fig. 12 and in the Appendix.
Even though the MOE has consistent mean values between the
three-layer and five-layer CLT panels at different stress levels,
the creep modulus K k and the viscous damping creep parameter
μk have a large variance within each test group and between dif-
ferent CLT thicknesses. This finding illustrates that although
CLT is a good quality-controlled engineering material, prediction
of its creep behavior has high uncertainty. Therefore, reliability
analysis is needed for proposed design equations related to creep
behaviors.

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Fig. 11. Lognormal distribution of elastic constant K e for different groups (1 psi ¼ 6.89 kPa): (a) elastic constant for Group 2; and (b) elastic
constant for Group 4.

Fig. 12. Lognormal distribution of constants for Group 5 (1 psi ¼ 6.89 kPa): (a) elastic constant for K k ; and (b) viscous constant for μk.

Fig. 13. Lognormal distribution for all specimens (1 psi ¼ 6.89 kPa): (a) elastic constant for K k ; and (b) viscous constant for μk.

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 Table 7. Mean and variance values for viscoelastic model parameters
Groups Parameter Mean Variance Samples Distribution
(1) 3 layers 0.05 f c0 L Ke 8.79 (106 ) kPa 34.1 (106 ) kPa 4 Lognormal
Kk 14.5 (106 ) kPa 222 (106 ) kPa
μk 0.62 (1012 ) kPa · min 9.14 (1012 ) kPa · min
(2) 3 layers 0.10 f c0 Ke 7.35 (106 ) kPa 6.27 (106 ) kPa 10
Kk 23.1 (106 ) kPa 73.4 (106 ) kPa
μk 0.74 (1012 ) kPa · min 13.2 (1012 ) kPa · min
(3) 5 layers 0.05 f c0 L Ke 6.35 (106 ) kPa 0.95 (106 ) kPa 6
Kk 9.06 (106 ) kPa 28.3 (106 ) kPa
μk 0.14 (1012 ) kPa · min 2.78 (1012 ) kPa · min
(4) 5 layers 0.10 f c0 Ke 6.77 (106 ) kPa 4.37 (106 ) kPa 17
Kk 12.5 (106 ) kPa 41.2 (106 ) kPa
μk 0.66 (1012 ) kPa · min 13.4 (1012 ) kPa · min
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(5) 5 layers 0.15 f c0 Ke 7.26 (106 ) kPa 0.84 (106 ) kPa 15

Kk 24.2 (106 ) kPa 182 (106 ) kPa
μk 1.36 (1012 ) kPa · min 20.2 (1012 ) kPa · min

Table 8. Modulus of elasticity and mechano-sorptive constant values for CLT

Moisture content MOE
RH (%) Number of specimens Mean (%) Variance (%) Number of specimens Mean (103 ) kPa Variance (103 ) kPa Mean μω (106 ) kPa
50 5 10.67 0.0064 6 5,739 968 0.841
70 5 13.16 0.0289 13 4,711 893 0.875
90 6 20.51 0.1039 11 3,595 1,127

Table 9. Specifications of numerical CLT specimens

Groups Dimensions (cm) K e (106 kPa) K k (106 kPa) μκ (1010 kPa · min) Stress RH (%)
3 layers 9.91 × 60.9 × 60.9 7.09 17.7 96.4 0.1 f c0 50–70
3 layers L 9.91 × 60.9 × 244
5 layers 17.1 × 60.9 × 60.9
5 layers L 17.1 × 60.9 × 244

Mechano-Sorptive Creep E1 :E2 :ðMC2 − MC1 Þ

Variations in ambient RH result in changing MC in specimens.
Using the aforementioned MC diffusion model, the change in
MC of a CLT specimen due to changes in surrounding RH can
be predicted. The relationship between MC variations and creep
behaviors is expressed in Eq. (14). By adjusting the values of
μω , the effects of changing ambient RH on creep behavior can
be included. To experimentally determine the constant μω , an envi-
ronment with a temperature of 22.8°C (73°F) and an ambient RH
of 70% was selected as an original condition. In these environ-
mental conditions, ΔMC ¼ 0 (MC1 − MC1 ) at time t ¼ 0, Eq. (14)
becomes
σ1 σ
ε1 ¼ ¼ 1
E1 K e
When the outside environment changes to the second environ-
mental condition, with moisture content MC2 in the CLT specimen,
at time t ¼ 0, Eq. (14) becomes
σ2 σ σ
ε2 ¼ ¼ 2 þ 2 ðMC2 − MC1 Þ
E2 K e μ ω
From Eqs. (15) and (16), if the stress in the two conditions is
identical (σ2 ¼ σ1 ), the mechano-sorptive constant can be deter-
mined as
μω ¼ ð17Þ
E1 − E2
where E1 = effective MOE of the CLT specimen in the
original environment; and E2 ¼ CLT effective MOE in the new
environment.
Experiments were conducted for three sets of CLT specimens
at 50%, 70%, and 90% RH, respectively, at a constant temperature
of 22.8°C (73°F) to determine the effective MOE. The test data
were then used to calculate the mean of the mechano-sorptive
constant μω using Eq. (17). Detailed information is presented in
Table 8.
A subroutine was developed to numerically predict the change
in axial strain in CLT specimens under the variation of the ambient
ð15Þ
RH. In this model, Eq. (14) and the values of the mechano-sorptive
constants in Table 8 were used. The mean values of the viscoelastic
model parameters were used for different CLT configurations at
both a constant RH of 50% and ambient RH varied between
50% and 70%, as shown in Table 9.
ð16Þ
Examples, Results, and Discussion
To investigate the effects of different surrounding RH on axial
strain in CLT panels, the ambient RH was kept constant at 50%
for the first 60 days, and then RH was suddenly switched between

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Fig. 14. Moisture content and axial strain history in a three-layer specimen (1 in: ¼ 2.54 cm): (a) moisture content profile; and (b) axial strain.

