CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An oil is any non-polar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at

ambient temperatures and is both hydrophobic (does not mix with water, literally

"water fearing") and lipophilic (mixes with other oils, literally "fat loving"). Oils

have a high carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable and surface

active.

Oils are constructed of building blocks called “triglycerides” (also known

as triacylglycerides) resulting from the combination of one unit of glycerol and

three units of fatty acids. They are insoluble in water but soluble in most organic

solvents. They have lower densities than water, and may have consistencies at

ambient temperature of solid, semi-solid, or clear liquid. When they are

solid-appearing at a normal room temperature, they are referred to as “fats,” and

when they are liquid at that temperature, they are called “oils.” For simplification

purposes, the terms “fat” and “oils” are used interchangeably in the remainder of

this study.

Fats and oils are classified as “lipids” which is a category that embraces a

broad variety of chemical substances. In addition to triglycerides, it also includes

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mono- and diglycerides, phosphatides, cerebrosides, sterols, terpenes, fatty

alcohols, fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins, and other substances. The fats and oils

most frequently used in North America for food preparation and as ingredients

include soybean, canola, palm, cottonseed, olive, coconut, peanut, lard, beef tallow,

butterfat, sunflower, corn, palm kernel, and safflower. ( O'Brien, R.D 2004).

1.1 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FATS AND OIL

The main components of edible fats and oils are triglycerides. The minor

components include mono- and diglycerides, free fatty acids, phosphatides, sterols,

fat-soluble vitamins, tocopherols, pigments, waxes, and fatty alcohols. The free

fatty acid content of crude oil varies widely based on the source. Other than the

free fatty acids, crude vegetable oils contain approximately two percent of these

minor components. Animal fats contain smaller amounts. ( O'Brien, R.D 2004).

1.1.1 THE MAJOR COMPONENT - TRIGLYCERIDES

A triglyceride consists of three fatty acids attached to one glycerol

molecule. If all three fatty acids are identical, it is a simple triglyceride. The more

common forms, however, are the "mixed" triglycerides in which two or three kinds

of fatty acids are present in the molecule. Illustrations of typical simple and mixed

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triglyceride molecular structures are shown below.

Figure 1.0: Diagrams of simple and mixed triglycerides

1.1.2 THE MINOR COMPONENTS

 Mono- and Diglycerides: Mono- and diglycerides are mono- and diesters

of fatty acids and glycerol. They are used frequently in foods as emulsifiers.

They are prepared commercially by the reaction of glycerol and

triglycerides or by the esterification of glycerol and fatty acids. Mono- and

diglycerides are formed in the intestinal tract as a result of the normal

digestion of triglycerides. They occur naturally in very minor amounts in

both animal fats and vegetable oils. Oil composed mainly of diglycerides

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 has also been used as a replacement for oil composed of triglycerides.

Illustrations of mono- and diglyceride molecular structures are provided

below:

Figure 1.1: Diagrams of mono and diglycerides.

 Free Fatty Acids: As the name suggests, free fatty acids are the unattached

fatty acids present in a fat. Some unrefined oils may contain as much as

several percent free fatty acids. The levels of free fatty acids are reduced in

the refining process. Fully refined fats and oils usually have a free fatty acid

content of less than 0.1%.

 Phosphatides: Phosphatides, also known as phospholipids, consist of an

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 alcohol (usually glycerol) combined with fatty acids, and a phosphate ester.

The majority of the phosphatides are removed from oil during the

degumming and refining operations. Phosphatides are an important source

of natural emulsifiers marketed as lecithin. ( O'Brien, R.D 2004).

 Sterols: Sterols are found in both animal fats and vegetable oils, but there

are substantial biological differences. Cholesterol is the primary animal fat

sterol and is found in vegetable oils in only trace amounts. Vegetable oil

sterols and plant sterols are collectively called "phytosterols." Stigmasterol

and sitosterol are the best-known vegetable oil sterols. Sitosterol has been

shown to reduce both serum and LDL cholesterol when incorporated into

margarines, margarine spreads, salad dressings and various other food

products to provide a convenient mode of delivery for consumers who

choose to leverage phytosterols as a component of their personal plan to

manage serum cholesterol levels. The type and amount of vegetable oil

sterols vary with the source of the oil. ( O'Brien, R.D 2004).

 Tocopherols and Tocotrienols: Tocopherols and tocotrienols are

important minor constituents of most vegetable fats. They serve as

antioxidants to retard rancidity and as sources of the essential nutrient

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 vitamin E. The common types of tocopherols and tocotrienols are alpha (α),

beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ). They vary in antioxidation and vitamin E

activity. Among tocopherols, alpha-tocopherol has the highest vitamin E

activity and the lowest antioxidant activity. Delta tocopherol has the highest

antioxidant activity. Tocopherols which occur naturally in most vegetable

oils are partially removed during processing. Corn and soybean oils contain

the highest levels. Tocopherols are not present in appreciable amounts in

animal fats. Tocotrienols are mainly present in palm oil but can also be

found in rice bran and wheat germ oils.

 Pigments: Carotenoids are yellow to deep red color materials that occur

naturally in fats and oils. They consist mainly of carotenes such as lycopene,

and xanthophylls such as lutein. Palm oil contains the highest concentration

of carotene. Chlorophyll is the green coloring matter of plants which plays

an essential role in photosynthesis. Canola oil contains the highest levels of

chlorophyll among common vegetable oils. At times, the naturally

occurring level of chlorophyll in oils may cause the oils to have a green

tinge. Gossypol is a pigment found only in cottonseed oil. The levels of

most of these color bodies are reduced during the normal processing of oils

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 to give them acceptable color, flavor, and stability.

 Fatty Alcohols: Long chain alcohols are of little importance in most edible

fats. A small amount esterified with fatty acids is present in waxes found in

some vegetable oils. Larger quantities are found in some marine oils.

(O’Brien, R.D 2004).

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS

Saturated Fatty Acids: Fatty acids occurring in edible fats and oils are classified

according to their degree of saturation. Their degree of saturation carbon-to-carbon

bonds are termed “saturated” and are the least reactive chemically.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Fatty acids containing one or more carbon-to-carbon

double bonds are termed “unsaturated.” Oleic acid (cis-9-octadecenoic acid) is

the fatty acid that occurs most frequently in nature.

