PRODUCTION OF DIMETHYL ETHER FROM NATURAL GAS THROUGH

ONE-STEP DME SYNTHESIS ROUTE (30000 MTPA)

BACHELOR THESIS PROJECT

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 INDEX
1 PROJECT DETAILS

1.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 3-7

1.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF DME 3-6

1.1.2 PRESENT STATUS OF DME 6-7

1.2 DME DETAILS 7-17

1.2.1 AVAILABLE PROCESSES FOR DME PRODUCTION 7-10

1.2.2 TECHNO ECONOMICAL APPRAISAL OF ALTERNATIVE PROCESSES 10-12
1.2.3 STATUS OF TECHNOLOGIES/SCHEMES AVAILABLE 12-12
1.2.4 SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SCHEMES 13-17
1.2.5 SOURCES OF KNOWHOW OF SELECTED PROCESS 17-17

1.3 RAW MATERIALS 17-29

1.3.1 DETAILED SPECIFICATION 17-20

1.3.2 REQUIREMENTS AND ASSUMPTIONS MADE 20-20
1.3.3 AVAILABILITY OF NATURAL GAS 20-23
1.3.4 GOVERNMENT POLICIES FOR IMPORT OF NATURAL GAS 24-24
1.3.5 PREVAILING PRICES OF NATURAL GAS 24-24
1.3.6 TESTING PROCEDURE FOR NATURAL GAS 25-29

2 MARKETING PROSPECTS 29-37

2.1 BRIEF ANALYSIS OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF PRODUCT 34-34

2.2 PRESENT PRODUCTION CAPACITY TO THE COUNTRY 35-35
2.3 MARKETING SET-UP AND AREA OF CONSUMPTION 35-36

3 DME- FUEL FOR FUTURE 36-36

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4 DME-CHALLENGES TO MARKET GROWTH 37-37

INTRODUCTION:

The following project is an attempt towards designing a plant to produce 30,000 MTPA
Dimethyl Ether (DME) through Natural gas using one step DME Synthesis route.

The widespread use of Dimethyl Ether (DME) as a non-petroleum based alternative fuel
is propelling the market. Since it is considered as a clean and high-performance
compression ignition fuel, it can be extensively used in diesel engines; its use eliminates
particulate exhaust emissions of automobiles and can significantly save the high cost of
diesel particulate filters. Besides this, it is applicable as an aerosol propellant, power
generation and LPG by blending are the chief uses of the DME. This has spurred the
demand for DME across transportation sector and domestic sector.

Figure 1: Process Flow

1.1 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

1.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF DME:

a. Clean fuel for transportation: DME is one of the most promising alternative
automotive fuel solutions among the various ultra-clean, renewable, and low-carbon

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 fuels under consideration worldwide. DME can be used as fuel in diesel engines,
gasoline engines (30% DME/70% LPG), and gas turbines. Only modest modifications
are required to convert a diesel engine to run on DME, and engine and vehicle
manufacturers, including Nissan and Volvo, have developed heavy vehicles running on
diesel engines fueled with DME.
As an automotive fuel, when compared with petroleum-derived diesel, DME’s
performance demonstrates a number of significant benefits:
Ultra-low exhaust emissions
No particulate matter (PM); very low NOx; no SOx)
Low CO2 emissions
Low engine noise
High fuel economy
High well-to-wheel efficiency
Thermal efficiency equivalent to diesel engine performance
Ignition characteristics equivalent to diesel engine performance

The reduction or elimination of particulate emissions, also commonly known as “soot”

or black smoke, is another important benefit. Diesel engines running on 100% DME
have demonstrated smoke free combustion, while engines using a DME/diesel fuel
blend have demonstrated significant reduction of soot.
A high cetane rating* of 55 – 60 (compared to about 45 for petroleum-derived diesel)
and a boiling point of -25ºC provide fast fuel/air mixing, reduced ignition delay, and
excellent cold starting properties – two additional key advantages for DME’s use as a
fuel.

b. Clean fuel for cooking and heating: Often described as “synthetic LPG”, DME can
be blended with LPG (in a proportion of up to 20%) and used for domestic cooking and
heating, without modifications to equipment or distribution networks. Growth in DME’s
use for domestic applications is expected to increase sharply as DME use and blending
becomes more widespread within the large and growing LPG market – especially in
developing countries where portable (bottled) fuel is providing a safer, cleaner and more
environmentally benign fuel for cooking and heating.

c. Clean fuel for power generation: DME has a performance comparable to natural gas

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 when used for the production of electric power, and it has been approved by
manufacturers such as General Electric, Hitachi and Mitsubishi as a fuel for use in their
gas turbines. DME is an efficient alternative to other energy sources for medium-sized
power plants, especially in isolated or remote locations where it can be difficult to
transport natural gas and where the construction of liquefied natural gas (LNG)
regasification terminals would not be viable.

d. Spray propellant: Dimethyl ether (DME) has been increasingly used as a propellant
in aerosol formulations to replace chlorofluorocarbons, which are found to destroy the
ozone layer of the atmosphere. DME is nontoxic and easily degrades in the troposphere.
Although about 90% of the major current U.S. aerosol industry uses hydrocarbon-based
propellants (mostly iso-butane and propane), DME could become a more widely used
propellant in the next five years. Several aerosol-based household products include
colognes, hair sprays and dyes, personal care mousses, antiperspirants, and room air
fresheners. DME can be used as pesticide, polishing agent, and anti-rust agent.

e. Refrigerant: DME is widely recommended as environmentally friendly aerosol and

green refrigerant since it has zero ozone depletion potential and lower global warming
potentials compared with traditional chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, Freon) and R-134a
(HFC-134a).

f. In Chemical Reactions and laboratory:

i) Production of alkyl aromatics: It can also be considered as an attractive material for

producing alkyl-aromatics, a suitable source for the hydrogen used in fuel cells, as well
as a key intermediate for producing dimethyl sulfate, methyl acetate, light olefins, and
so many other important chemicals
ii) Production of acetic acid: Dimethyl ether can also be converted into acetic acid
using carbonylation technology related to the Monsanto acetic acid process.

(CH3)2O + 2CO + H2O → 2CH3COOH

iii) Solvent: Dimethyl ether is a low-temperature solvent and extraction agent applicable
to specialized laboratory procedures.

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 iv) Alkylating agent: Dimethyl ether is the precursor to the useful alkylating agent,
trimethyloxonium tetrafluoroborate.
v) Dimethyl sulfate: DME is a useful intermediate for the preparation of many
important chemicals, including oxygenates, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, ethylene glycol
intermediate like DMET and methyl sulfate. Dimethyl sulfate is an important
commercial commodity as a solvent and also as an electrolyte in high energy density
batteries.
vi) Synthesis of hydrocarbons: Dimethyl ether is also an essential intermediate in the
synthesis of hydrocarbons from coal or natural gas derived syngas. Lower olefins like
ethylene and propylene or higher molecular weight compounds such as gasoline range
boiling hydrocarbons are produced from syngas using dimethyl ether as an intermediate.
g. Treating warts: A mixture of dimethyl ether and propane is used in an over-the-
counter device to treat warts, by freezing them.
h. Coolant: Dimethyl ether is the main constituent of "freeze spray", a spot-coolant used
in field testing of electronic components. In this role it has supplanted halocarbon
compounds (Freon), which have been suspected of contributing to ozone depletion in the
Earth's atmosphere.
i. Blowtorch gas: Dimethyl ether is also a component of certain high temperature
"MAP-plus" blowtorch gas blends, supplanting the use of methyl acetylene and
propadiene mixtures.

