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• Reader:
– Chapter 6 – Capacitance (if you haven’t read it yet)
• Concepts
– Amplifiers
– Impedance
– Noise
– Safety
– Filters
• Components
– Capacitors In this project we will build an
– Inductors electrocardiagram (ECG or EKG). This is a
– Instrumentation and noninvasive device that measures the
Operational Amplifiers electrical activity of the heart using
electrodes placed on the skin.
M. Horowitz, J. Plummer, R. Howe 3
Why Are Capacitors Useful/Important?
⎛ −t/R1C ⎞ ⎛ −t/R1C ⎞
5V Vout = 5V ⎜1−e ⎟ Vout = 5V ⎜ e ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
• Two approaches
– EveryCircuit
– Decompose the input into sine
waves: frequency analysis
• But
– This waveform is the sum of sinewaves
• Superposition says
– The output is the sum of the response from each source
V
R=
i
R is simply a number with the units of Ohms.
• What about a capacitor? If V and i are sine waves, then
V
ZC = =
V
=
VO sin 2πFt ( )
i CdV / dt 2πFCVO cos 2πFt ( )
V 1
ZC = =
i j * 2pFC
V 1
… if we ignore phase shift, ZC = =
i 2πFC
M. Horowitz, J. Plummer, R. Howe 16
Impedance of a Capacitor
Vin Vout
• The circuit becomes just a voltage divider, and we can analyze it the
same way we have analyzed resistor only circuits.
– That’s the power of using impedance!
C 1
vin vout ZC = j∗ ZR = R
2πFC
R
• If the circuit had two resistors then we would know how to analyze it
Vout R2 Vout Z2
= or more generally, =
Vin R1 + R2 Vin Z1 + Z2
C
vin vout Vout R j * 2pFRC
= =
Vin R + 1 1 + j * 2pFRC
R j * 2pFC
C Vout/Vin
vin vout
Vout j * 2pFRC
• Sometimes called a “high pass filter”. =
Vin 1 + j * 2pFRC
0.8
0.6
Vout/Vin
0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 150 F (Hz) 200
R1 R2
Series : Zeq = Z1 + Z2 = R1 + R2
R1 1 R1R2
Parallel : Zeq = =
1 1 R1 + R2
R2 +
Z1 Z2
C1 C2 1 1 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Series : Zeq = Z1 + Z2 = + = ⎜ + ⎟
j ∗ 2πFC1 j ∗ 2πFC2 j ∗ 2πF ⎜⎝ C1 C2 ⎟⎠
1 ⎛ C1C2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
C1 j ∗ 2πF ⎝ C1 + C2 ⎠
1 1 1
Parallel : Zeq = = =
1 1 j ∗ 2πFC1 + j ∗ 2πFC1 j ∗ 2πF C1 + C2
( )
+
Z1 Z2
C2
C
R
1 1+ j ∗ 2πFRC
Series : Zeq = Z1 + Z2 = R + =
j ∗ 2πFC j ∗ 2πFC
R
1 1 R
Parallel : Zeq = = =
1 1 1 1+ j ∗ 2πFRC
+ + j ∗ 2πFC
Z1 Z2 R