Indian Institute Of Technology Gandhinagar

ES 201
Introduction to Materials

Seasteading Material

Under the Guidance of: TEAM MEMBERS

Prof. Abhijit Mishra Ishita Goyal 17110059
Rohan Patil 17110125
Date of Submission: Tushar Choudhary 17110161
April 26, 2019

1
Contents
1 Introduction to Seasteading 2

2 Aerogel 3
2.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3.1 Zinc Oxide Aerogels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3.2 Organic Aerogels- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.3 Silica Aerogels- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Transparent Alumina 5
3.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2.1 Mechanical and Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.2 Optical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Geopolymer Concrete 7
4.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Properties(13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5 Comparison as Seasteading Materials(18)(13)(6) 9

6 Conclusions 9

1 Introduction to Seasteading
Seasteading is term made from sea and homesteading. It means to create dwelling places in sea. The idea of generally
associated with creating autonomous places independent from any government. The idea is to build these artificial island
structures in international waters.(4)
With $500,000 donations from PayPal founder Peter Thieland a former Sun Microsystems programmer have launched
The Seasteading Institute, an organization dedicated to creating experimental ocean communities ”with diverse social,
political, and legal systems.” The plans for making seasteads have started and models have been proposed. Uptill now,
many people have ventured to do accomplish this but have failed. Milton Friedman, the Nobel Prize winning economist
estimates that it would take a few hundred million dollars to build a seastead for a thousand people.(15)
Creating a seastead can be beneficial for long term research. Especially it will be beneficial for oceanographic research.
It can “fill the gap between oceanographic-research vessels and coastal marine labs”. Ships are very costly for long
durations. On the other hand, it will become possible to collect time-series of data at one place. These seasteads can
become really popular tourist places,(16)
The Seasteading Institute aims to explore new ideas in governance by setting up micronations in international waters.
Outside the 193 nations, the seastead will have their own government. This has dire effects on the politics and it is
libertarian dream. A seastead can act as the island in Ayn Rand’s Atlas Shrugged. Seasteading has the potential to
disrupt politics to a different level. Hence, Patri Friedman, co-founder of The Seasteading Institute calls it ”an apolitical
solution to politics.”(14)
In our report, we focus on Aerogel, Transparent Alumina and Geopolymer Concrete. We believe that these materials
have desirable properties that can be used in construction of seasteads. These materials, which are in general good
materials for this purpose, exhibit wide variations in their properties with slight changes. First we discuss about the
structure, properties, production, general application and possible applications in seasteads. We then do a comparative
study of these materials based on requirements for seasteads according to the model of Floating City Project(6). Finally,
we give our proposed model using these materials.

2
2 Aerogel
2.1 Structure
Aerogel is made of very small (nm) sized particles of silicon dioxide. Aerogel is a
product of sol-gel polymerization. When monomers react with other monomers a sol
is formed. The end product consists of bonded and cross-linked macromolecules with
liquid deposits from solution between them. Monomers are simple molecules which
are moderately reactive. To evaporate out liquid material is critically heated and the
bonded, cross-linked macromolecule structure is left behind. To get variations in the
surface area and pore size of the aerogel we need to change synthesis procedure. The
smaller the pore size the more susceptible the aerogel is to fracture.(10) The result
of the polymerization and critical heating is the creation of a material that has a
porous strong structure classified as aerogel. Cellulose-Aerogels are generally opaque
and milky with densities of around 5 - 60 kg/m3. It’s a nanofelt of microfibrils.