1.1.2 PRESENT STATUS OF DME:

Dimethyl ether (DME), also known as methoxymethane, is the simplest ether which has
widespread applications in chemicals industry and is extensively used as aerosol
propellant. DME can be produced using a variety of feedstock such as biomass,
methanol, and fossil fuels. The most prominent feedstock is natural gas, particularly in
North America, or coal, especially in various Asian countries. The compound has
several properties similar to LPG and is therefore extensively used as an excellent
substitute for traditional fuels. In addition, various characteristic fuel properties of DME,
particularly high cetane number and energy efficiency, make it attractive to be used in
several diesel engines. Other popular applications of DME are as transportation fuel,
power generation fuel, and domestic gas, thus it forms a crucial element stimulating the

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 growth of transportation, agriculture, and construction industries.

The largest producer and consumer of DME is China, where it is produced

commercially. China consumes more than 85% of the worldwide demand for DME. In
countries such as in Japan, Korea, Egypt, and Brazil, DME has been a key energy
source for decades.

DME is now being tried in USA and Japan to achieve severe emission reduction targets
of as low as 50% of the proposed Euro-IV levels. Recognizing that DME can be a new
economical fuel, India's Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas invited British Petroleum
(BP) in 1997 to develop DME supplies in an exclusive partnership with India's leading
energy marketers and research organizations. Intention of this project was to establish
DME as a multi-purpose fuel for India but in the initial stages the project identified some
southern Indian states to supply DME as a feedstock for power plants. In INDIA a 265
KTPY capacity plant is planned. Australia’s CSIRO and its equivalent in India, the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), have launched a three-year,
US$5.6-million collaboration focused on the production of dimethyl ether (DME). The
project is being jointly funded by the Australian and Indian governments.

Due to no major plant for DME export of DME is very little. DME is produced at a
minor level for basic uses and research purposes. In India there is lack of technology and
awareness about using DME.

1.2.1 AVAILABLE PROCESSES FOR DME PRODUCTION

Synthesis Methods for DME

Fig. 2 Block diagram of conversion of fuel to DME

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 As shown in Fig. 2, DME from syngas can be produced in two distinct ways:

INDIRECT SYNTHESIS METHOD:

Traditionally, DME has been produced from syngas in a two-step process in which
methanol is produced from syngas, purified, and then converted to DME in another
reactor. It uses the produced methanol to promote its dehydration.

DIRECT SYNTHESIS METHOD:

More recently, a combined methanol synthesis and dehydration process has been
developed to synthesize DME directly from syngas in a single reactor using bifunctional
catalyst. This is the more efficient process. The technology of this single step method
belongs to companies such as Haldor Topsoe, JFE Holdings, Korea Gas Corporation,
Air Products, and NKK. Moreover, Toyo, MGC, Lurgi and Udhe have their own
indirect processes for DME production.

 Extensive research has been conducted on finding better catalysts that have higher
selectivity toward DME formation and a lower tendency to generate hydrocarbons and
coke. Catalysts for the process are bi-functional catalysts composed of a metallic
function for methanol synthesis and a solid-acid function for the transformation of
methanol into DME. It should be noted that the heat conduction of the bi-functional
catalysts is poor; hence, the applied working temperature of the bi-functional catalysts is
in a temperature range of 523–673 K and pressures up to 10 bar. The metallic function is
mainly composed of such oxides as CuO, ZnO, Al2O3 and Cr2O3. Moreover, a myriad of
solid-acid catalysts have been explored including γ-Al2O3, modified alumina with silica,
TiO2-ZrO2, clays, ion exchange resins, Boehmite (AlOOH) and zeolites such as H-ZSM-
5, HY, mordenites. In CuO–ZnO–Al2O3 (CZA) catalysts, metallic copper clusters are
the active sites for both methanol synthesis and WGS reactions and conversion of
syngas to methanol depends on the copper metal surface area, ZnO plays a pivotal role
in maintaining the active copper metal in optimal dispersion, thus providing a high
number of active sites exposed to gaseous reactants. However, Hadipour and Sohrabi
observed that excess of ZnO in CZA had a negative effect on the activity. Presence of
CuO and Al2O3 in excess amount enhanced the catalyst activity by increasing the

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 dispersion of active sites and hence promoted the surface area of catalyst.

 γ-Al2O3 is a methanol dehydration catalyst. It is very attractive since it is cost effective

and exhibits high surface area, excellent thermal and mechanical stability, high
mechanical resistance, and high selectivity toward DME. Furthermore, it has high
catalytic activity toward DME formation due to its low content of highly acidic sites
which are mostly of the Lewis type. Although γ-Al2O3 is active, it tends to strongly
adsorb water thereby losing activity.

 Zeolites are crystalline aluminosilicates with periodic arrangement of cages and

channels which were found to have extensive industrial use as catalyst. In comparison to
other catalysts, zeolites in general possess high surface area which comes from their
microporous crystalline interface. However, the zeolites’ narrow and slender
microporous structure may restrain DME from quickly diffusing through the pores. As a
result, zeolites may lose their catalytic activity and selectivity quickly owing to the
formation of by-products and deposition of carbonaceous compounds. To overcome this
disadvantage, researchers have used some modifications to zeolite catalysts. For
example, Tang et al. employed a ZSM-5/MCM-41 composite molecular sieve as the
methanol dehydration catalyst. The results exhibited high activity, selectivity and
stability in the process of methanol dehydration to DME according to the combination of
the channel advantage of the mesoporous molecular sieve and the acidity advantage of
ZSM-5. Among zeolite-type solid-acid catalysts used for the dehydration of methanol to
DME, H-ZSM- 5 which exhibits more activity and stability than γ-Al2O3 catalyst is
reported to be the most promising for DME synthesis from syngas.

PRODUCTION OF SYNGAS
There are 4 ways to produce Syngas:

• Coal Gasification

• Low temperature gasification of Biomass

• Steam Reformation of Natural Gas

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 • Auto-thermal reforming of Natural Gas

Fig. 3. Synthesis Gas Production

This project involves production of syngas using Natural gas.

SYNGAS FROM NATURAL GAS: AUTO THERMAL REFORMATION

Autothermal reforming (ATR) uses oxygen and carbon dioxide or steam in a reaction
with methane to form syngas. The reaction takes place in a single chamber where the
methane is partially oxidized. The reaction is exothermic due to the oxidation. When the
ATR uses carbon dioxide the H2:CO ratio produced is 1:1; when the ATR uses steam
the H2:CO ratio produced is 2.5:1

The reactions can be described in the following equations, using CO2:

2CH4 + O2 + CO2 → 3H2 + 3CO + H2O

And using steam:

4CH4 + O2 + 2H2O → 10H2 + 4CO

The outlet temperature of the syngas is between 950-1100 ºC and outlet pressure can be
as high as 100 bar.

1.2.2 TECHNO ECONOMICAL APPRAISAL OF ALTERNATIVE PROCESSES

There are no other alternative processes are available to convert syn gas to DME.
Indirect method is also used if we have supply of methanol and we wish to convert it to
DME. Otherwise, direct synthesis is more feasible to produce DME from syngas as is

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 requires less equipment therefore less capital costs and very less cost is encountered in
handling methanol.

Rather, there are some alternatives processes available to produce syngas from natural
gas

A detailed analysis has been done for Auto-thermal reformation and Steam reformation.

Steam reforming is a method for producing hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or other useful
products from hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas. This is achieved in a processing
device called a reformer where steam reacts at high temperature with the fossil fuel. The
steam methane reformer is widely used in industry to make hydrogen. There is also
interest in the development of much smaller units based on similar technology to
produce hydrogen as a feedstock for fuel cells. Small-scale steam reforming units to
supply fuel cells are currently the subject of research and development, typically
involving the reforming of methanol, but other fuels are also being considered such as
propane, gasoline, auto gas, diesel fuel, and ethanol.