1.3 BONDS IN SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
 Saturated Bond

 Monounsaturated Bond

 Polyunsaturated Bond

When the fatty acid contains one double bond it is called

“monounsaturated.” If it contains more than one double bond, it is called

“polyunsaturated.” In the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

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(IUPAC) system of nomenclature, the carbons in a fatty acid chain are numbered

consecutively from the end of the chain, the carbon of the carboxyl group being

considered as number 1. By convention, a specific bond in a chain is identified by

the lower number of the two carbons that it joins. In oleic acid (cis-9-octadecenoic

acid), for example, the double bond is between the ninth and tenth carbon atoms.

Another system of nomenclature in use for unsaturated fatty acids is the

“omega” or “n minus” classification. This system is often used by biochemists to

designate sites of enzyme reactivity or specificity. The terms “omega” or “n minus”

refer to the position of the double bond of the fatty acid closest to the methyl end

of the molecule. Thus, oleic acid, which has its double bond 9 carbons from the

methyl end, is considered an omega-9 (or an n-9) fatty acid. Similarly, linoleic

acid, common in vegetable oils, is an omega-6 (n-6) fatty acid because its second

double bond is 6 carbons from the methyl end of the molecule (i.e., between

carbons 12 and 13 from the carboxyl end). Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), found in

many fish and algal oils, is an omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid. Alpha-linolenic acid

(ALA), found in certain vegetable oils, is also an omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid. (Hui,

Y.H, 1996).

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 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

The polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic,

eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids containing respectively two, three,

four, five, and six double bonds are of most interest. Vegetable oils are the

principal sources of linoleic and linolenic acids. Arachidonic acid is found in small

amounts in lard, which also contains about 10% of linoleic acid. Fish and

algae-based oils contain large quantities of a variety of longer chain fatty acids

having three or more double bonds including eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and

docosahexaenoic acids (DHA).

1.4 ISOMERISM OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

Isomers are two or more substances composed of the same elements

combined in the same proportions but differing in molecular structure. The two

important types of isomerism among fatty acids are (1) geometric and (2)

positional.

1.4.1 Geometric Isomerism

Unsaturated fatty acids can exist in either the cis or trans form depending

on the configuration of the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms joined by

the double bonds. If the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the carbon chain,

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the arrangement is called cis. If the hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the

carbon chain, the arrangement is called trans.

1.4.2. Positional Isomerism

In this case, the location of the double bond differs among the isomers.

Vaccenic acid, which is a minor acid in tallow and butterfat, is trans

-11-octadecenoic acid and is both a positional and geometric isomer of oleic acid.

The position of the double bonds affects the melting point of the fatty acid to a

limited extent. Shifts in the location of double bonds in the fatty acid chains as

well as cis-trans isomerization may occur during hydrogenation.

The number of positional and geometric isomers increases with the number of

double bonds. For example, with two double bonds, the following four geometric

isomers are possible: cis-cis, cis-trans, trans-cis, and trans-trans. Trans-trans dienes,

however, are present in only trace amounts in partially hydrogenated fats and thus

are insignificant in the human food supply. (Hui, Y.H, 1996)

1.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
FATS.
The physical characteristics of a fat or oil are dependent upon the degree

of unsaturation, the length of the carbon chains, the isomeric forms of the fatty

acids, molecular configuration, and processing variables.

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1.5.1 Degree of Unsaturation of Fats and Oils

Food fats and oils are made up of triglyceride molecules which may contain

both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The fatty acids that combine to make up

triglycerides will vary; therefore, triglycerides can contain all saturated fatty acids,

all unsaturated fatty acids or a mixture of both saturated and unsaturated fatty

acids. Depending on the type of fatty acids combined in the molecule, triglycerides

can be classified as mono- or di-, -saturated (alternatively mono- or di-

unsaturated), tri-saturated and tri-unsaturated as illustrated below.

Figure 1.3: Diagrams of Mono-, Di-, Trisaturated and Triunsaturated

Triglycerides
Fats that are liquid at room temperature tend to be more unsaturated than

those that appear to be solid, but there are exceptions. For example, coconut oil

has a high level of saturates, but many are of low molecular weight, hence this oil

melts at or near room temperature. Thus, the physical state of the fat does not

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necessarily indicate the amount of unsaturation.

The degree of unsaturation of a fat, i.e., the number of double bonds present,

normally is expressed in terms of the iodine value (IV) of the fat. IV is the number

of grams of iodine which will react with the double bonds in 100 grams of fat and

may be calculated from the fatty acid composition. The typical IV for soybean oil

is 123-139, for cottonseed oil 98-110, and for butterfat it is 25-42. (Hui, Y.H,

et.al. 1996)

1.5.2 Length of Carbon Chains in Fatty Acids

The melting properties of triglycerides are related to those of their fatty

acids. As the chain length of a saturated fatty acid increases, the melting point also

increases. Thus, a short chain saturated fatty acid such as butyric acid has a lower

melting point than saturated fatty acids with longer chains. This explains why

coconut oil, which contains almost 90% saturated fatty acids but with a high

proportion of relatively short chain low melting fatty acids, is a clear liquid at

80°F while lard, which contains only about 42% saturates, most with longer chains,

is semi-solid at 80°F. (Hui, Y.H, 1996)

1.5.3 Isomeric Forms of Fatty Acids

For a given fatty acid chain length, saturated fatty acids will have higher

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melting points than those that are unsaturated. The melting points of unsaturated

fatty acids are profoundly affected by the position and conformation of double

bonds. For example, the monounsaturated fatty acid oleic acid and its geometric

isomer elaidic acid have different melting points (Table III). Oleic acid is liquid at

temperatures considerably below room temperature, whereas elaidic acid is solid

even at temperatures above room temperature.

1.5.4 Molecular Configuration of Triglycerides

The molecular configuration of triglycerides can also affect the properties

of fats. Melting points vary in sharpness depending on the number of different

chemical entities present. Simple triglycerides have sharp melting points while

triglyceride mixtures like lard and most vegetable shortenings have broad melting

ranges.