2.2 Properties
Aerogel has its incredible lightness which increases it’s importance - it typically has a
density between 0.0011 to 0.5 cm−3 , and average of around 0.020 g cm−3 . Compared to
air aerogel is only 15 times heavier than air, and can been produced even at a density
of only 3 times that of air. So it is often called Frozen air. Aerogel was there as
the lightest material till the metallic microlattice came and then further aerographite
became lightest material. (8) Few properties of Aerogel are-
Figure 1: Aerogel.(5)
• Low mean free path of diffusion

• High specific surface area (for a non-powder material)

• Low thermal conductivity
• Low sound speed
• Low refractive index

• Low dielectric constant

Some Properties of Silica Aerogel are shown in table on next page-

2.3 Production
Aerogel is basically made by drying a gel in a high temperature environment. Below are processes for making Aerogel-

2.3.1 Zinc Oxide Aerogels

The reactants used in this preparation are Zn(N O3 )·6H2 O (J.T. Baker), methanol (HPLC grade, Fisher), Ethanol (100
percent reagent alcohol, Fisher), 2-Propanol (HPLC grade, Fisher), Acetone, and propylene oxide. Purified water is
used which is directly taken from an ultrapure water system. All syntheses are performed under ambient conditions.
Zn(N O3 )·6H2 O (0.8 mmol, 0.238 g) is first dissolved in solvent (1.25 mL) and stirred to give a clear colorless solution.
Then propylene oxide (8 mmol, 0.465 g) is further added to the solution. The mixture has to be rapidly stirred for 2
minutes and then it is transferred to a plastic mold, and the solution was allowed to gel. After gelation the aged gels
(3-5 days ) are then washed with acetone continuously for 7 days with fresh acetone exchanged daily. Aerogel samples
are processed in a SPI-DRY model critical point dryer. The acetone exchanged gels present there are transferred to the
critical point dryer, where the acetone gets exchanged with liquid CO2 (l). After keeping it for 2-4 days the temperature
of the vessel is ramped up to 45 °C and pressure above 1150 psi. Aerogel samples are processed by slow evaporation of
the acetone exchanged gels over a period of 30 days.(3)

3
2.3.2 Organic Aerogels-
To prepare organic aerogel take 0.20 g
of N a2 CO3 and dissolve it in 100 g of
water to prepare a dilute catalyst solu-
tion. Weigh out 1.00 g of resorcinol and
Dissolve it in 47.1 g water. Resorcinol
will make you think as it’s not dissolv-
ing but it does all dissolve eventually.
Further add 1.47 g of formaldehyde so-
lution. Measure out 2.41 g of catalyst
solution and add this to the mixture.
Seal the mold and stir the solution for
24 hours. After that transfer the mold
into an oven at 80°C. The gel will set
within a few hours to a day.(7)

2.3.3 Silica Aerogels-

Prepare a silica gel and purify it through
solvent exchange with either ethanol or
acetone. Exchange the gel at least four
times over the course of several days to
a week, depending on the shape and size
of the gel. Then prepare a solution of 75
vol percent ethanol or acetone (either is
acceptable) and 25 vol percent hexane.
For instance, to process five 4-mL mono-
liths, one could prepare a solution of 25
mL hexane and 75 mL acetone. This is
called a “25-75 mixture”. Prepare a so-
lution of 75 vol percent hexane and 25
vol percent ethanol or acetone. Simi-
larly prepare a solution of 50 vol per-
cent hexane, 50 vol percent ethanol or
acetone. Now we need to exchange the
gel into the 25-75 mixture and allow it
to soak for 30 hours approx, depending
on the size and shape of the gel. Ex-
Figure 2: Table-Aerogel Properties.(2) change the gel into pure hexane three
times. Next we have to prepare a solu-
tion of 6 wt percent trimethylchlorosi-
lane in hexane. This is called “TMCS
solution”. Place the gel in sealed chemical-resistant wide-mouth container. Seal the container after adding a volume of
TMCS solution which is 5-10 times the volume of the gel. Heat the container with gel and TMCS solution to 60ºC for
12-24 h and allow it to cool for some time. Exchange the TMCS solution with fresh TMCS solution.Now finally replace
the TMCS solution with fresh hexane. Allow the gel to soak in hexane for 12-24 h to get finally the Silica Aerogel.(9)

2.4 Applications
• Silica aerogels can be used in imaging devices, optics, and light guides.
• A material for filtration due to its high surface area and porosity, to be used for the removal of heavy metals.