CH4 + H2O ⇌ CO + 3H2 ΔHr= 206 kJ/mol

CO + H2O ⇌ CO2 + H2 ΔHr= -41 kJ/mol

 Ni-based commercial catalyst

 Endothermic reaction, assumed gas-fired

 Simulated isothermal, 800-900°C, 1-5 bar

 Phase separation, residual water condensed; gas phase compressed, cooled, and
sent to methanol reactor

Source: https://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/03/reciprocating/10-30oberto.pdf

The main difference between SMR and ATR is that SMR only uses oxygen via air for
combustion as a heat source to create steam, while ATR directly combusts oxygen. The
advantage of ATR is that the H2:CO can be varied, this is particularly useful for
producing certain second-generation biofuels, such as DME which requires a 1:1 H2:CO
ratio.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_reforming

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 Advantages of Steam Methanol Reformation (SMR):

• Efficient and proven technology for generating syngas, oxogas and carbon
monoxide

• Process can be adapted to meet clients methane conversion requirements

Advantages of Auto-thermal Reformation (ATR):

• Well referenced technology for large plant sizes using natural gas

• According to the best fit solution available as a standalone technology or as

Combined Reforming (with Steam Methane Reformer)

• Syngas adjustable to downstream usage offering a wide field of application

• High-pressure steam can be generated

1.2.3 STATUS OF TECHNOLOGIES/SCHEMES AVAILABLE

There is only a single process to synthesize DME using syngas.

Indirect Method:

Indirect method is used where production of DME is desired form methanol. Aiming to
promote the widespread of DME fuel, nine companies; Mitsubishi Gas Chemical,
ITOCHU, JAPEX, Taiyo Oil, Total Di-Methyl Japan, Toyota Tsusho, JGC, Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries and Mitsubishi Chemical, established a joint venture company “Fuel
DME Production Co. Ltd.” To produce annually 80,000 tons of DME (potential
expansion up to 100,000 tons). The DME production plant was constructed in Niigata
factory of Mitsubishi Gas Chemical, and started the operation in August, 2008. Fuel
grade DME (purity 99.8%) is produced from imported methanol by the methanol
dehydration process of Mitsubishi Gas Chemical, and it is used as boiler fuel of food
companies, fuel for DME truck of transportation companies, etc. in Niigata prefecture.

Direct Method:

In order to develop the DME direct synthesis technology to such extent that its
commercialization is feasible, the technical development was conducted with support

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 from the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of the Japanese government for five
years from fiscal year 2002, using a demonstration plant of 100 tons in daily production,
by a research company “DME Development Co. Ltd.” , which had been established by
10 companies; JFE, Taiyo, Nissan, Toyota Tsusho, Hitachi, Marubeni, Idemitsu Kosan,
INPEX, LNG Japan, JAPEX and Total. Five test operations including a long-term
continuous operation for five months were done between fiscal year 2003 and fiscal year
2006, and the technology has been demonstrated, various engineering data is acquired,
and scale-up technology to commercial plant is established. This technology is now
taken over jointly by four companies (Toyota Tsusho, INPEX, JAPEX and Total).

1.2.4 SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGY/SCHEME

BASIS OF SELECTION:

Reactor productivities, catalyst life and activity were significantly higher in the co-
production case. In terms of catalyst deactivation, the rate of thermal aging of methanol
synthesis catalyst becomes slower when it is used in a co-production mode along with 𝜸-
alumina. Moreover, the process exhibits excellent control because it is possible to co-
produce dimethyl ether and methanol in any desired proportion, from 5% DME to 95%
DME, by varying the mass ratios of the methanol synthesis catalyst to the methanol
dehydration catalyst. Water gas shift reaction simultaneously converts by-product water
to give carbon dioxide as by-product, therefore the water does not accumulate near the
synthesis catalyst. Water leads the catalyst to degradation. To bring longer catalyst life,
it’s important to avoid water accumulation over time.

Separation or distillation of DME from CO2 is much efficient and not energy consuming
compared with separation from water (in the case of indirect method). The methanol
synthesis technology faces a serious impediment because the reaction is severely limited
by chemical equilibrium. Due to the reversible nature of the methanol synthesis reaction,
the maximum per-pass conversion of syngas is restricted. However, the potential of the
reverse reaction and the chemical equilibrium limitation can be alleviated by chemically
converting methanol into another chemical species that is not affected by the equilibrium
constraint.

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 DIRECT SYNTHESIS METHOD: DETAILS
Synthesis of dimethyl ether from syngas (the LPDME process) can be carried out in the
liquid phase at moderate temperature and pressure, 250℃ and 1000 psi. This single-
stage process involves dual catalysts slurried in a liquid oil medium (Witco-40). The bi-
functional catalyst consists of a mixture of methanol synthesis catalyst (Cu/ZnO/Al2O3)
and methanol dehydration catalyst (H-ZSM-5).

DME synthesis reactions and equilibrium conversion:

The DME synthesis reaction (1) from synthesis gas (H2 and CO) is composed of three
reactions:

Methanol synthesis reaction (2), methanol dehydration reaction (3), and water gas shift
reaction (4). The overall reaction is exothermic, and the reaction heat in the methanol
synthesis step is dominant.

3CO+3H2 →CH3OCH3+CO - 246.0 kJ/DME-mol- Overall Reaction (1)

2CO+4H2 →2CH3OH - 181.6 kJ/DME-mol (2)

2CH3OH →CH3OCH3+H2O - 23.4 kJ/DME-mol (3)

CO+H2O →CO2+H2 - 41.0 kJ/DME-mol (4)

Methanol synthesis is an equilibrium-restricted reaction. However, when the

dehydration reaction takes place simultaneously, the syngas conversion rises
dramatically. As the DME synthesis reaction is highly exothermic, it is more important
to control the reaction temperature than in the case of methanol synthesis as shown in
Equations (1) and (2).

In each reaction, the equilibrium conversion reaches its maximum point when the H2/CO
ratio is equal to its stoichiometric number, which are 1.0 for (1) and 2.0 for (2).
Therefore, we may expect a higher per-pass conversion than that by the other two
reactions. This is because the higher equilibrium conversion of DME synthesis creates
much more reaction heat that may create hot spots in the reactor and could damage the
catalyst. The hot spots generally take place in a gas-solid phase and non-adiabatic

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 packed bed tubular reactors. On the other hand, a slurry bed reactor can remove reaction
heat by circulating slurry and easily maintains the uniform temperature

Fig. 4. Equilibrium Conversion of Methanol Synthesis and DME Synthesis at 260 °C and 5
MPa

Fig. 5. One step DME Synthesis Mechanism

The mechanism of the reactions in the slurry composed of an inert solvent containing
fine catalyst particles and the simplified schematic diagram is shown in Figure 5. The
reactant gas or synthesis gas of CO and H2 is supplied from the bottom of the reactor
shown in Figure 3. Gas bubbles may be generated and diffuse into the solvent, and the
chemical reactions take place on the surface of the catalyst.

Firstly, the methanol synthesis reaction occurs and then methanol is dehydrated to
produce DME. Water generated by the dehydration reaction quickly reacts with CO and
is removed from the system. Therefore, no water remains on the surface of the catalyst.
The heat of reaction is absorbed by the solvent, which has a large heat capacity, and
thanks to the highly effective heat conductivity, the temperature distribution in the slurry

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 could be homogeneous. The reaction heat is finally removed through the generation of
steam. In this connection, a catalyst that is appropriate for the slurry phase reactor has
been designed and developed. In order to enable a large-scale test, mass production
technology for the catalyst has also been developed. The inert solvent is selected as a
hydrocarbon fraction with a narrow and high boiling point range around 400 °C, which
may not influence the reaction performance and is not vaporized under reaction
conditions. The catalyst with the size of the order of 10-micrometer is suspended in the
solvent. It is a mixed catalyst that has functions of methanol synthesis, dehydration and
shift gas reactions, and contains CuO, ZnO and Al2O3. Water may damage the catalyst
activity so that the water removal mechanism by the shift reaction to convert CO to CO 2
is very essential. DME synthesis reactor effluent contains DME, CO2 and the unreacted
synthesis gas which are all in gas phase at the reactor outlet and are easily separated
from the slurry phase so that the separation of liquid product and catalyst becomes
unnecessary.