Fig. 15. Axial strain history for different CLT configurations (1 in: ¼ 2.54 cm): (a) moisture content profile; and (b) axial strain.

50% and 70% within a four-day period. During this period the tem-
perature was maintained at 22.8°C (73°F). The axial stress level of
0.10 f c0 was applied for all tested specimens, which means that the
axial forces applied were equal to 145 kN (32.7 kip) and 252 kN
(56.7 kip) on three-layer and five-layer CLT panels, respectively.
Fig. 14 shows the MC profile and changes in the axial strain at
different locations in a CLT specimen.
The effects of panel size on axial strain in CLT panels were also
studied by numerically examining four different CLT panel con-
figurations. The results are presented in Fig. 15.
As can be seen in Fig. 15, under identical ambient RH profiles
[Fig. 15(a)], the axial strain in various types of CLT specimens with
different configurations showed similar strain patterns [Fig. 15(b)].
The variation in axial strain due to changing ambient RH between
50% and 70% was approximately 1.8% (18.3 × 10−6 cm=cm)
(7.2 × 10−6 in:=in:). For CLT specimens with the same size
(60.9 × 60.9 cm) (24 × 24 in:) but different thicknesses (9.9 and
17.1 cm) (3.9 and 6.7 in.), the variance in axial strain was negligible
under a constant surrounding RH of 50%. When the ambient RH
changed from 50% to 70%, the differences in axial strains were sig-
nificant, at around 4% (40.6 × 10−6 cm=cm) (16 × 10−6 in:=in:)
The effect of changing the surrounding RH on axial strain in
three-layer CLT panels was larger than the effect on five-layer
CLT panels [as shown in Fig. 15(b)]. This can be explained by
the fact that the five-layer CLT panels are thicker than the three-layer
ones; thus, the five-layer CLT panels required more time to absorb
moisture from the ambient environment.
Conclusions
In this paper, a numerical model for the prediction of MC migration
in CLT panels was introduced. A series of tests on MC migration in
CLT panels were conducted, and the collected data were used to

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 calibrate the numerical model parameters. The MC diffusion model Appendix. (Continued.)
was used to evaluate the absorption and desorption coefficients Ke Kk μμ
under different RH. A new viscoelastic mechano-sorptive creep Groups Specimen Location (106 kPa) (106 kPa) (1010 kPa · min)
model with four parameters was proposed to predict long-term
(5) 5 layers C5-15-A Front 7.92 14.5 138
creep deformation in CLT panels. 0.15 fc0 2 7.58 34.5 110
From the experimental data and model parameter calibration, 3 8.20 26.2 110
absorption coefficients of 0:086 cm2 · day−1 (0.013 in:2 · day−1 ) 4 6.13 16.5 110
and 0:208 cm2 · day−1 (0.032 in:2 · day−1 ) were recommended C5-15-B Front 7.72 18.6 241
for SPF CLT with step changes in RH from 50% to 70% and 2 5.51 33.8 110
70% to 90%, respectively. For a step change in RH from 90% 4 8.13 68.9 172
to 70%, a desorption diffusivity coefficient of 0:264 cm2 · day−1 C5-15-C Front 6.34 10.3 158
Back 6.75 10.3 124
(0.041 in:2 · day−1 ) was suggested. The influence of CLT thick-
2 7.30 26.9 172
nesses on diffusion coefficients was minimal. The mean values 3 7.03 18.6 103
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of K e ¼ 7.09 × 106 kPa (1.03 × 106 psi), K k ¼ 17.7 × 106 kPa C5-15-D 2 7.58 17.2 110
(2.57×106 psi), and μk ¼ 96.8×1010 kPa · min (14.1×1010 psi · min) 3 8.96 24.8 186
were recommended for three- to five-layer CLT panels subjected 4 6.82 11.7 62.0
to stress levels less than 15% fc0 in 50% RH. The mechano- 5 6.82 31.0 117
sorptive constant values of 0.84 × 106 kPa (0.12 × 106 psi) and
0.88 × 106 kPa (0.12 × 106 psi) were suggested for step changes
in RH from 50% to 70% and from 70% to 90%, respectively.
A variance of less than 2% in axial strain in three- and five-layer
CLT specimens subjected to an RH change from 50% to 70% was Acknowledgments
observed in a numerical example analysis.
This paper is based upon work supported by the National Science
Foundation under Grant No. 1537788. Any opinions, findings, con-
clusions, or recommendations expressed in the paper are those of
Appendix. Viscoelastic Creep Model Constants the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National
Science Foundation. In addition, the labor to produce CLT panels
Ke Kk μμ
used in this study was donated by Structurlam; this donation is
Groups Specimen Location (106 kPa) (106 kPa) (1010 kPa · min)
appreciated.
(1) 3 layers C3L-5 2—front 8.89 9.99 41.3
0.05 f c0 L 2—back 4.96 7.92 62.0
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