In cocoa butter, palmitic (P), stearic (S), and oleic (O) acids are combined in two

predominant triglyceride forms (POS and SOS), giving cocoa butter its sharp

melting point just slightly below body temperature. This melting pattern partially

accounts for the pleasant eating quality of chocolate. A mixture of several

triglycerides has a lower melting point than would be predicted for the mixture

based on the melting points of the individual components and will have a broader

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melting range than any of its components. Monoglycerides and diglycerides have

higher melting points than triglycerides with a similar fatty acid composition. (Hui,

Y.H, 1996)

1.5.5 Polymorphism of Fats

Solidified fats often exhibit polymorphism, i.e., they can exist in several

different crystalline forms, depending on the manner in which the molecules orient

themselves in the solid state. The crystal form of the fat has a marked effect on the

melting point and the performance of the fat in the various applications in which it

is utilized. The crystal forms of fats can transform from lower melting to

successively higher melting modifications. The order of this transformation is:

1.6 REACTIONS OF FATS AND OILS

1.6.1 Hydrolysis of Fats

Like other esters, glycerides can be hydrolyzed readily. Partial hydrolysis

of triglycerides will yield mono- and diglycerides and free fatty acids. When

hydrolysis is carried to completion with water in the presence of an acid catalyst,

the mono-, di-, and triglycerides will hydrolyze to yield glycerol and free fatty

acids. With aqueous sodium hydroxide, glycerol and the sodium salts of the

component fatty acids (soaps) are obtained. This process is also called

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saponification. In the digestive tracts of humans and animals and in bacteria, fats

are hydrolyzed by enzymes (lipases). Lipolytic enzymes are present in some edible

oil sources (i.e., palm fruit, coconut). Any residues of these lipolytic enzymes

(present in some crude fats and oils) are deactivated by the elevated temperatures

normally used in oil processing.

1.6.2 Oxidation of Fats

 Autoxidation: Of particular interest in the food arena is the process of

oxidation induced by air at room temperature referred to as “autoxidation”.

Ordinarily, this is a slow process which occurs only to a limited degree.

However, factors such as the presence of light can increase the rate of

oxidation. In autoxidation, oxygen reacts with unsaturated fatty acids at the

double bond site. Initially, peroxides are formed which may break down into

secondary oxidation products (hydrocarbons, ketones, aldehydes, and smaller

amounts of epoxides and alcohols). Metals, such as copper or iron, present at

low levels in fats and oils can also promote autoxidation. Fats and oils are

normally treated with chelating agents such as citric acid to complex these

trace metals (thus inactivating their prooxidant effect). (Hui, Y.H, et al. 1996)

The result of the autoxidation of fats and oils is the development of

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 objectionable flavors and odors characteristic of the condition known as “oxidative

rancidity”. Some fats resist this change to a remarkable extent while others are

more susceptible depending on certain factors, such as the degree of unsaturation.

When rancidity has progressed significantly, it becomes readily apparent from the

flavor and odor of the oil. Expert tasters are able to detect the development of

rancidity in its early stages. The peroxide value determination, if used judiciously,

is oftentimes helpful in measuring the degree to which oxidative rancidity in the

fat has progressed.

It is common practice in the industry to protect fats and oils from

oxidation to preserve their acceptable flavor and to maximize shelf life. For

instance, manufacturers avoid air contact by routinely blanketing oils with

nitrogen during processing, storage and transportation; and may use chelating

agents or antioxidants to further deter autoxidation.

 Oxidation at Higher Temperatures: Although the rate of oxidation is greatly

accelerated at higher temperatures, oxidative reactions which occur at higher

temperatures may not follow precisely the same routes and mechanisms as the

reactions at room temperature. Thus, differences in the stability of fats and oils

often become more apparent when the fats are used for frying or slow baking. The

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stability of a fat or oil may be predicted to some degree by determining the

oxidative stability index (OSI).

The more unsaturated the fat or oil, the greater will be its susceptibility to

oxidative rancidity. Predominantly unsaturated oils (i.e., soybean, cottonseed, or

corn) are less stable than predominantly saturated oils (i.e., coconut oil, palm oil).

Dimethylsilicone is usually added to institutional frying fats and oils to reduce

oxidation tendency and foaming at elevated temperatures. Historically, partial

hydrogenation has often been employed in the processing of liquid vegetable oil to

increase the stability and functionality of the oil.

1.6.3 Polymerization of Fats

All commonly used fats and particularly those high in polyunsaturated

fatty acids tend to form larger molecules (known broadly as polymers) when

heated under extreme conditions of temperature and time. Under normal

processing and cooking conditions, polymers are formed. Although the

polymerization process is not completely understood, it is believed that polymers

in fats and oils arise by formation of either carbon-to-carbon bonds or oxygen

bridges between molecules. When an appreciable amount of polymer is present,

there is a marked increase in viscosity.

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1.7 REACTIONS DURING HEATING AND COOKING

Glycerides are subject to chemical reactions (oxidation, hydrolysis, and

polymerization) which can occur particularly during deep fat frying. The extent of

these reactions, which may be reflected by a decrease in iodine value of the fat and

an increase in free fatty acids, depends on the frying conditions (principally the

temperature, aeration, moisture, and duration). The composition of a frying

medium also may be affected by the kind of food being fried. For example, when

frying foods such as chicken, some fat from the food will be rendered and blended

with the frying medium while some of the frying medium will be absorbed by the

food. In this manner the fatty acid composition of the frying medium will change

as frying progresses. Since absorption of frying medium into the food may be

extensive, it is often necessary to replenish the fryer with fresh frying medium.

Obviously, this replacement with fresh medium tends to dilute overall

compositional changes of the fat that would have taken place during prolonged

frying.

Frying conditions do not saturate the unsaturated fatty acids, although the

ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids will change due to degradation and

polymerization of the unsaturated fatty acids. The frying operation also results in

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an increase in the level of “polar compounds” (mono- and diglycerides, free fatty

acids, and other polar transformation products) formed during frying/heating of

foodstuffs in the oil.

It is the usual practice to discard the frying medium when (1) prolonged

frying causes excessive foaming of the hot oil, (2) the medium tends to smoke

excessively, usually from prolonged frying with low turnover, or (3) an

undesirable flavor or dark color develops. Any or all of these qualities associated

with the frying medium can decrease the quality of the fried food.