Fig. 6. Slurry Phase Reactor for DME Synthesis

Operational units of chemical engineering are commonly used for the separation and
purification of DME in the synthesis process. Through absorption, flash and distillation,
H2, N2, CH4, and CO2 are removed; methanol is recovered and the final DME product is
obtained. Moreover, since the methanol synthesis is a thermodynamically limited
process, consumption of methanol in the consequent reaction to form DME will shift the
methanol synthesis equilibrium toward higher methanol conversion. The separation of

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 DME and CO2 becomes more difficult when methanol is present in the system. Thus, in
a proposed process, the methanol and water resulted from the one-step reaction were
first condensed and then absorbed by water; finally, the liquid stream containing DME
was distilled for final DME product. This separation process is demonstrated to be
feasible to synthesize DME with high purity. The schematic of this process is shown in
the process flowsheet.

Fig 7. Block diagram of selected process

1.2.5 SOURCE OF KNOWHOW OF SELECTED PROCESS

The technology is based on the work done by study of research literature, patents, and
the initial findings of work done by Haldor Topsoe, JFE Holdings, Korea Gas
Corporation, Air Products, Toyo, MGC, Lurgi and Udhe Davy Process Technology.
Further research work is expected to come up in this area in 2008 by US Department of
Energy, JFE Holdings and other institutions working in this field especially in China and
Japan.

1.3 RAW MATERIALS (NATURAL GAS)

1.3.1 DETAILED SPECIFICATION

The project involves production of Syngas from Natural Gas and then DME from
Syngas.

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 Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of
methane, but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, and
sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium.
It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense
heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that
the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the
gas.

Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, and
electricity generation. It is also used as a fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in
the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals. Fossil
fuel based natural gas is a non-renewable resource. Natural gas is found in deep
underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal
beds and as methane clathrates. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in
close proximity to and with natural gas.

Note: This may vary significantly from place to place.

Table 1: Composition of Natural Gas

Typical Analysis Range

Component
(mole %) (mole %)

Methane 93.9 87.0 - 97.0

Ethane 4.2 1.5 - 9.0

Propane 0.3 0.1 - 1.5

iso - Butane 0.03 0.01 - 0.3

normal - Butane 0.03 0.01 - 0.3

iso - Pentane 0.01 trace - 0.04

normal - Pentane 0.01 trace - 0.04

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 Typical Analysis Range
Component
(mole %) (mole %)

Hexanes plus 0.01 trace - 0.06

Nitrogen 1.0 0.2 - 5.5

Carbon Dioxide 0.5 0.05 - 1.0

Oxygen 0.01 trace - 0.1

Hydrogen trace trace - 0.02

Specific Gravity 0.59 0.57 - 0.62

Gross Heating Value (MJ/m3), dry basis * 38.7 36.0 - 40.2

Wobbe Number (MJ/m3) 50.4 47.5 - 51.5

* The gross heating value is the total heat obtained by complete combustion at constant pressure of a unit volume of
gas in air, including the heat released by condensing the water vapor in the combustion products (gas, air, and
combustion products taken at standard temperature and pressure).

Source: https://www.uniongas.com/about-us/about-natural-gas/chemical-composition-of-natural-gas

Table 2: Types of Natural Gas

Natural Gas comes in 4 basic forms

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) - Natural Gas which has been liquefied at –
(Minus) 160 degree Centigrade. Natural Gas is liquefied to facilitate
transportation in large volumes in cryogenic tankers across sea.

Regasified Liquefied Natural Gas (RLNG) – LNG Re-gasified before

transporting it to consumers through Pipelines.

Compressed Natural gas (CNG) - Natural Gas compressed to a pressure of 200-

250 kg/cm2 used as fuel for transportation. CNG decreases vehicular pollution

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 on the virtue of being cleaner fuel than liquid fuels.

Piped Natural gas (PNG) - Natural Gas distributed through a pipeline network
that has safety valves to maintain the pressure, assuring safe, uninterrupted
supply to the domestic sector for cooking and heating / cooling applications.

Source: http://www.gailonline.com/BV-NarutalGas.html

Fig. 8. Natural Gas Consumption in India

1.3.2 REQUIREMENTS AND ASSUMPTIONS MADE

30,000 MTPA Dimethyl Ether (DME) Production Plant through Natural gas using one
step DME Synthesis route.

Assumptions:

 It is assumed that our raw material ‘Natural gas’ consists of 95% methane and 5%
ethane.
 DME of very high purity is formed so final product contain less amount of impurities
which can be neglected.

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  Average operating time of the plant is 330 days/year, it turns out to be equivalent to
3787.88 kg/h of Dimethyl Ether produced.

1.3.3 AVAILABILITY OF NATURAL GAS

India had 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves as of January
2007.The total gas production in India was about 31,400 mcm in 2002-03 compared
with 2,358 mcm in 1980-81. At this production level, India's reserves are likely to last
for around 29 years; that is significantly longer than the 19 years estimated for oil
reserves. Almost 70% of India’s natural gas reserves are found in the Bombay High
basin and in Gujarat. Offshore gas reserves are also located in Andhra Pradesh coast
(Krishna Godavari Basin) and Tamil Nadu coast (Cauvery Basin). Onshore reserves are
located in Gujarat and the North Eastern states (Assam and Tripura).

Table 3: Major Gas Based Projects

Commissioned Capacity
Project State (MW)
RGPPL, Anjanvel Maharashtra 1480
Dadri Uttar Pradesh 817
Paguthan Gujarat 654.73
Auraiya Uttar Pradesh 652
Jhanor-Gandhar Gujarat 648
Kawas Gujarat 645
Faridabad Haryana 430
Anta Rajasthan 413
Vemagiri Power Generation Andhra
Ltd. Pradesh 388.5
Rajiv Gandhi CCPP
Kayamkulam Kerala 350

21 | P a g e
 Source: http://www.eai.in/ref/fe/nag/nag.html
Table 4: Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production in India

Fig. 9. Level of Exploration in India

22 | P a g e
 Fig. 10. Region wise distribution of Natural Gas

As India does not have any pipeline connection, all the gas currently imported is LNG.
Current operational LNG import capacity is 13.5 mtpa (18 bcm). India joined the global
LNG market in March 2004 when the Dahej LNG terminal went into operation. Petronet
LNG Limited (PLL), a joint venture promoted by GAIL, IOCL, Bahrat Petroleum
(BPCL), GDF Suez, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and ONGC was formed to
import LNG in order to meet the growing gas demand. PLL expanded this terminal from
5 to 10 mtpa (6.8 to 13.6 bcm) in early 2009. The second LNG terminal is the Shell and
Total 3.5 mtpa (4.8 bcm) terminal located in Hazira, which was commissioned in April
2005.12 Both are located on the western coast and could be further expanded to 15 and
10 mtpa respectively. The third terminal, the Dabhol Ratnagiri LNG terminal, is
expected to become operational in 2010, after many delays. It has a total capacity of 5.5
MTPA (7.5 bcm), with about 2.9 MTPA (3.9 bcm) available for merchant sales. The
commissioning date was delayed from mid-April 2009 to an unspecified date in 2010
because of the monsoon season, breakwater facilities and construction costs, and no new
commissioning date has been given since. It would first only operate at a capacity of 1

23 | P a g e
 mtpa (1.4 bcm) and ramp up to planned capacity gradually.

Table 5: Import data for LNG (BCM)

1.3.4 GOVERNMENT POLICIES FOR IMPORT OF NATURAL GAS

Natural gas available in India can broadly be classified into two categories, viz. (i)
Domestic Natural Gas and (ii) Imported Re-gasified Liquefied Natural Gas (R-LNG).
Supply and distribution of domestically produced gas is being carried out under the
policy guidelines issued by the Government Policies from time to time. The import of
RLNG falls under the list of Open General License Item and the marketers are free to
import LNG and sell the RLNG to customers. A statement showing sector-wise supplies
between April-Dec.’2016 of natural gas is given in table below.

