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chapter 12
introduction
Imagine this. A speech topic is chapter objectives chapter outline
perfectly chosen; the content is nicely After studying this chapter you should be able to:
organized and flawlessly researched; a Introduction
great deal of work was invested in 1. Identify, define and give Methods of Delivery
an example of each of
preparing the “text” or “script” of the o Manuscript Style
the four main types of o Memorized Style
speech, but the speech is poorly
delivery o Impromptu Style
delivered. Will the speech be 2. Determine the best
effective? Will the audience stay alert o Extemporaneous Style
speaking style for Vocal Aspects of Delivery
and follow it? Will the audience different types of o Articulation
properly interpret the speaker’s speaking occasions o Pronunciation
intended message? These last 3. Identify and utilize voice o Accent, Dialect and
questions contribute to the universal aspects of speaking Regionalisms
fear of public speaking. It is not the 4. Recognize and utilize the o Vocal Quality
preparation of a speech that strikes key “ingredients” of a o Pitch and Inflection
terror in the hearts of so many, but the well-performed speech o Rate of Speaking
5. Adapt to the physical
performance of a speech! o Pauses Versus Vocalized
aspects of a speaking Pauses
venue
Don't lower your 6. Plan the speech in
o Vocal Projection
Nonverbal Aspects of Delivery
expectations to meet your preparation for o Personal Appearance
delivery/performance of
performance. Raise your a speech.
o Movement and Gestures
o Facial Expressions
level of performance to meet o Eye Contact
your expectations. Expect the Mastering the Location
o The Room
best of yourself, and then do One man on a New York o The Podium
what is necessary to make it a street comes up to another o The Equipment
reality. and asks, o Using a Microphone
o Water Rules
~ Ralph Marston “How can I get to Carnegie Preparation, Practice and
Hall?” Delivery
o Preparing Notes
Since an audience does not usually The second man answers, o Rehearsing the Speech
read the text of a speech, but simply
listens to it, all the preparation of the
“PRACTICE.” o Managing Stress
o Delivering the Speech
content by the speaker must be encoded Conclusion
into a complex combination of Practice is the key to excellent Review Questions and Activities
communication channels (words, performance. Trite as it might sound Glossary
sounds, visual elements, etc.) ready to (or obvious), the basic foundation for a References
be performed. The purpose of this good speech delivery involves the two
chapter is to offer guidance to transfer “P’s”: Preparation and Practice.
the speech from the page to the stage. There is not an actor, athlete, or performance is given with spontaneity,
musician worth his/her salary who does the “P’s” are crucial.
There is an old Burlesque joke:
not prepare and practice. Even when a Stand-up comedy is everywhere; and
those who are successful comedians do
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spontaneous. You might consider “I can’t believe this surprise! I don’t “impromptu.” The skill of the great
using the memorized delivery style if know what to say… um, Dino [his magician was in making his illusions
your speech is relatively short, or you brother] when was that Yankee game seem spontaneous with what appeared
know you will have to deliver your Dad took us to when we were kids? It to be ordinary items that “happened” to
speech repeatedly such as a tour was 4th of July, wasn’t it? 1939? And be on hand. Houdini spent endless
operator would. it was like it was yesterday; and today hours planning and rehearsing. The
reminds me of that day, when Lou true illusion was that they “appeared”
impromptu style
Theoretically, an “impromptu” Gehrig came out to the mound. He was to be impromptu.
slow, but we were all cheering the
speech is “made up on the spot.” It is
unprepared and unrehearsed. Often ‘Pride of the Yankees.’ He wasn’t Take advantage of every
ceremonial toasts, grace before meals, playing anymore, he was too sick, but opportunity to practice your
he looked around the crowd, and said
an acknowledgement, an introduction,
‘I’m the luckiest man alive.’ That’s communication skills so that
offering thanks and so on, fall into this
category. While there are some
how I feel with you all here today; to when important occasions
occasions when a speech in those celebrate our 10th anniversary. I’m arise, you will have the gift,
here with you and with Margaret; and
categories is actually prepared (prepare
I’m the luckiest man alive.” the style, the sharpness, the
your acceptance for the Academy
Award BEFORE you are called!), there
clarity, and the emotions to
are many occasions when there is little affect other people.