The smoke, flash, and fire points of a fatty material are standard measures

of its thermal stability when heated in contact with air. The “smoke point” is the

temperature at which smoke is first detected in a laboratory apparatus protected

from drafts and provided with special illumination. The temperature at which the

fat smokes freely is usually somewhat higher. The “flash point” is the temperature

at which the volatile products are evolved at such a rate that they are capable of

being ignited but not capable of supporting combustion. The “fire point” is the

temperature at which the volatile products will support continued combustion. For

typical non-lauric oils with a free fatty acid content of about 0.05%, the “smoke”,

“flash”, and “fire” points are around 420°F, 620°F, and 670°F respectively.

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 The continuous generation of smoke from a frying pan or deep fryer is a

good indication that the fat is being overheated and could ignite if high heating

continues. If smoke is observed during a frying operation, the heat should be

reduced. If, however, the contents of the frying pan ignite, extinguish the fire by

covering the pan immediately with a lid or by spraying it only with an appropriate

fire extinguisher. Do not attempt to remove a burning pan of oil from the stove.

Allow the covered frying container to cool. Under no circumstances should

burning fat be dumped into a kitchen sink or sprayed with water. (Shahidi F,

Wanasundara, 2002.)

1.8 PROCESSING OF OIL

1.8.1 General

Food fats and oils are derived from plant seeds, fruits and nuts (generally

referred to as oilseeds) and animal sources. Animal fats are generally heat

rendered from animal tissues to separate them from protein and other naturally

occurring materials. Rendering may be accomplished with either dry heat or steam.

Rendering and processing of meat fats is conducted in USDA inspected plants.

Vegetable oils are obtained by the extraction or the expression of the oil from the

oilseed source. Historically, cold or hot expression methods were used. These

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methods have largely been replaced with solvent extraction or pre-press/solvent

extraction method which gives a better oil yield. In this process the oil is extracted

from the oilseed by hexane (a light petroleum fraction) and the hexane is then

separated from the oil, recovered, and reused. Because of its high volatility,

hexane does not remain in the finished oil after processing.

The fats and oils obtained directly from rendering or from the extraction of

the oilseeds are termed “crude” fats and oils. Crude fats and oils contain varying

but relatively small amounts of naturally occurring non-glyceride materials that

are removed through a series of processing steps. For example, crude soybean oil

may contain small amounts of protein, free fatty acids, and phosphatides which

must be removed through subsequent processing to produce the desired shortening

and oil products. Similarly, meat fats may contain some free fatty acids, water, and

protein which must be removed. It should be pointed out, however, that not all of

the non-glyceride materials are undesirable elements. Tocopherols, for example,

perform the important function of protecting the oils from oxidation and provide

vitamin E. Processing is carried out in such a way as to control retention of these

substances. (Hui, Y.H et al, 1996)

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1.8.2 Degumming

Crude oils having relatively high levels of phosphatides (e.g., soybean oil)

may be degummed prior to refining to remove the majority of those phospholipid

compounds. The process generally involves treating the crude oil with a limited

amount of water to hydrate the phosphatides and make them separable by

centrifugation. Soybean oil is the most common oil to be degummed; the

phospholipids are often recovered and further processed to yield a variety of

lecithin products.

A relatively new process in the United States is enzymatic degumming. An

enzyme, phospholipase, converts phospholipids, present in crude oil, into

lysophospholipids that can be removed by centrifugation. Crude oil, pre-treated

with a combination of sodium hydroxide and citric acid, is mixed with water and

enzymes (phospholipase) by a high shear mixer, creating a very stable emulsion.

The emulsion allows the enzyme to react with the phospholipids, transforming

them into water-soluble lysophospholipids. This emulsion is broken by

centrifugation, separating the gums and phospholipids from the oil. This process

generates a better oil yield than traditional degumming/refining. Enzymatic

degumming is currently not widely commercialized.

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1.8.3 Refining/Neutralization

There are two general types of refining alkali refining and physical

refining. Alkali refining (i.e. treatment of the fat or oil with an alkali solution) is

the most widespread method and is performed to reduce the free fatty acid content

and to remove other impurities such as phosphatides, proteinaceous, and

mucilaginous substances. This process results in a large reduction of free fatty

acids through their conversion into high specific gravity soaps. Most phosphatides

and mucilaginous substances are soluble in the oil only in an anhydrous form and

upon hydration with the caustic or other refining solution are readily separated.

After alkali refining, the fat or oil is water-washed to remove residual soap.

Oils low in phosphatide content (palm and coconut) may be physically refined (i.e.

steam stripped) to remove free fatty acids. In physical refining, free fatty acids in

crude or degummed oil are removed by evaporation rather than being neutralized

and removed as soap in an alkaline refining process. (Hui, Y.H, 1996).

1.8.4 Bleaching

The term “bleaching” refers to the process for removing color producing

substances and for further purifying the fat or oil. Normally, bleaching is

accomplished after the oil has been refined.

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The usual method of bleaching is by adsorption of the color producing substances

on an adsorbent material. Acid-activated bleaching earth or clay, sometimes called

bentonite, is the adsorbent material that has been used most extensively. This

substance consists primarily of hydrated aluminum silicate. Anhydrous silica gel

and activated carbon also are used as bleaching adsorbents to a limited extent.

(Shahidi F, 2002).

1.8.5 Deodorization

Deodorization is a vacuum steam distillation process for the purpose of

removing trace constituents that give rise to undesirable flavors, colors and odors

in fats and oils. Normally this process is accomplished after refining and

bleaching.

The deodorization of fats and oils is simply a removal of the relatively volatile

components from the fat or oil using steam. This is feasible because of the great

differences in volatility between the substances that give flavors, colors and odors

to fats and oils and the triglycerides. Deodorization is carried out under vacuum to

facilitate the removal of the volatile substances, to avoid undue hydrolysis of the

fat, and to make the most efficient use of the steam. In the case of vegetable oils,

sufficient tocopherols remain in the finished oils after deodorization to provide

24
stability. Deodorization does not have any significant effect upon the fatty acid

composition of most fats or oils. Depending upon the degree of unsaturation of the

oil being deodorized, small amounts of trans fatty acids may be formed by

isomerization. (Hui, Y.H, 1996)

1.8.6 Fractionation (Including Winterization)

Fractionation is the process of separating the triglycerides in fats and oils

by difference in melt points, solubility or volatility. It is most commonly used to

separate fats that are solid at room temperature but is also used to separate

triglycerides found in liquid oils.