(Figures are in MMSCMD) Sector

MMSCMD- Million Metric Standard Cubic Meter per Day

24 | P a g e
Table 6: MMSCMD data for Natural Gas

Sector Domestic R-LNG Total

Fertilizers 22.04 20.51 42.55

Power 24.73 7.44 32.17

City gas distribution 11.55 8.12 19.67

Sponge Iron/ Petrochemical/Refineries/Internal 10.99 34.21 45.20

Consumption/LPG Shrinkage/Miscellaneous

Total 69.31 70.28 139.59

1.3.5 PREVAILING PRICE OF NATURAL GAS

In accordance with Para 8 of the “New Domestic Natural Gas Pricing Guidelines, 2014”
issued by Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Govt. of India, the price of domestic
natural gas for the period 1st October,2018 to 31st March,2019 is US $3.36/MMTBTU
on Gross Calorific Value (GCV) basis.

1.3.6 TESTING PROCEDURE FOR NATURAL GAS

INDIAN STANDARDS FOR NATURAL GAS PIPELINE SYSTEM

1. IS 15663(Part 1):2006 This code covers requirements and

recommendations for the design, materials,
construction and testing of pipelines made of steel
and used in the transportation of natural gas and re-
gasified liquid natural gas (RLING).

2. IS 15663(Part 2):2006 The code covers the minimum requirements for

design, installation and testing of pipelines of steel,
crossing roads, railways, water courses and other
buried services.

3. IS 15663(Part 3):2006 This code covers requirements for pre-

25 | P a g e
 commissioning and commissioning of pipelines.

4. IS 15654:2006 The standard provides guidelines for the

definition,
specification, performance analysis, and application
of systems used for supervisory control and data
acquisition for oil and gas pipe lines.

5. IS 15655:2006 This standard enlists various types of

telecommunication facilities required for smooth
and efficient operation and maintenance of oil and
gas pipelines.

6. IS 15667:2006 This standard applies to data-acquisition and

trend-
monitoring systems for gas turbine installations and
associated systems.

7. IS 15664:2006 This standard specifies procedures and rules

for the
conduct and reporting of acceptance tests in order to
determine and/or verify the power, thermal
efficiency and other performance characteristics of
gas turbine power plants.

8. IS 15666(Part 1):2006 This standard covers terms and definitions

relevant to
the procurement of gas turbine systems.

9. IS 15666(Part 2):2006 This standard specifies the standard

reference
conditions and standard ratings for gas turbines.

10. IS 15666(Part 3):2006 This standard covers the design requirements

for the
procurement of all applications of gas turbines and
gas turbine systems, including gas turbines for
combined cycle systems and their auxiliaries, by a
purchaser from a packager. It also provides
assistance and technical information to be used in
the procurement.

11. IS 15666(Part 4):2006 This standard provides guidelines for

procurement of
gas turbines with consideration of the fuel quality
and of the environmental performance. Guidance is
given to both the packager and purchaser on what
information should be provided with regard to the

26 | P a g e
 fuel used by a gas turbine, and with regard to the
type of information necessary to quantify the
expected environmental impact.

12. IS 15666(Part 5):2006 This standard specifies requirements and

gives
recommendations for the design, materials,
fabrication, inspection, testing and preparation for
shipment of packaged gas turbines for use in
drilling, production, refining and the transport by
pipelines of petroleum and natural gas. It is
applicable to the procurement of gas turbines and
gas turbine systems, including gas turbines for
combined cycle systems, and their auxiliaries by a
purchaser from a packager.

13. IS 15666(Part 7):2006 This standard specifies the information that

needs to
be submitted during the proposal and contract stages
of a project for the entire scope of supply for which
the packager will assume technical and contractual
responsibility.

14. IS 15666(Part 8):2006 This standard states the principles for systems
and
procedures to assure the integrity of a packager’s
product and services. It gives guidance on the
inspection, testing, installation and commissioning
required for the package and packaged equipment. It
outlines the responsibilities between the purchaser
and packager for inspection, coordination, reporting
and recording.

15. IS 15666(Part 9):2006 This standard provides a basis for exchange of

information about reliability, availability,
maintainability and safety between gas turbine
manufacturers, users, consultants, regulatory bodies,
insurance companies and others. It also describes
component life expectancy, repairs and criteria for
determining overhaul intervals.

16. IS 15665:2006 This standard gives terms and definitions used

in the
field of gas turbines and applies to open-cycle gas
turbines, closed-cycle, semiclosed-cycle and
combined- cycle gas turbines.

17. IS 15657:2006 This standard specifies requirements for

27 | P a g e
 centrifugal
pumps, including pumps running in reverse as
hydraulic power recovery turbines, for use in
petroleum, petrochemical and gas industry process
services.

18. IS 15661:2006 This standard specifies requirements and

gives
recommendations for the design, materials,
fabrication, inspection, testing and preparation for
shipment of centrifugal compressors for use in the
petroleum, chemical and gas service industries.

19. IS 15659(Part 1):2006 This standard specifies requirements of plant

applied
external three layer extruded polyethylene and
polypropylene based coatings for corrosion
protection of welded and seamless steel pipes for
pipeline transportation of gas and liquid
hydrocarbons in the petroleum and natural gas
industries.

20. IS 15659(Part 2):2006 This standard specifies the requirements for

qualification, application, testing and handing of
materials for plant application of single layer Fusion
Bonded Epoxy (FBE) coatings applied externally for
the corrosion protection of bare steel for use in
pipeline transportation systems for the petroleum
and natural gas industries.
21. IS 8062:2006 This code deals with general principles and
requirements for cathodic protection system for
prevention against corrosion of external
underground buried surface of metallic high
pressure hydrocarbon product pipeline/structure.

This standard is intended to serve as a guide for

establishing minimum requirements for control of
external corrosion on pipeline/structure system.

22. IS 15678:2006 This code provides a uniform authentic reference

to
the pipeline operators which shall help them in
taking decisions about selection of appropriate
Magnetic Flex Leakage (MFL) tool for inline
inspection to assess the health of the pipeline
segment in quantifiable terms besides keeping them
fully aware as to what best can be expected out of
intelligent pigging inspection.

23. IS 15679:2006 This code covers the minimum requirements of

28 | P a g e
 materials, equipments and accessories for hot
tapping and stopple plugging/line plugging
operations of onshore natural gas pipelines. It covers
the minimum safety requirements to be maintained
during welding, cutting and plug setting, etc, while
carrying out the hot tapping and stopple
plugging/line plugging operations on pipelines.

24. IS 15672:2006 This standard provides guidance on

selection,
installation, calibration, performance and operation
of Corioils meters for the determination of mass
flow, density, volume flow and other related
parameters of fluids, synonymous for liquids and
gases.

25. IS 15673:2006 This standard specifies the requirements for the

construction, methods of pressure tapping, working
ranges with normal values of minimum/maximum
flow rates and permissible errors for rotary piston
meters.

26. IS 15674:2006 This standard covers multipath ultrasonic transit-

time
flow-meters, used for custody transfer measurement
of natural gas for gas temperature between -10˚ to
55˚C.

27. IS 15675:2006 This standard specifies the geometry and method

of
use (installation and operating conditions) of orifice
plates when they are inserted in a conduit running
full to determine the flow rate of the fluid flowing in
the conduit.

28. IS 15676:2006 This standard specifies the requirements of

dimensions, ranges, construction, performance,
calibration and output characteristics of turbine
meters for gas flow measurement for custody
transfer. It also specifies installation conditions,
leakage testing and pressure testing and provides
recommendations for use, field checks &
perturbations of the fluid flowing.