or no opportunity to prepare. ~ Jim Rohn
Impromptu speeches are generally
short and are often given with little or extemporaneous style
no notice. Notes are rare and the Sandwiched between the memorized
speaker generally looks directly at the and impromptu delivery styles you find
audience. It would be presumptuous the extemporaneous speech style. For
and arrogant to declare rules for this style, the speech is not completely
Impromptu Speaking. It is fair to written out. It is usually delivered with
explain that “impromptu” describes a keynotes for reference. Most public
range from absolutely no preparation, speaking courses and books describe
to a modest amount of preparation extemporaneous speeches as carefully
(mostly thought) and rarely prepared and rehearsed, but delivered
incorporates research or the formalities using notes of key words and phrases to
of outlines and citations that more support the speaker. Phrasing is pre-
formal speeches would include. rehearsed, words are pre-chosen, and
the organization is fluid and well
Be still when you have constructed. There should be no
nothing to say; when genuine fumbling for words, no rambling, and
passion moves you, say what length of time should be carefully
The speech was short, emotionally monitored. The style does offer the
you've got to say, and say it speaker flexibility to include references
charged, wonderfully articulate, and
hot. absolutely unprepared. The speech had to the immediate surroundings,
~ D. H. Lawrence one central emotionally charged previous speeches, news of the day, and
message; simple, in words and so on.
phrasing, but complex by bringing an
An indelibly memorable example
image of great sentimentality to the
occurred to me when my siblings threw
a surprise 10th anniversary party for my
occasion. He was able to react to the The trouble with talking too
moment, and speak “from the heart.” fast is you may say something
Mom (Margaret) and our stepdad
(Lidio). It was the third marriage for In contrast, legendary magician you haven't thought of yet."
both of them, and they were in their Harry Houdini was often asked to
60’s. As soon as the yells of “surprise” perform for the amusement of his ~ Ann Landers
subsided, Lidio picked up his wine fellow passengers when sailing to
glass and proposed a toast: Europe. I always associate How you develops the notes and
“impromptu” with the stories of what they look like are up to the
Houdini’s shipboard conjuring. individual, but a natural
Nothing was further from extemporaneous delivery is difficult if
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entertainers) will often strive for quality of one’s voice is related to its
unaccented General or Standard range of pitch.
English. Listen to most major network
newscasters for examples of
regionalism-free speech. A given pitch and inflection
audience may be prejudiced towards or Identical to musical parlance, the
against a speaker with an identifiable pitch is the “highness” or “lowness” of
accent or dialect. Though we would the voice. Each of us has a range of
wish prejudice were not the case, the tone. Vocal sounds are actually
way we speak implies so much about vibrations sent out from the vocal cords
our education, cultural background, and resonating through chambers in the
economic status, that prejudice is body. The vibrations can literally be
inevitable. Any speaker should be measured in terms of audio frequency
aware of how accent, dialect and in the same way music is measured.
regionalisms can be perceived by a When the pitch is altered to convey a
given audience. If you speak in a way meaning (like raising the pitch at the
generations, speakers depended on that the audience might find difficult to end of a sentence that is a question), it
“markings (such as the International understand, make an extra effort to pay is the inflection. Inflections are
Phonetics Alphabet or similar attention to the accent and phrasing of variations, turns and slides in pitch to
Dictionary Symbols) to discover or your speech. Ask a sympathetic and achieve the meaning.
decide how words were officially objective listener to help you when you In his writing “Poetics,” Aristotle
pronounced. With online dictionaries practice. lists “Music” as an element of the
now readily available, one needs only Drama. Some scholars interpret that to
to “look up” a word and select “play” We often refuse to accept an include the musicalization of the
to hear an audible recording of the idea merely because the tone spoken word with dramatic inflection.
official and precise way a word should The meaning and effectiveness of a
be pronounced. Now there is no excuse of voice in which it has been
spoken line is greatly dependent on the
for mispronouncing a word in a speech. expressed is unsympathetic to “melody” of its inflection.
A mispronounced word will obliterate a us. Though archaic, the study of
speaker’s credibility, and the
audience’s attention will be focused on ~ Friedrich Nietzsche elocution formalizes the conventions of
the fault rather than the message. inflection. In some contemporary
cultures, inflection has been minimized
vocal quality
because it sounds too “melodramatic”
The quality of the voice, its timbre
accent, dialect, and regionalisms for the taste of the demographic group.