• Laser targets for the United States National Ignition Facility. NIF uses lasers to heat and compress a small amount
of hydrogen fuel with the goal of inducing nuclear fusion reactions.
• Aerogel is used in some of its racquets for tennis, squash and badminton.

4
 • In water purification, chalcogels have shown promise in absorbing the heavy metal pollutants mercury, lead, and
cadmium from water.
• Thickening agents in some paints and cosmetics.

• NASA used an aerogel to trap space dust particles aboard the Stardust spacecraft. The particles vaporize on impact
with solids and pass through gases, but can be trapped in aerogels. NASA also used aerogel for thermal insulation
of the Mars Rover and space suits.

Figure 3: NASA Stardust dust collector with Aerogel.(1)

3 Transparent Alumina
Transparent alumina is a transparent polycrystalline ceramic. The first reported work goes back to 1950s and early 1960s.
Formally speaking, the literature is about transparent polycrystalline ceramics, many of which had aluminium. Many
materials of variety of properties are made using aluminium, magnesium, oxygen and nitrogen, all of which fall in the
same family. Examples are Aluminium oxynitride (AlON), Aluminium nitride (AlN), magnesium aluminate, etc.(17)
Transparent Aluminium, a fictitious material introduced in Start Trek IV: The Voyage Home, can be compared with
AlON. It matches up with the description very well. These materials are already being used for proposes of military,
aerospace, lasers, etc. However high cost remains a barrier for it replace glass and some opaque ceramics.
ALON was developed by scientists at Raytheon in the 1980’s for use as windows and domes in infrared missiles. The
goal was to produce a material with optical and mechanical properties similar to those of sapphire, but which could
be produced at lower costs using conventional powder processing techniques. Later in 2002, Surmet Corp acquired the
intellectual property, related equipment, and key personnel associated with the ALON process from Raytheon.(22)

3.1 Structure
Aluminum Oxynitride (ALON) has a defect cubic spinel crystal structure. Spinel structure is formulated as M M20 X4 ,where
M and M’ are tetrahedrally and octahedrally coordinated cations, respectively, and X is an anion (typically O or F).
The structure is named after the mineral M gAl2 O4 , and oxide spinels have the general formula AB2 O4 . AlON can be
thought of as a nitrogen stabilized cubic aluminium oxide.
AlON is formed when Al2 O3 and AlN are mixed in proportion. Depending on the proportion, we say that whether
it lies in the AlON region. There is AlON-Al2 O3 region, AlON region and AlN region. AlON has 9:5 ratio of Al2 O3 and
AlN , forming Al23 O27 N5 = AlON (McCauley 1987; Tabary and Servant 1999a).(21)
The chemical formula for ALON given in (20) is Al(64+x)/3 O32−x Nx ; where 2 ≤ x ≤ 5. Nitrogen stabilizes the cubic
spinel structure over a wide composition range.

3.2 Properties
AlON has a density of 3.691–3.696g/cm3 , melting point of 2150o C and is insoluble in water. Density of steel is near
8g/cm3 while that of stainless steel it is 7.7g/cm3 . The melting point of the material is also quite high. These properties
make AlON a suitable candidate for making the supporting structures for making permanent dwellings in sea.

5
3.2.1 Mechanical and Thermal Properties
Table 1 shows the mechanical properties of AlON. The desirable properties like toleration to vibrations, mechanical
shocks, g-loading, sudden pressure release, etc. which are seen in armour properties are also necessary for creating
structures that can withstand the rigors of open oceans.