29. IS 15677:2006 This code gives guidance on the specification,

design,
installation, operation and maintenance of metering
systems for high accuracy flow measurement,
estimation of uncertainty, secondary
instrumentation, gas properties related to metering

29 | P a g e
 of natural gas and related safety aspects. These
guidelines cover five types of meters namely orifice,
turbine, ultrasonic, rotary and coriolis.

30. IS 15729:2007 This code covers the commissioning, operation

and
maintenance and safety aspects of natural gas
pressure regulating and metering terminal.

3-3. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE:

Assumptions:

● Pure Dimethyl Ether is produced.

● Feed contains only Methane and no other chemical impurity.
● No leakage or loss of material occurs in that plant.

Design of the basis: 300 days of operation per year

24 hours of operation per year

Calculation:

DME to be produced: 30000 MTPA=30000/(300*24)=4.166 ton/hr=4.166*(1000/46)=90.579

kmol/hr.

Reactions Involved:

Preparation of syngas from natural gas (Autothermal Reforming):

2CH4+O2+CO2 → 3CO+3H2+H2O

Syngas to DME:

2CO+4H2 → 2CH3OH -181.6 kJ/DME-mol (2)

2CH3OH → CH3OCH3+H2O -23.4 kJ/DME-mol (3)
CO+H2O → CO2+H2 -41.0 kJ/DME-mol (4)

Overall reaction:
3CO+3H2 → CH3OCH3+CO2 -246.0 kJ/DME-mol (1)

Reactions:

3CO+3H2 → CH3OCH3+CO2 DME Formulation (90%)

Side Reaction:
CO2+3H2 → CH3OH+H2O

30 | P a g e
 Capacity= 30000 MTPA = 90.579 kmol/hr (24 hours for 300 days)

CO2 Produced = 90.579 kmol/hr

CO Consumed = 271.739 kmol/hr
H2 Consumed = 271.739 kmol/hr

From Graph, Efficiency = 90% Then

CO Required = 301.932 kmol/hr
H2 Required = 301.932 kmol/hr

We know from literature approximately ⅕ mole methanol is produced per mol DME
produced, Therefore
CH3OH Produced = 18.115 kmol/hr
H2O Produced = 18.115 kmol/hr
CO2 Produced = 18.115 kmol/hr

Net CO2 produced = 90.579-18.115=72.463 kmol/hr

H2 Consumed in reaction 2 → 18.1158*3 = 54.347 kmol/hr
Net H2 Consumed = 271.739+54.347=326.086 kmol/hr
Total H2 required = 301.932+54.347 = 356.932 kmol/hr
H2 left unreacted = 356.279-326.086= 30.193 kmol/hr
CO left unreacted =301.932-271.739= 30.193 kmol/hr

Since, 2CH4 = 3H2 (mole balance)

CH4 Required = 237.519
CO2 Required = 118.759
O2 Required = 118.759

Unit 1: H2S Absorber

Unit 1: Compressor

31 | P a g e
Assumptions: ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY = 1.0
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY = 1.0

CO2 CO2-1

To COMP H3

From COMP

VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 70 70

Total Flow kmol/hr 70 70

Total Flow kg/hr 3080.686 3080.686

Temperature °C 25 314.2825

Pressure bar 1 30

Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -1.83E+06 -1.77E+06

Density gm/cc 1.78E-03 0.027432

Average MW 44.0098 44.0098

32 | P a g e
 VAPOR PHASE

Viscosity Pa-sec 1.50E-05 2.75E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.016469 0.039767

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 850.6162 1089.472

Unit 2: Compressor-1

Assumptions: ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY - 1.0

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY - 1.0

O2 O2-1

To COMP-1 H2

From COMP-1

Phase VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

O2 118.759 118.759

Total Flow kmol/hr 118.759 118.759

Total Flow kg/hr 3800.145 3800.145

Temperature C 25 470.7019

Pressure bar 1 30

33 | P a g e
 Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -62.6975 1.10E+05

Density gm/cc 1.29E-03 0.015432

Average MW 31.9988 31.9988

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 2.06E-05 4.06E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.026454 0.057841

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 918.7231 1046.372

Unit 3: Heater-1

NG NG1

To H1 MIXER

From H1

Phase VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CH4 155 155

Total Flow kmol/hr 155 155

Total Flow kg/hr 2486.628 2486.628

34 | P a g e
 Temperature C 25 400

Pressure bar 30 30

Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -7.71E+05 -5.90E+05

Density gm/cc 0.020501 8.56E-03

Average MW 16.04276 16.04276

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 1.17E-05 2.14E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.034185 0.097979

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 2422.261 3555.526

Unit 4: Heater-2

O2-1 O2-2

To H2 ATR

From COMP-1 H2

Phase VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

O2 118.759 118.759

Total Flow kmol/hr 118.759 118.759

35 | P a g e
 Total Flow kg/hr 3800.145 3800.145

Temperature C 470.7019 400

Pressure bar 30 30

Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec 1.10E+05 91309.34

Density gm/cc 0.015432 0.017057

Average MW 31.9988 31.9988

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 4.06E-05 3.80E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.057841 0.053293

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1046.372 1029.937

Unit 5: Heater-3

CO2 CO2-1

To COMP H3

From COMP

Phase VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 70 70

Total Flow kmol/hr 70 70

36 | P a g e
 Total Flow kg/hr 3080.686 3080.686

Temperature C 25 314.2825

Pressure bar 1 30

Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -1.83E+06 -1.77E+06

Density gm/cc 1.78E-03 0.027432

Average MW 44.0098 44.0098

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 1.50E-05 2.75E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.016469 0.039767

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 850.6162 1089.472

Unit 6: Mixer

CO2-2 NG1 NG1+C02 REC-CO2

37 | P a g e
To MIXER MIXER ATR MIXER

From H3 H1 MIXER H8

Phase VAPOR VAPOR VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 70 0 138.7617 68.76166

CH4 0 155 155 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 70 155 293.7617 68.76166

Total Flow kg/hr 3080.686 2486.628 8593.501 3026.187

Temperature C 400 400 399.8563 400

Pressure bar 30 30 30 30

Vapor Frac 1 1 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -1.75E+06 -5.90E+05 -4.06E+06 -1.72E+06

Density gm/cc 0.023765 8.56E-03 0.015692 0.023765

Average MW 44.0098 16.04276 29.25331 44.0098

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 3.04E-05 2.14E-05 2.66E-05 3.04E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.046369 0.097979 0.071461 0.046369

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1124.704 3555.526 1827.237 1124.704

Unit 7: Autothermal Reformer

38 | P a g e
 NG1+C02 O2-2 SNG+H2O

To ATR ATR FD

From MIXER H2 ATR

Phase VAPOR VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 138.7617 0 0

H20 0 0 221.2797

CH4 155 0 0

H2 0 0 88.72034

O2 0 118.759 0

CO 0 0 293.7617

DME 0 0 0

CH3OH 0 0 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 293.7617 118.759 603.7617

Total Flow kg/hr 8593.501 3800.145 12393.65

Temperature C 399.8563 400 1100

Pressure bar 30 30 90

Vapor Frac 1 1 1

39 | P a g e
 Liquid Frac 0 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -4.06E+06 91309.34 -4.22E+06

Density gm/cc 0.015692 0.017057 0.016005

Average MW 29.25331 31.9988 20.52738

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 2.66E-05 3.80E-05 5.40E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.071461 0.053293 0.151123

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1827.237 1029.937 1881.58

Unit 8: Separator-Flash Drum

H2O SNG SNG+H2O

To COMP-2 FD

From FD FD ATR

Phase LIQUID VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 0 0 0

40 | P a g e
 H20 220.5656 0.714023 221.2797

CH4 0 0 0

H2 2.79E-05 88.72031 88.72034

O2 0 0 0

CO 20.5154 273.2463 293.7617

DME 0 0 0

CH3OH 0 0 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 241.0811 362.6806 603.7617