(distinctive sound) and texture, affects
Subtleties in the way we pronounce It would be sensible to be aware of and
audibility and can affect the
words and phrase our speech within a avoid both extremes. With good
articulation. Our voices are unique to
given language are evident in accents, animated inflection, a speaker is more
each of us. It is a result of our physical
regionalisms and dialects. An accent interesting, and the inflection conveys
vocal instrument, including diaphragm,
refers to the degree of prominence of energy and “aliveness” that compels
vocal cords, lungs and body mass.
the way syllables are spoken in words, the audience to listen.
Some examples of vocal quality
as when someone from Australia says include warm, clear, soft, scratchy, When public speaking was known as
“undah” whereas we say “under.” A mellow and breathy. Each speaker elocution, sentences were “scored” like
regionalism is a type of expression, as should practice at maximizing the vocal music, and spoken using formal rules.
when someone says “The dog wants effect of his instrument, which can be Sentences ending as a question went
walked,” instead of “the dog wants to developed with vocal exercises. There UP at the end. Sentences ending in a
go for a walk.” Dialect is a variety of are numerous books, recordings and period, ended with a base note. And
language where one is distinguished trainers available to develop one’s everyone had fun with exclamation
from others by grammar and vocal quality when needed. The points!
vocabulary. In Pennsylvania you might
hear people say that they are going to
“red up the room,” which means “to Try Thisl Inflection
clean the room.”
Those who depend on speaking for a
career (broadcasters, politicians, and Your voice goes UP, and then your voice goes down.
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nonverbal aspects of
delivery Table 12.2
personal appearance Dressing Appropriately
Here is the golden rule: Dress
appropriately for the situation. You What to Wear:
don’t need to sport a power tie (the
A button-down shirt or
predictable red tie politicians wore in
the 1980s), but you should be blouse
comfortable and confident knowing Trousers (khaki or dark) or
that you look good. a skirt
A dress appropriate for a
With the exception of wearing
formal black-tie tuxedo to a hockey business setting
game, it is good practice to dress a bit A nice sweater
more formal than less. Err on the side Limited, tasteful jewelry
of formal. Most class speeches would A suit or jacket may be
be best in business casual (which can appropriate because your speech is important, then
vary from place to place and in time). A tie or scarf (optional) your audience will recognize and
The culture or standards of the respect what you have to say.
audience should be considered. For
men, it is usually a button-down shirt movement and gestures
What NOT to Wear: Overall movement and specific
and casual dress pants. For women, it
T-shirts, sweat shirts or gestures are integral to a speech. Body
may be skirt or slacks and blouse/shirt.
stance, gestures and facial expressions
There are exceptions depending on sweat suits can be generally categorized as body
the speech. A student once arrived in Sleeveless tops language. Movement should be relaxed
pajamas to deliver his 9 a.m. speech. Printed logos or sayings and natural, and not excessive. How
At first, I thought he got up too late to (unless appropriate to the you move takes practice. Actors usually
dress for class. However, his speech speech) have the advantage of directors helping
was on Sleep Deprivation, and his Caps or hats to make decisions about movement, but
costume was deliberate. What he wore Torn jeans a good objective listener or a rehearsal
contributed to his speech. in front of a large mirror can yield
Visible underwear
If you have long hair, be sure it is productive observations.
Noisy or dangling jewelry
out of the way so it won’t cover your Flip flops Moving around the performance
face. Flipping hair out of your face is space can be a very powerful
Provocative clothing
very distracting, so it is wise to secure component of a speech; however, it
it with clips, gel, or some other method. Pockets full of keys or
should be rehearsed as part of the
Be sure you can be seen, especially change
presentation. Too much movement can
your eyes and your mouth, even as you be distracting. This is particularly true
glance down to the podium. if the movement appears to be a result
Think of it as an interview…just like of nervousness. Avoid fidgeting,
in an interview, you will want to make a good first impression. The corporate stroking your hair, and any other
culture of the business will determine
the dress. Always dress at the level of
the person conducting the interview. Try Thisl Gestures
For example, a construction foreman
(or project manager) will conduct an
interview to hire you as a carpenter. Using only your hands,
Do not dress like a carpenter; dress like convey the following:
the project manager.
Actors know when they audition, the 1. “It’s OK.”
role is won by the time they step into
the room. A speaker can launch success 2. “I give up.”
by stepping confidently to the podium. 3. “He’s crazy.”
Be tidy and clean. If you appear as 4. “We will be victorious.”
though you took time to prepare
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nervousness-related movement.