3.2.2 Optical Properties

Table 2 shows the optical properties of
γ-AlON. AlON is able to endure ex-
Property AlON Unit
treme environmental stresses, such as
solar radiation, humidity, temperature
Flexural strength 300 MPa
ranges from −55o C to 85o C, and ther-
Hardness (Knoop at 200 g load) 1850 kg/mm2
mal cycling(17). This makes it suitable
Young’s Modulus 323 GP a
for making structures for base. 1
Fracture toughness 2.4 ± −0.11 MPa − m2
Weibull modulus 8.7
3.3 Production Thermal shock resistance** (figure of merit R’) 1.2
AlON is made from conventional powder Thermal expansion coefficient (30–900o C) 7.5 10−6 K −1
processing techinques. Small amounts Thermal conductivity (at 25o C) 12.6 W/(mK)
of addition of nitrogen to alumina pow- σ(1−µ)k
** R = αE
der converts the rombohedral structure
to the required cubic spinel structure. Table 1: Mechanical and Thermal Properties of AlON.(17)
The powder is then formed into a green
part, using one of a number of forming
techniques which includes: cold isostatic
pressing, slip-casting and injection molding. The green part is then heat treated to full optical density, and finally cut,
ground, and polished into a final component.(22)

Property γ-AlON Unit

Refractive index (at wavelength 0.5 µm) 1.80
dn/dT (in 3–5 µm wavelength range) 3 10−6 K −1
Absorption coefficient (at 3.39 µm wavelength) 0.1 cm−1
Total integrated optical scatter (at 0.64 µm; 5 mm thick sample) 2.1 %
Transmission wavelength range* 0.22-6 µm
Optical homogeneity achieved in 15 in. 3 25 in. part with 3.4 in. aperture 5 ppm
Typical transmittance without AR coatings (in the visible range)* > 84 %
Typical haze (in the visible range)* <2 %
Typical clarity (in the visible range)* > 98 %
*Varies depending on thickness and processing conditions.

Table 2: Optical Properties of AlON.(17)

3.4 Applications
AlON is used for making bullet proof glass. The thickness and weight of AlON made bullet proof glass is less. This is the
reason why it came to be dubbed as transparent aluminium. In addition to that, it is used in infrared-optical windows.
It is suitable for making night-vision goggle systems (NVG) as it is transparent to mid-IR region. NVGs are typically
used for improved transmission under low-light conditions and require transmission at wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.92
µm.(19)
AlON can be used to make the supporting structures for seasteading structures. Rather than using concrete, we can
make long hollow tube-like structures. The volume of water displaced will be large and it will also be able to sustain
large amounts of stresses. This can allow us to make dwellings at much larger distance from the shores, where the sea
might get rough.

6
4 Geopolymer Concrete
Geopolymer Concrete is one of the most promising materials for
the seasteading concept. It is basically an amorphous alkali alumi-
nosilicate or alkali-activated cement. This material came into ex-
istence in 1982. There are two main constituents of geopolymers,
namely the source materials and the alkaline liquids. The source
materials for geopolymers based on alumino-silicate should be rich
in silicon and aluminum. These could be natural minerals such as
kaolinite, clays, micas, and alousite, spinel, etc. Geopolymer con-
crete paved its way into existence after the series of experiments
done for the replacement of Portland cement. Portland cement has
been a threat to the environment for over decades and has lower
durability in seawater.

4.1 Structure
Geopolymer is one of the inorganic polymers. It has an amor-
phous structure, unlike other zeolitic materials which are mostly
crystalline. The polymerization requires a considerably quick re-
action of silica (Si) and alumina (Al) under an alkaline condition Figure 4: Dimension and weight comparison of ar-
which subsequently creates a three-dimensional polymeric chain mor laminates with similar ballistic protection. Left:
of Si − −O − −Al − −O bonds. Dissimilar to Portland Cement γ-AlON laminate, 1.6 inches thick and density of
or pozzolanic cement, geopolymer utilizes the polycondensation of 18.9 pounds per cubic foot. Right: Glass laminate,
silica and alumina and a high alkali content to attain compressive 3.6 inches thick and density of 43 pounds per cubic
strength. The following reactions occur during geopolymerisation:- foot.(17)
• (Si2 O5 Al2 O2 )n + H2 O + OH − −→ Si(OH)4 + Al(OH)−
4

• Si(OH)4 + Al(OH)−
4 −→ (Si O Al O)n + 4H2 O

4.2 Properties(13)
• It has a high compressive strength of 75MPa which is due to
the presence of a high proportion of fly ash and alkaline content.
• It’s chemical composition allows it to survive up to thousands
of year in the seawater, therefore has high durability.