Total Flow kg/hr 4548.196 7845.45 12393.65

Temperature C 50 50 1100

Pressure bar 90 90 90

Vapor Frac 0 1 1

Liquid Frac 1 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -4.32E+06 -2.00E+06 -4.22E+06

Density gm/cc 0.907033 0.071345 0.016005

Average MW 18.86584 21.63184 20.52738

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 1.97E-05 5.40E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.051991 0.151123

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1451.527 1881.58

Unit 9: Compressor-2

41 | P a g e
 SNG SNG-1

To COMP-2 MIXER-1

From FD COMP-2

Phase VAPOR MIXED

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

H20 0.714023 0.714023

H2 88.72031 88.72031

CO 273.2463 273.2463

Total Flow kmol/hr 362.6806 362.6806

Total Flow kg/hr 7845.45 7845.45

Temperature C 50 16.07344

Pressure bar 90 60

Vapor Frac 1 0.998219

Liquid Frac 0 1.78E-03

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -2.00E+06 -2.03E+06

Density gm/cc 0.071345 0.054096

42 | P a g e
 Average MW 21.63184 21.63184

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 1.97E-05 1.78E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.051991 0.047452

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1451.527 1439.696

LIQUID
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 7.05E-04

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.113874

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 3227.607

Unit 10: Mixer-1

CO+H2 S6 SNG-1

To MIXER-1 H5 MIXER-1

From MS MIXER-1 COMP-2

Phase VAPOR VAPOR MIXED

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 0 0 0

H20 0 0.714023 0.714023

43 | P a g e
 CH4 0 0 0

H2 28.65013 117.3704 88.72031

O2 0 0 0

CO 80.22307 353.4693 273.2463

DME 0 0 0

CH3OH 0 0 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 108.8732 471.5538 362.6806

Total Flow kg/hr 2304.835 10150.29 7845.45

Temperature C 148.1303 40.72171 16.07344

Pressure bar 60 25 60

Vapor Frac 1 1 0.998219

Liquid Frac 0 0 1.78E-03

Solid Frac 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -5.63E+05 -2.59E+06 -2.03E+06

Density gm/cc 0.035612 0.020603 0.054096

Average MW 21.16991 21.52519 21.63184

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 2.28E-05 1.83E-05 1.78E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.067224 0.05124 0.047452

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1423.963 1385.827 1439.696

LIQUID
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 7.05E-04

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.113874

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 3227.607

Unit 11- Heater-5

44 | P a g e
 DME DME-1 S6 SNG

To H5 Sep-01 H5 COMP-2

From DME-REAC H5 MIXER-1 FD

Phase VAPOR VAPOR VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 68.76166 68.76166 0 0

H20 17.18872 17.18872 0.714023 0.714023

CH4 0 0 0 0

H2 28.65013 28.65013 117.3704 88.72031

O2 0 0 0 0

CO 80.22306 80.22306 353.4693 273.2463

DME 85.95038 85.95038 0 0

CH3OH 17.18872 17.18872 0 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 297.9627 297.9627 471.5538 362.6806

Total Flow kg/hr 10151.1 10151.1 10150.29 7845.45

45 | P a g e
Temperature C 260 148.1303 40.72171 50

Pressure bar 60 60 25 90

Vapor Frac 1 1 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -3.73E+06 -3.85E+06 -2.59E+06 -2.00E+06

Density gm/cc 0.048109 0.065271 0.020603 0.071345

Average MW 34.06835 34.06835 21.52519 21.63184

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 2.30E-05 1.95E-05 1.83E-05 1.97E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.05272 0.038933 0.05124 0.051991

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1714.585 1648.762 1385.827 1451.527

Unit 12: Heater-6

S13 SG

To DME-REAC H6

From H6 H5

Phase VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

46 | P a g e
 CO2 0 0

H20 0.714025 0.714023

CH4 0 0

H2 117.3618 117.3704

O2 0 0

CO 353.4989 353.4693

DME 0 0

CH3OH 0 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 471.5748 471.5538

Total Flow kg/hr 10151.1 10150.29

Temperature C 248 176.1822

Pressure bar 60 25

Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -2.40E+06 -2.47E+06

Density gm/cc 0.029232 0.0143

Average MW 21.52596 21.52519

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 2.63E-05 2.35E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.077033 0.068568

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1405.181 1383.27

Unit 13: DME Reactor

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 DME S13

To H5 DME-REAC

From DME-REAC H6

Phase VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 68.76166 0

H20 17.18872 0.714025

CH4 0 0

H2 28.65013 117.3618

O2 0 0

CO 80.22306 353.4989

DME 85.95038 0

CH3OH 17.18872 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 297.9627 471.5748

Total Flow kg/hr 10151.1 10151.1

Temperature C 260 248

Pressure bar 60 60

Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

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 Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -3.73E+06 -2.40E+06

Density gm/cc 0.048109 0.029232

Average MW 34.06835 21.52596

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 2.30E-05 2.63E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.05272 0.077033

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1714.585 1405.181

Unit 14: Separator-1

DME-1 GASES LIQUID

To Sep-01 MS DC1

From H5 Sep-01 Sep-01

Phase VAPOR VAPOR LIQUID

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 68.76166 68.76166 0

H20 17.18872 0 17.18872

CH4 0 0 0

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 H2 28.65013 28.65013 0

O2 0 0 0

CO 80.22306 80.22307 0

DME 85.95038 0 85.95038

CH3OH 17.18872 0 17.18872

Total Flow kmol/hr 297.9627 177.6349 120.3278

Total Flow kg/hr 10151.1 5331.022 4820.075

Temperature C 148.1303 148.1303 148.1303

Pressure bar 60 60 60

Vapor Frac 1 1 0

Liquid Frac 0 0 1

Solid Frac 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -3.85E+06 -2.34E+06 -1.62E+06

Density gm/cc 0.065271 0.05209 0.359757

Average MW 34.06835 30.01113 40.05786

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 1.95E-05 2.25E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.038933 0.04793

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1648.762 1212.403

LIQUID
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 9.28E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.093263

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1404.943

Unit 15: Membrane Separator

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 CO+H2 GASES PURE-CO2

To MIXER-1 MS TUR

From MS Sep-01 MS

Phase VAPOR VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 0 68.76166 68.76166

H20 0 0 0

CH4 0 0 0

H2 28.65013 28.65013 0

O2 0 0 0

CO 80.22307 80.22307 0

DME 0 0 0

CH3OH 0 0 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 108.8732 177.6349 68.76166

Total Flow kg/hr 2304.835 5331.022 3026.187

Temperature C 148.1303 148.1303 148.1303

Pressure bar 60 60 60

Vapor Frac 1 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -5.63E+05 -2.34E+06 -1.78E+06

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 Density gm/cc 0.035612 0.05209 0.083974

Average MW 21.16991 30.01113 44.0098

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 2.28E-05 2.25E-05 2.21E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.067224 0.04793 0.026353

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1423.963 1212.403 1102.231

Unit 16- Distillation Column-1

LIQUID METH+W PURE-

AT DME
To DC1 DC2

From Sep-01 DC1 DC1

Phase LIQUID LIQUID LIQUID

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

H20 17.18872 17.18867 5.78E-05

DME 85.95038 8.59E-10 85.95038

CH3OH 17.18872 17.18872 1.72E-06

Total Flow kmol/hr 120.3278 34.37739 85.95044

Total Flow kg/hr 4820.075 860.4224 3959.653

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 Temperatu C 148.1303 140.2201 19.23134
re
Pressure bar 60 8 5

Vapor Frac 0 0 0

Liquid 1 1 1
Frac
Solid Frac 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -1.62E+06 -5.71E+05 -1.16E+06

Density gm/cc 0.359757 0.705849 0.663703

Average 40.05786 25.02873 46.06902

MW
LIQUID
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 9.28E-05 1.92E-04 1.13E-04