Among the traditional common fears Try Thisl Facial Expressions
of novice speakers is not knowing what
to do with one’s hands. Sometimes the
speaker relies on clutching to the
While looking in a mirror, try to express these thoughts without
podium or keeping hands in pockets.
Neither is a good pose. From my own
words:
observation, hand gestures are very 1. “I am thrilled that I am getting a raise.”
common in Italy. We Italians can be 2. “I am worried about tomorrow.”
seen in conversation from across the 3. “Lemons are too sour for me.”
street, and an observer can often tell 4. “I am suspicious about what he did.”
what is being said. There is no need to
imitate an Italian in delivering a After you have determined a facial expression for each, say
speech, but hand movement and the the phrase. And see how well the verbal expression goes with
energy that the movement represents,
the nonverbal expression.
can help hold attention as well as help
express the message.
An actor practices using his whole
body for expression, and regularly Emoticons were not casual a hint of artificiality in your expression,
practices physical exercises to keep the inventions, but graphic depictions of you will sacrifice your credibility.
body and hands and arms relaxed and facial expressions that convey various
in motion. An actor’s hand gestures are eye contact
meanings of emotions. They are based Next to clearly speaking an
developed in rehearsal. A speaker’s on a nearly universal language of
gestures should also be considered organized text, eye contact is another
expression that we begin learning soon very important element of speaking.
during practice. after birth. We smile, we frown, we An audience must feel interested in the
During the period when elocution roll our eyes, and we wink. We open speaker, and know the speaker cares
was taught, hand gestures were eyes wide with astonishment. We raise about them.
regimented like a sign language. This our eyebrows…occasionally one at a
is nonsense. Like inflections, gestures time, in suspicion; both, in Whether addressing an audience of
and movement should be organic and astonishment. Sometimes we pucker 1000 or speaking across a “deuce”
spontaneous, not contrived. If there is our lips, either to offer a kiss or express (table for two), eye contact solidifies
a hint of artificiality in your disapproval, disappointment, or grave the relationship between the speaker
presentation, you will sacrifice your concern. and audience. Good eye contact takes
credibility. practice. The best practice is to be able
to scan the audience making each
member believe the speaker is speaking
I pretty much try to stay in a to him or her.
constant state of confusion However, there are some eye contact
just because of the expression failures.
it leaves on my face. head bobber:
~ Johnny Depp This is a person who bobs his or her
head looking down on the notes and up
to the audience in an almost rhythmic
Since facial expression is a valid
pattern.
form of communication, it is integral to
delivering a speech. The face supports balcony gazer
the text, and the speaker’s commitment A person who looks over the heads
to the material is validated. The press of his or her audience to avoid looking
scrutinizes a politician for every twitch at any individual.
of insincerity. Detectives have created the obsessor
facial expressions a science of facial communication for
Most readers are very familiar with A person who looks at one or two
interviewing suspects. Like inflections, audience members or who only looks in
emoticons like these: gestures and movement: facial one direction.
expressions should be organic and
, , :p; :o, ;), :/ spontaneous, not contrived. If there is
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water rules
Water is the only liquid that should
be provided for a speaker. It should be
cool, but not ice cold to prevent
temperature shock to the throat and
vocal cords. If it is poured into a glass,
the glass should not be too full so the
quantity does not overwhelm the
speaker. Under no circumstances
should there be ice in the glass or in the
pitcher at the podium. Pieces of ice can
be a choking hazard to a speaker who is
focused on speaking rather than
drinking. The current trend is to
provide bottled water for a guest
speaker. It should be opened, but the
cap kept on assuring sanitation. The
water should be placed on an absorbent
tray that prevents suction from making
raising the glass difficult to pick up.
Drinking water is necessary for the
correctly. Do not assume that every file If it is a stationary microphone, be
hydration of the vocal chords. The act
can be played. Always be prepared by careful to maintain a consistent of taking a sip is sometimes used to
having multiple versions of your distance, or the volume of your achieve a pause in a speech for effect.
audio/video. If you have only one speaking will pop from louder to softer.
version, and it does not play, you will Changes in volume or position can
be very frustrated. result in distortion or feedback (an
preparation, practice and
Check all PowerPoint slides. Give a escalating humming sound). Be careful
that consonants do not “ring” with delivery
last look at the spelling, content, and preparing notes
watch for some typical issues such as amplification.