Fats that are solid at room temperature usually contain a mixture of many

individual triglycerides, all of which have different melting points. These

components can be separated from one another by the fractionation process. The

result of fractionation is the production of two components, called fractions that

typically differ significantly from each other in their physical properties. The

fractions can be fractionated again (“double” fractionation) to produce additional

fractions, which will have unique physical properties. The process was originally

developed to fractionate animal fats such as beef tallow.

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 There are two types of fractionation techniques: dry and wet. Dry

fractionation refers to a process that does not use a solvent to assist in the

separation of the fat components. The fat is first melted, and then cooled slowly to

generate large, high melting point fat crystals. The slurry of crystals suspended in

liquid oil is transferred to a high-pressure filter press where the liquid (olein)

fraction is squeezed out and the hard (stearin) fat is retained on the filter. This

process is widely applied to palm oil and palm kernel oil to generate several

unique products from a single natural source, without the need for chemical

processing. Fractions produced in this way can be blended together or mixed with

liquid vegetable oils to make a wide variety of functional products for many food

applications. (Shahidi F, 2002)

1.8.7 Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation is the process by which hydrogen is added to points of

unsaturation in the fatty acids. Hydrogenation was developed as a result of the

need to:

(1). Convert liquid oils to the semi-solid form for greater utility in certain food

uses and

(2) Increase the oxidative and thermal stability of the fat or oil.

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 In the process of hydrogenation, hydrogen gas reacts with oil at elevated

temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. The catalyst most widely

used is nickel which is removed from the fat after the hydrogenation processing is

completed. The hydrogenation process is easily controlled and can be stopped at

any desired point. As hydrogenation progresses, there is generally a gradual

increase in the melting point of the fat or oil. If the hydrogenation of cottonseed or

soybean oil, for example, is stopped after only a small amount of hydrogenation

has taken place, the oils remain liquid. These partially hydrogenated oils can be

used to produce institutional cooking oils, liquid shortenings and liquid margarines.

Further hydrogenation can produce soft but solid appearing fats which still contain

appreciable amounts of unsaturated fatty acids and are used in solid shortenings

and margarines. When oils are more fully hydrogenated, many of the carbon to

carbon double bonds are converted to single bonds increasing the level of

saturation. If oil is hydrogenated completely, the carbon to carbon double bonds

are practically eliminated.

The hydrogenation conditions can be varied by the manufacturer to meet

certain physical and chemical characteristics desired in the finished product. This

is achieved through selection of the proper temperature, pressure, time, catalyst,

27
and starting oils. Both positional and geometric (trans) isomers are formed to some

extent during hydrogenation, the amounts depending on the conditions employed.

(Shahidi F, 2002).

1.8.8 Emulsification

Many foods are processed and/or consumed as emulsions, which are

dispersions of immiscible liquids such as water and oil, e.g., milk, mayonnaise, ice

cream, icings, and sauces. Emulsifiers, either present naturally in one or more of

the ingredients or added separately, provide emulsion stability. If emulsions lack

stability, separation of the oil and water phases can occur. Some emulsifiers also

provide valuable functional attributes in addition to emulsification, including

aeration, starch and protein complexing, hydration, crystal modification,

solubilization, and dispersion. (Hui, Y.H et al, 1996).

1.9 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

 AIM
To ascertain the Cholesterol content, Iodine value and Peroxide value of some of

the chosen edible oils that are been sold in the various market in our Community.

 OBJECTIVES

 To determine the Iodine value of the selected vegetable oils

 To determine the Peroxide value of the selected vegetable oils

28
  To determine the Cholesterol content of the selected vegetables oils.

1.10 JUSTIFICATION

Knowing how hazardous bad oil affect our health it is therefore important as

a health personnel to ascertain the safety and health benefits of some of the most

widely edible oils in Nigeria. An increase in the amount of FFA indicates the

hydrolysis of triglycerides which occurs by the actions of enzyme lipase and it is an

indicator of inadequate processing and storage condition (e.g. high temperature and

relative humidity, tissue damage). It is also apparent that the source of the enzyme

can be from which the oil is extracted from or an external contaminant from other

cells and microorganisms.

High amount of unsaturated fatty acids in an oil makes it susceptible to

rancidity caused by oxidation during storage. (Ijeoma et al., 2014).

29
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Vegetable oils are obtained from oil containing seeds, fruits, or nuts by

different pressing methods, solvent extraction or a combination of these (Bennion,

1995).

Crude oils obtained are subjected to a number of refining processes, both

physical and chemical. These are detailed in various texts and articles (Bennion,

1995), (Fennema, 1985). There are numerous vegetable oils derived from various

sources. These include the popular vegetable oils: the foremost oilseed oils -

soybean, cottonseed, peanuts and sunflower oils; and others such as palm oil, palm

kernel oil, coconut oil, castor oil, rape seed oil and others. They also include the

less commonly known oils such as rice bran oil, tiger nut oil, patua oil, niger seed

oil, piririma oil and numerous others. Their yields, different compositions and by

extension their physical and chemical properties determine their usefulness in

various applications aside edible uses. Cottonseed oil was developed over a

century ago as a byproduct of the cotton industry (Bennion, 1995). Its processing

includes the use of hydraulic pressing, screw pressing and solvent extraction (Wolf,

1978). It is classified as a polyunsaturated oil, with palmitic acid consisting 20 –

30
25%, stearic acid 2 – 7%, oleic acid 18 – 30%, and linoleic acid 40 – 55%

(Fennema, 1985). Its primary uses are food related – as salad oil, for frying, for

margarine manufacture, and for manufacturing shortenings used in cakes and

biscuits.

Palm oil, olive oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, and sunflower oil amongst

others are classed as Oleic – Linoleic acid oils seeing that they contain a relatively

high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, such as the monounsaturated oleic acid

and the polyunsaturated linoleic acid (Dunn, 2005; Gertz, et al., 2000). They are

characterized by a high ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids.