• Geopolymer concrete made with type-F low-calcium fly ash

can have as little as 2% calcium, resulting in incredible chem-
ical resistance.
• The highly porous structure ensures its flexibility ( it is 5
times more flexible than Portland Cement) and thus is re-
sponsible for its lightweight.
• It remains wet for a long time which reduces the cracks during
its settlement and provides slow curing which enables it to
mold into desired shapes with easy procurement.

• It requires heat for a settlement that is 200-degree Fahrenheit

for 24 hours or 84-degree Fahrenheit for 3 days which makes
it well suitable for hot and tropic climates like India.

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 • Its quality and strength depend highly on the proportion of
materials added so mixture preparation requires keen pre-
cautions.
• It doesn’t get damaged by the course action of plants and
animals in the sea.
• It is required in less quantity because its porous structure
allows easy water seeping in and huge strength, unlike the
normal concrete which uses extra 7 inches to forestall water
seeping in and to acquire necessary strength.

• It undergoes a chemical reaction with water. It strips the

water into hydrogen and oxygen and further trapped these
particles in its pores, unlike normal concrete in which wa-
ter escapes as a gas, so high and low proportion of water is
harmful.

• It is skin sensitive that is it has corrosive materials which

behave like an acid, therefore it has to be handled with care.
• A density of geopolymer concrete varies from 2466 kg/m3 to
2501 kg/m3. The entrained air in concrete allows it to float
on water.

4.3 Production
Geopolymer concrete can be produced by polymerizing the aluminosilicates such as fly ash, metakaolin, slag, rice husk ash,
and high calcium wood ash through activation using alkaline solution. Hence the efficiency in producing geopolymer con-
crete is highly dependent on the activators as well as types of aluminosilicates resources(12). Geopolymer concrete is made
up of four inexpensive and widely-available components(11):-

• Fly ash - 1013g of type-F, low-calcium fly ash.

• Water Glass - 255.7 grams of Waterglass (sodium-silicate).

• Lye - 101.8 grams of 14-molarity solution Lye (sodium hydroxide)

• Freshwater - 41g
• 1848 gram of mixed aggregate (sand and 7mm gravel)

These proportion should be maintained in order to obtain an accurate mixture

for better efficiency.

Figure 5: Geopolymer Concrete 4.4 Applications

Cubes(11)
• Due to its chemical resistance, seasteaders have planned to incorporate
this material as a water exposed layer of floating buildings.
• Its combination with steel wires provides a perfect future material for
construction. It finds its use in building a fire-resistant building.
• It allows building more complex structures as it can be easily molded.

• It is used for making concrete pipes and roads.

• Its incorporation with Basalt Rebar shreds adds onto its properties.
Geopolymer concrete chemically bonds to the basalt rebar which increases
its strengh drastically. Compound becomes more chemical resistant, waterproof, fireproof material with a tensile
strength of about 4 gigapascals. It adds onto its lightweight and flexibility.

8
5 Comparison as Seasteading Materials(18)(13)(6)
Parameters Aerogel AlON Geopolymer
Cost Expensive Moderate Cheapest
Lifespan Short Maxmimum Moderate
Aesthetics Medium Lowest Maximum
Durability Most Durable Less Durable Average
Availability Easy Scarce Abundant
Installation and Construction No special need Sophisticated Requires Heat
Performance(Mechanical) High Somewhat Brittle High
Water Resistance Maximum High Lowest
Adaptibility(Sea water) Causes Fast Evaporation Easily Adaptive Soaks Water

6 Conclusions
This Floating City Project set out to establish the feasibility of developing a floating city soon. A practical design
can be built to match the market’s price point. A simple model for it could include transparent alumina which can
be used in building skeleton as its flexural strength is very high. Thin sheets of Aerogel are wonderful alternative to
traditional concrete flooring. Earthquake resistant houses can be built from Geopolymer concrete. Tubular hexagonal
shaped columns and beams can be used to provide it more strength towards ocean waves.

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