Once you have created a
changes of formatting and inserted In some venues, the time delay with comprehensive outline and have
video or audio files not playing. the reverberation can cause an overlap thought through your speech, you
Even seasoned presenters break into of vocal sounds. You may have to should be able to create your note cards
a cold sweat over equipment failures or slow down or use more pauses to or whatever you might be using (notes
unpleasant surprises, so avoid the stress prevent syllables from overlapping. or an iPad for instance). Every
by checking the equipment. speaker is a bit different, and different
I drank some boiling water speech topics and organizational
using a microphone
In some cases, rather than merely
because I wanted to whistle. patterns may require different notation
~ Mitch Hedberg techniques.
using live voice projection, there will
be a microphone for amplification. If Your note cards (or cue sheets) must
at all possible, test it before the have enough information on them to be
performance. Be sure the amplification able to deliver the speech without
is suitable for your projection. Be sure missing details and organized in the
how near or far you should be for precise order that you have planned. A
proper audio pick-up. common technique is to print the
outline in a font that is large enough to
It is important to note that
be read from a distance.
amplification cannot make up for poor
articulation or weak inflections, but it You should be able to glance at the
can compensate for a room that is large cards, get your bearings, and look back
or acoustically insufficient for speech. at the audience. If you are reading the
cards word-for-word, there are too
If you are prone to move away from
many words on them, unless it is an
the podium, or plan any movement, be
extended exact quote, or group of
aware that the microphone must be
statistics that must be delivered
considered.
precisely.
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actual delivery (and listen for the verbal and realize it’s not so bad to be up there
fillers, awkward pauses, and other non- after all! Second, it lets the audience
fluencies). Plan what to do with your know you are prepared. Third, it
hands. signals to the audience that what you
You should also know exactly how are about to say is important. Finally, it
your speech will begin and end. gives you the opportunity for direct eye
Regardless of how dependent on notes contact (because you are not reading)
the speaker may be, here is one and commands the audience’s
constant word of advice: know exactly attention. Eye contact is a signal to the
how you are going to begin your audience that you care about them!
speech. Not just an idea, but verbatim, The conclusion of your speech is
with every inflection, every gesture, equally important. In show business
every eye contact with the audience. parlance, the end of a song or a scene is
The first few sentences should be so called a “button.” It is a “TAH-DAH”
ingrained, that you could perform it moment that lets the audience know
during an earthquake without batting an you are finished, and that it is their turn
Be sure your notes or cards are eye. to applaud. The ending impression
numbered (e.g., boldly in the upper your speech leaves with the audience is
right hand corner), so you can keep A memorized introduction
accomplishes several goals. First, it greatly affected by how effective the
them organized. Color-coding is often ending is. The content and structure
done to easily distinguish the cards at a gives you the opportunity to breathe,
notwithstanding, you should also know
glance. Losing your place can be very exactly how you will end (verbatim), so
stressful to you and distracting to the there is no hesitation, no stumbling, no
audience. Figure 12. 1 tentative “I guess that’s all” feeling. A
Avoid writing or printing on two Rehearsal Checklist confident and decisive beginning will
sides; flipping a page or card is draw the audience to you; a confident
distracting to the audience. The logical ending will be very effective in
audience should not be aware of the preserving a lasting impression on the
notes. It is best to simply slide the Rehearse a few days audience.
cards aside to advance to the next card. before you are to deliver
Rehearse your speech using the notes
your speech Stress is an important dragon
that you will bring to the podium. Be Use the note sheets or to slay - or at least tame - in
sure you can glance at the notes, get cards you will be using for your life.
your information, and look up to have delivery
eye contact with the audience.
~ Marilu Henner
Practice with the
presentation aids you will
All the real work is done in be using
managing stress
As William Ball noted in his book
the rehearsal period. Time your speech and for actors and directors, A Sense of
~ Donald Pleasence cut or expand it if Direction, getting in front of a group
needed and speaking is people’s greatest fear
(greater than fear of death). Fear and
rehearsing the speech Rehearse with a stress result in psychological and
Remember how to get to Carnegie colleague or an
Hall. Rehearse your speech – aloud physical manifestations that can affect
audience if possible a speech.
and ideally with a colleague or fellow
student as an audience. Rehearse in If you can, rehearse in Stress physically causes muscles to
front of a mirror if needed. There are the room with the tighten, often including vocal cords.