As a consequence of this, they have relatively low melting points and are liquid at

room temperature. Iodine values, saponification values, specific compositions and

melting points in addition to other physical properties have been determined and

are widely available in the literature (Oyedeji, et al., 2006).

In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to oils consumed by

humans. The most popular vegetable oils contain large quantities of unsaturated

fatty acids, most of all those that are necessary for a human organism. However,

because of the high amount of unsaturated compounds, these oils are susceptible

to lipid changes and those of other components, such as sterols, tocopherols, etc.,

31
occurring during the process of raw-material collection, oil production, or during

transport and storage. As a result of the above-mentioned processes, many

unnecessary changes occur in food products that deteriorate their sensory

properties (colour, taste, odour), and first of all diminish their nutritional properties

because they contribute to the loss of the activity of biological precursors,

vitamins A and E, as well as increased health risk posed by the emerging free

radicals, which display carcinogenic properties variation; that is their high

viscosity indices, which are about twice those of mineral oils (Honary, 2004).

Additionally, they have low volatilities as manifested by their high flash points

(Honary, 2004). Significantly, they are environmentally friendly: renewable,

non-toxic and biodegradable (Howell, 2007). In summary, engine lubricants

formulated from vegetable oils have the following advantages deriving from their

base stock chemistry. In a comparison of palm oil and mineral based lubricants,

palm oil-based lubricants were found to be more effective in reducing the

hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emission levels, among other things (Masjuki

et al., 1999).

Vegetable oils have also been identified as having a lot of potent et al.,

2006). This is supported by an interest in a cleaner environment, as well as the

32
increasing cost of mineral deposit-based energy (Howell, 2007). Based on the

potential availability to meet demand, soybean, peanut and sunflower oils have

been identified as the most promising fuel sources (Kayisoglu et al., 2006). It

consists primarily of long chain fatty acid esters, produced by the trans

esterification reaction of vegetable oils with short chain alcohols.

Vegetable oils have also been applied as transformer coolant oils and have

been found to conform to all industry standards with performances and cost

profiles comparable to the conventional mineral oils applied in transformer

cooling (ABB Inc., 2002). Transformer oil products have been produced from

soybean oils as well as castor oils (Honary, 2004).

Rancidity resulting from the oxidation of lipids is a primary concern

during storage of fats and fat-containing foods. Objective instrumental techniques

to measure rancidity would be useful when sensory evaluation panels are not

available; some instrumental methods have been published for determining fat

deterioration and quality. Nawar and Fagerson (1962), Scholz and Ptak (1966),

Hartman et ai. (1970), Jarvi et ai. (1971), Dupuy et ai. (1972) and Fioriti et ai.

(1973) developed gas chromatographic (GC) techniques to evaluate the quality of

ground beef, cheese and edible oils.

33
 Measuring decomposition products could indicate the degree of rancidity

of a food.

Findings by Horvat et ai. (1964) with methyl linoleate and by Selke et ai.

(1970) with soybean oil show that saturated hydrocarbons arise early during

autoxidation when aldehydes are either absent or not detectable. Evans et ai. (1967)

reported that pentane is the predominant short-chain hydrocarbon to arise through

thermal decomposition.

Correlations of flavor scores and pentane formation have been used to determine

rancidity of oils after directly injecting the oils on a GC column (Evans et aI.,

1969; Jarvi et aI., 1971). But deterioration studies of solid foods require analysis

of headspace gases. We have found significant correlations between the amount of

pentane detected in headspace by GC and the rancidity described by a trained

panel for both aged vegetable oils and potato chips.

Rancidity can occur in many products or ingredients during storage. It

affects taste and odor and can have an impact on nutritive value. Two major

rancidification pathways are recognized in extruded products. Enzymatic rancidity

is catalyzed by the presence of certain enzymes (examples are peroxidases and

lipases). The heat treatment experienced during extrusion is usually sufficient to

34
destroy these enzymes.

However, if ingredients containing these enzymes are stored in their raw

or untreated state, they will become rancid before extrusion and will contain

rancidity by-products that will impact flavor and odor. For many ingredients

(especially whole seeds), it is important to heat treat the ingredient as quickly as

possible after the seed coat is broken as this action triggers the enzymes

responsible for rancidity. Extrusion is very effective in controlling enzymatic

rancidity if the raw materials are processed immediately after milling

2.1 RANCIDITY OF OIL

Rancidity is a term generally used to denote unpleasant odours and

flavours in foods resulting from deterioration in the fat or oil portion of a food.

Three different mechanisms of rancidity may occur. These are oxidative,

hydrolytic, and ketonic.

2.1.1 Oxidative Rancidity

Oxidative rancidity arises from the decomposition of peroxides. Peroxides

are the result of the oxidation of unsaturated fats. The products resulting from the

decomposition of peroxides include aldehydes, ketones, and hydrocarbons. These

help to produce the flavors and odours associated with oxidative rancidity. The

35
abnormal characteristics of a product that has undergone oxidative rancidity are

paint like or acrid (burning) odour and an abnormal (rancid) taste. The colour of a

food item is not normally changed due to this deteriorative process. The texture of

a food product is not affected by the deteriorative condition.

2.1.2 Health Effects of Rancidity of Oil

Rancid oil forms harmful free radicals in the body, which are known to

cause cellular damage and have been associated with diabetes, Alzheimer's disease

and other conditions. Rancid oils can also cause digestive distress and deplete the

body of vitamins B and E. Rancid oil does contain free radicals that might increase

the risk of developing diseases such as cancer or heart disease down the road.

Rancid oils may produce damaging chemicals and substances that may not make

an individual ill immediately but can cause harm over time. Chemicals such as

peroxides and aldehydes can damage cells and contribute to atherosclerosis. Free

radicals produced by rancid oil can also damage deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in

cells. Produced by toxins as well as by normal bodily processes, free radicals can

cause damage to arteries as well act as carcinogens, substances that can cause

cancer. If oxidative rancidity is present in severe quantities, a potential health

hazard may exist. High levels of malonaldehyde are found in rancid foods.