some students who record a rehearsal podium you will use This raises, and often limits, the vocal
speech so they can get a real sense of Plan what you will do pitch of the speaker under stress. The
what the audience will hear. If you are with your hands tempo of the speech may also be
using presentation aids, rehearse with affected. Novice speakers tend to rush
them for timing and familiarity so you
Plan and practice your
as though to be anxious to “get it over
only have to glance at the screen or opening and closing with.” It is a factor to remember in a
easel. Time the speech to be sure it carefully, so you can corporate or business meeting: the
within the assigned time. Phrase the deliver them exactly speaker should speak slowly enough
speech as you will phrase it in the because what he has to say is
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review questions
1. Develop a list of ten potential speech topics. For each topic, think of a setting in which a speech on that topic might be
delivered. Next, determine what type(s) of delivery (manuscript, memorized, impromptu, extemporaneous) would be
most appropriate for the topic and setting.
2. What three aspects of vocal delivery do you believe are most important to a speaker’s credibility? Explain.
3. How might a speaker’s accent affect the audience’s perception of him or her? Illustrate your answer with an example.
4. What guidelines did you find most useful in the section about what to wear for your speech?
5. How do you perceive speakers who do not make eye contact with their audience? What suggestions would you give
these speakers to improve their eye contact?
6. What type of equipment is available in the space(s) where you plan to give your speeches? What kinds of
presentations can be used with this type of equipment?
7. List three methods you would personally use to reduce your anxiety before your speeches.
8. What piece of advice from the chapter did you find most useful?
activities
1. Practice Inflection
Gather some children’s books (aimed at ages 6-10) and read them aloud in class. Practice the use of inflection to indicate
the punctuation, the energy, and the characters. Do not be afraid to seem foolish. Remember that this is how most
children learn to read and speak.
2. Pronunciation
Bring in several books or publications of a variety of types and disciplines. Scan through the text and find words that are
unusual. Look them up in an online dictionary and see how they are pronounced. This could be turned into a game of
“stump the speaker” guessing how each word is pronounced. It can also be used to point out some simple yet often
mispronounced words.
3. Projection
Stand in as large a circle as possible. Each person has a partner across the room. Partners introduce each other and carry
a conversation over the noise of others doing the same thing. Do not shout. Keep it going for a few minutes (it will be
loud), then quiz the partners about the conversation they had.
4. Find a partner and work on any of the “Try This” activities in the chapter.
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glossary
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references
Ball, W. (1984). A sense of direction: Some Monroe, A. H., & Ehninger, D. (1974). Principles
observations on the art of directing. New York: and types of speech communication. Glenview,
Drama Book. Ill.,: Scott, Foresman.
Brydon, S. R., & Scott, M. D. (2006). Between one A Research Guide for Students. (n.d.). A Research
and many: The art and science of public Guide for Students. Retrieved February 26,
speaking. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. 2012, from http://www.aresearchguide.com/
DeVito, J. A. (2003). The essential elements of Sprague, J., & Stuart, D. (1984). The speaker's
public speaking. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. handbook. San Diego: Harcourt Brace
interpersonal communication. New York: Welcome to Mirror Image. (n.d.). Mirror Image
Harper & Row. Teleprompters. Retrieved February 26, 2012,
photo credits
p. 1 Allida Black Speaking at the Courage to Lead p. 10 Chris Coons as the 2010 Democrat nominee for
Conference by U.S. Mission Geneva U.S. Senate in Delaware by Chris Coons
http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=752 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chris_Coons.jpg
7414&searchId=488e81758eb12a809a21e316d0f1ab1b&n
pos=230 p. 10 Phoenix Auditorium by Basil Jradeh
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phoenix_Auditori
p. 5 Iraqi speaker by Scanlan um.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraqi_Speaker.jpg
p. 11 Lhandon Speaks by STF HQ
p. 6 Ice-T byTino Jacobs http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Lha
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ice-T_(2).jpg don_Speaks.jpg
p.9 [President] Barack Obama at Las Vegas p. 11 Andrea Dernbach and Hoda Salah by Heinrich
Presidential Forum by Center for American Progress Boell Stiftung
Action Fund http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Barack_Obama_a _boellstiftung_ _Andrea_Dernbach_und_Hoda_Salah.jpg
t_Las_Vegas_Presidential_Forum.jpg
p. 14 Anthony Pico by Dale Frost
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anthonypico.jpg
12-16