36
Malonaldehyde is a decomposition product of polyunsaturated fatty acids. This

chemical has been reported to be carcinogenic and a potential health hazard does

exist. Eating rancid oil will expose you to accelerated aging, raised cholesterol

levels, obesity and weight gain. Daily consumption increases the risk of

degenerating diseases such as cancer; diabetes; Alzheimer's disease; and

atherosclerosis, a condition in which artery walls thicken due to a buildup of fatty

materials. According to a study from the University of Basque Country, the

breakdown rate and total formation of toxic compounds depends on the type of oil

and temperature.

37
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. MATERIALS

3.1.1 Chemicals and Reagents

Distilled Water, Chloroform, Wij’s Solution, Potassium Iodide, Sodium

Thiosulphate, Starch Indicator, Glacial Acetic Acid, Ferric Chloride, Sulphuric

Acid and Standard Cholesterol.

3.1.2. Equipment’s Used

Weighing Balance, Water Bath, Paper Tape, Foil Paper, Cotton Wool, Test

Tubes, Boiling Tubes, Test Tube Rack, Test Tube Holder, Beakers (100 ml, 250

ml), Measuring Cylinder, Conical Flask, Bottle, Stirrer, Thermometer,

Spectrophotometer.

3.1.3. Sample Collection

The vegetable oil samples used which include Kings oil, Power oil, were

purchased at Modu store in Sagamu, while popular roadside groundnut oil

(Kulikuli) was obtained at sabo market, Sagamu.

38
3.2. METHODOLOGY

3.2.1. Determination of Peroxide Value

This was done according to the method of (H.A. Ogbunugafor et al., 2011).

0.5g of oil sample was added into a boiling tube containing 1 g powdered

potassium iodide. glacial acetic acid / chloroform mixture (20ml, 2:1) was added,

the boiling tube was placed in boiling water for 1min after which its content was

poured into conical flask containing potassium iodide solution (20ml, 5%). The

boiling tube was rinsed twice with distilled water (25m) and content added into the

conical flask. The whole content was titrated with sodium thiosulphate (0.002 m)

solution to colourless end point using starch as indicator. Result are expressed as

Mmol/kg. perioxide value of the oil sample was calculated as follows

POV = (Vs – Vb) × Molarity of titrant × 103 gkg-1
W
W = Weight of sample in grams

VB = Titre for blank

VS = Titre for sample

3.2.1.1 Preparation of Solutions

(a) 0.002 M Sodium thiosulphate: was prepared by dissolving 0.5g of Sodium

thiosulphate in distilled water and made up to 1Litre.

39
(b) Glacial acetic acid and chloroform: This mixture was prepared in a ratio of

2:1 e.g. 30ml to 15ml, 20ml to 10ml, 10ml to 5ml etc.

(c) Starch Indicator: 1g of starch powder was added to 10ml of distilled water,

the content was then shaken and poured into 100ml of boiling distilled water. The

content was then stirred thoroughly and boiled for another 1min after which it was

allowed to cool.

3.2.3 Determination of Iodine Value

This was done by according to the method of (H.A. Ogbunugafor et al.,

2011). 2% of the oil sample was prepared in chloroform, titrated with wij’s

solution (5ml) mixed thoroughly and allowed to stand in the dark for 5min.

potassium iodide solution (5ml, 7.5 %) was added and titrated to a light straw

colour using 0.1N sodium thiosulphate solution, starch indicator (3 drops) was

added and titrated continued to a colourless (white or milky) end point. Result are

expressed as I = 100g-1. Iodine value of the oil sample was cal calculated as

follows
Iodine Value = (Vb – Vs) × 1.296
W
Where, Vb = Titre for blank; Vs = Titre for sample; W = Weight of sample in

grams.

40
3.2.3.1 Preparation of Solutions

Potassium Iodide (5ml; 7.5%): 7.5g of potassium is weighed and poured

into a beaker. Water was then added to reach 100ml marker of the beaker. Then,

5ml was then taken.

 0.1N Sodium Thiosulphate (Na2S2O3.5H2O): 12.41g of Sodium thiosulphate

was dissolved into a volumetric flask and distilled water was added to 1000cm3

mark of volumetric flask already containing Sodium thiosulphate.

3.2.4. Determination of Cholesterol Content: This was done by of (Ojiako

and Akubugwo et al., 1997).

0.1ml of oil sample each and standard cholesterol dissolved in chloroform

in ratio (1:10) was evapourated to dryness in a water bath at 50º C glacial acetic

acid (3.0 ml) and 3.0ml of colour reagent (a solution of ferric chloride / glacial

acetic acid / sulphuric acid) was added to each sample and the standard, then

shaken vigorously to dissolve the oil. Blank contained 2.0ml of chloroform, 3.0ml

glacial acetic acid and 3.0ml of colour reagent after cooling for 30min at room

temperature, absorbance of standard and sample were read at 560nm, cholesterol

content was estimated with the formula.

Cholesterol mg100ml =AB / AS × CS

41
AB = Absorbance of oil sample

AS = Absorbance of standard cholesterol

CS = Concentration of standard cholesterol

3.2.5. Preparation of Colour Reagent

Colour reagent consist of four chemical components; Ferric chloride,

Glacial acetic acid and Sulphuric acid. To prepare this reagent, equal ml of the

three components were taken.

42
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.0 RESULTS

The values for various methods used for Iodine value, peroxide value and

cholesterol determination were monitored and kept precise. The results obtained

and calculations from titration and spectrophotometric method for each sample are

tabled below:

4.1 RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS FOR DETERMINATION OF

IODINE VALUE

Blank

Burette reading First titre Second titre

Final reading(cm3) 39.20 39.30

Initial reading(cm3) 0.00 0.00

Volume of acid used 39.20 39.30

Average titre value (Vb)= 39.20+39.30/2

= 39.25cm3

Kings oil

43
Burette reading First titre Second titre

Final reading(cm3) 4.50 9.00

Initial reading(cm3) 0.00 4.50

Volume of acid used 4.50 4.50

Average titre value (Vs) = 4.50+4.50/2

= 4.50cm3

Vs= 4.50, Vb = 39.25, Weight of sample = 2g

Iodine value = (Vb - Vs) x 1.269 / W

= (39.25 – 4.50) X 1.269 / 2

= 22.04

Power Oil

Burette reading First titre Second titre

Final reading(cm3) 3.90 7.70

Initial reading(cm3) 0.00 3.90

Volume of acid used 3.90 3.80

Average titre value (Vs) = 3.90+3.80/2

= 3.85cm3

Vs= 3.85, Vb = 39.25, Weight of sample = 2g

44
Iodine value = (Vb - Vs) x 1.269 / W

= (35.35 – 3.85) X 1.269 / 2

= 22.46

Non-Branded Oil (Kulikuli)

Burette reading First titre Second titre

Final reading(cm3) 4.50 9.50

Initial reading(cm3) 0.00 4.50

Volume of acid used 4.50 5.0

Average titre value (Vs) = 4.50+5.0/2

= 4.75cm3

Vs= 4.75, Vb = 39.25, Weight of sample = 2g

Iodine value = (Vb - Vs) x 1.269 / W

= (39.25 – 4.75) X 1.269 / 2

= 21.89

45
Brand of refined vegetable oil Iodine Value

Kings Oil 22.04

Power Oil 22.46±0.1

Non branded oil( kulikuli) 21.89±0.5

The results are mean ± standard deviation of duplicate determination

Table 1: Shows the Iodine value of the three selected vegetable oils in (Mg/ml)

4.2 RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS FOR PEROXIDE VALUE

Blank

Burette reading First titre Second titre

Final reading(cm3) 4.20 4.30

Initial reading(cm3) 0.00 0.00

Volume of acid used 4.20 4.30

Average titre (Vb) = 4.20 + 4.30/2= 4.25 cm3

King’s Oil

Burette reading First titre Second titre

Final reading(cm3) 13.60 26.60

Initial reading(cm3) 0.00 13.60

Volume of acid used 13.60 13.00

46
Average titre(Vs) = 13.60+13.00/2=13.30 cm3

Peroxide Value= (Vs - Vb) x molarity of titrant x 103 g kg-1/W

(Vs=13.30, Vb=4.25, molarity of titrant=0.002, W=0.5

POV= (13.30-4.25) x 0.002x103/0.5

=3.73.

Power oil

Burette reading First titre Second titre

Final reading(cm3) 18.00 43.00

Initial reading(cm3) 0.00 18.00

Volume of acid used 18.00 25.00

Average titre(Vs) = 18.00+25.00/2= 21.50 cm3

Peroxide Value= (Vs - Vb) x molarity of titrant x 103 g kg-1/W

(Vs=21.50, Vb=4.25, molarity of titrant=0.002, W=0.5

POV=(21.50-4.25)x0.002x103/0.5

=7.11

47
Non-Branded Oil (Kulikuli Oil)

Burette reading First titre Second titre

Final reading(cm3) 14.00 24.00

Initial reading(cm3) 0.00 14.00

Volume of acid used 14.00 10.00

Average titre(Vs) = 14.00+10.00/2=12 cm3

Peroxide Value= (Vs - Vb) x molarity of titrant x 103 g kg-1/W

(Vs=12.00, Vb=4.25, molarity of titrant=0.002, W=0.5

POV=(12.00-4.25)x0.002x103/0.5

=3.193.

Brand of refined vegetable oil Peroxide Value

Kings Oil 3.76±0.06

Power Oil 7.11±0.07

Non branded oil ( kulikuli) 3.193±0.04

The results are mean ± standard deviation of duplicate determination

Table 2: Shows the Peroxide value of the three selected vegetable oils in (Meq/kg)

48
4.3 RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS ON DETERMINATION OF

CHOLESTEROL

Absorbance Standard: 1.470

Kings Oil

First reading Second reading

Absorbance of Standard 0.992 0.992

Absorbance of Sample 1.736 1.730

Average absorbance of sample=1.736+1.730/2

=1.733

AB=Absorbance of oil sample=1.733

AS=Absorbance of standard=0.992

CS=Concentration of standard cholesterol=10

Cholesterol mg/00ml= AB/AS x CS

=1.733/0.992x10

=17.47

49
Power Oil

First reading Second reading

Absorbance of Standard 0.992 0.992

Absorbance of Sample 1.740 1.742

Average absorbance of sample=1.740+1.742/2

=1.741

AB=Absorbance of oil sample=1.741

AS=Absorbance of standard=0.992

CS=Concentration of standard cholesterol=10

Cholesterol mg/00ml= AB/AS x CS

=1.741/0.992x10

=17.55

Non-branded Oil(Kulikuli)

First reading Second reading

Absorbance of Standard 0.992 0.992

Absorbance of Sample 1.629 1.623

Average absorbance of sample=1.629+1.623/2

=1.626

50
AB=Absorbance of oil sample=1.626

AS=Absorbance of standard=0.992

CS=Concentration of standard cholesterol=10

Cholesterol mg/00ml= AB/AS x CS

=1.626/0.992x10

=16.40

Brand of refined vegetable oil Cholesterol content

Kings Oil 17.47±0.006

Power Oil 17.55±0.002

Non branded oil( kulikuli) 16.40±0.006

The results are mean ± standard deviation of duplicate determination

Table 3: Shows the cholesterol content of the three selected vegetable oils in (Mg/ml)

4.4. DISCUSSION

Non-drying oils like groundnut oil contain more of monosaturated fatty

acid so they have low iodine value below 90, semi drying oils such corn oil,

contain more polyunsaturated fatty acid so they have iodine value below 140 and

drying oils have relatively high iodine value of about 190 (Ijeoma et al, 2014).

51
 The maximum level of peroxide value for fats and oils is

10milliequivalent of active oxygen/kg oil (Akubugwo and Ugbogu, 2007).

Minute quantity of cholesterol was discovered though its contrary to the rampant

theory claim by the producers that “Cholesterol free”

4.5. CONCLUSION

The result shows that non-drying oils are slow to oxidation and rancidity

and therefore they will remain liquid for a long period of time and are suitable for

consumption by the people.

Also, the study shows the oil contain little quantity of cholesterol which is

definitely different from what is been said by the producers of the oil “Cholesterol

free”

4.6. RECOMMENDATION

I hereby recommend that further analysis like saponification value, thin

layer chromatography and HPLC should be carried out to characterize the oil.

52
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