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.093263 0.205984 0.146895

Conductivi
ty
CP J/kg-K 1404.943 4744.451 2512.212

Unit 17- Distillation Column-2

METH METH+WAT WATER

To DC2

From DC2 DC1 DC2

Phase LIQUID LIQUID LIQUID

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 Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 0 0 0

H20 1.72E-09 17.18867 17.18867

CH4 0 0 0

H2 0 0 0

O2 0 0 0

CO 0 0 0

DME 8.59E-10 8.59E-10 1.32E-53

CH3OH 17.18872 17.18872 1.72E-08

Total Flow kmol/hr 17.18872 34.37739 17.18867

Total Flow kg/hr 550.7638 860.4224 309.6586

Temperature C 82.88682 140.2201 175.4475

Pressure bar 2 8 9

Vapor Frac 0 0 0

Liquid Frac 1 1 1

Solid Frac 0 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -2.65E+05 -5.71E+05 -3.12E+05

Density gm/cc 0.719785 0.705849 0.833183

Average MW 32.04216 25.02873 18.01528

LIQUID
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 2.92E-04 1.92E-04 1.53E-04

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.183654 0.205984 0.678834

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 3594.24 4744.451 4965.788

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 Unit 18- Turbine

PUR-CO2 PURE-CO2

To H8 TUR

From TUR MS

Phase VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 68.76166 68.76166

Total Flow kmol/hr 68.76166 68.76166

Total Flow kg/hr 3026.187 3026.187

Temperature C 88.42192 148.1303

Pressure bar 30 60

Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -1.79E+06 -1.78E+06

Density gm/cc 0.048053 0.083974

Average MW 44.0098 44.0098

VAPOR
PHASE

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 Viscosity Pa-sec 1.88E-05 2.21E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.021503 0.026353

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1012.463 1102.231

Unit 19: Heater 8

PUR-CO2 REC-CO2

To H8 MIXER

From TUR H8

Phase VAPOR VAPOR

Substream:
MIXED
Mole Flow kmol/hr

CO2 68.76166 68.76166

H20 0 0

CH4 0 0

H2 0 0

O2 0 0

CO 0 0

DME 0 0

CH3OH 0 0

Total Flow kmol/hr 68.76166 68.76166

Total Flow kg/hr 3026.187 3026.187

Temperature C 88.42192 400

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 Pressure bar 30 30

Vapor Frac 1 1

Liquid Frac 0 0

Solid Frac 0 0

Enthalpy cal/sec -1.79E+06 -1.72E+06

Density gm/cc 0.048053 0.023765

Average MW 44.0098 44.0098

VAPOR
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec 1.88E-05 3.04E-05

Thermal Watt/m-K 0.021503 0.046369

Conductivity
CP J/kg-K 1012.463 1124.704

LIQUID
PHASE
Viscosity Pa-sec

Thermal Watt/m-K
Conductivity
CP J/kg-K

2. MARKET PROSPECTS

Global Dimethyl Ether (DME) Market: Trends

The widespread use of dimethyl ether as a non-petroleum based alternative fuel is propelling
the market. Since it is considered as a clean and high-performance compression ignition fuel,
it can be extensively used in diesel engines; its use eliminates particulate exhaust emissions
of automobiles and can significantly save the high cost of diesel particulate filters. This has
spurred the demand for DME across transportation sector, especially in the North America.

Dimethyl Ether Market is forecast to reach USD 11 billion according to a new research report
(“Dimethyl Ether (DME) -Market Demand, Growth, Opportunities and Analysis of Top Key
Player Forecast To 2023”, Wiseguy Reports). Growing demand for liquified petroleum gas

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for domestic as well as commercial applications will be the chief growth driver for the
dimethyl ether (DME) market over the forecast duration. LPG is blended with dimethyl ether
for domestic applications such as heating and cooking. Increasing popularity of cleaner, eco-
friendly and safer fuel for cooking will drive the industry growth by 2024. Moreover, oil
price hikes and increasing butane and propane prices has driven LPG demand over the recent
years. Increasing LPG demand, blended with DME, for domestic applications will propel
product demand for the forecast timeframe.

Currently, more than 65% DME produced globally is blended with LPG. Blending offers
many benefits in terms of its use as ultra-clean fuel for several domestic applications. China
has upped the production of DME blended with LPG by using methanol as feedstock;
commercial production of DME has helped China reduce the reliance on LPG-based fuel.
Dehydrating methanol enhances the combustion efficiency of DME and hence is used as
cost-effective fuel alternatives in heavy-duty trucks and ships. These trends are offering
lucrative avenues for the market players to capitalize on.

Global Dimethyl Ether (DME) Market: Industry Trends

Dimethyl Ether Market size was USD 5.16 billion in 2015 and is projected witness 9.9%
CAGR by 2024.

Fig. 11. U.S. Dimethyl Ether Market size, by application, 2013-2024 (USD Million)

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Global Dimethyl Ether (DME) Market: Market Potential

By Raw Material

Fossil fuel based dimethyl ether is produced particularly from natural gas and coal. Abundant
natural gas availability along with increasing diesel prices is forecast to be key factor
propelling dimethyl ether market size. It also offers potentially low cost than diesel vehicle at
high volume. However, stringent government regulations towards clean energy may
negatively impact on dimethyl ether market growth over the forecast period.

Bio based dimethyl ether market size is projected to expand at a greater rate more than 11%
CAGR in terms of revenue. Bio based dimethyl ether, is an energy containing molecule that
is condensation of two bio methanol molecules. It consists of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
molecules consequent from methanol processing. Also, methanol can be produced from
pyrolysis gases generated from waste or garbage and paper mill residue. Due to these raw
materials utilized for bio based DME production, its use does not release mercury, sulfur
oxides, or nitrous oxides, which makes the product environment friendly. Furthermore,
increasing product application as aerosol propellant in domestic personal care industry is
likely to complement industry growth from 2016 to 2024.

By Application

Aerosol propellants applications were valued above USD 1 billion in 2015. They offer low
relative cost, stability & purity, low odor, extensive range of boiling points, wide vapor
pressures range, low toxicity, versatility & efficiency, flammability and environmental
friendly characteristics owing to boost industry growth over the projected timeframe.

Transportation fuel is anticipated to witness highest gains at over 14% CAGR by 2024. Due
to its decent ignition quality, along with high cetane number, it can be used in diesel engines
as an alternative for traditional diesel fuel. Increasing stringent regulations accompanied with
rising awareness to minimize air pollutants by adoption non-petroleum based alternative fuels
will complement dimethyl ether market size by 2024. However, compared to diesel fuel it has
a lower viscosity and poor lubricity which may obstruct industry growth over the forecast
timeframe.

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Concurrent applications of DME as transportation fuel in several regions such as in Europe,
Japan, and North America, portend well for the market. The use of DME, either standalone or
blended with LPG, is proliferating in large number of automobiles in industrialized nations as
they are considered as cleaner energy. This has in turn increasingly reduced the dependency
on LPG to fuel their economies. Various performance evaluation plans are underway,
especially in North America, to assess the viability of DME as alternative fuel in large
commercial vehicles and urban fleets. Producers of DME source the raw materials from
natural organic waste found in urban landfills, which is expected to considerably reduce the
carbon footprint in the coming years. Led by these promising developments, Oberon Fuels, a
producer of the Dimethyl Ether (DME) fuel, has recently announced the start of a customer
demonstration of a Pinnacle-series heavy duty trucks from Mack Trucks. Oberon has
partnered with the American truck manufacturing company and they are working with the
NYC Department of Sanitation (DSNY) to test the vehicle operation at the Fresh Kills
Landfill to evaluate fuel performance and viability. If this drives become successful, DME
will expectedly reduce GHC emissions by as much as 80% by 2050. Initiatives such as these
expand the potential of the market in developed and emerging nations.

Global Dimethyl Ether (DME) Market: Regional Outlook

Currently, Asia Pacific is a major market for DME where it is primarily used for blending
with LPG and as aerosol propellant. Advancement in infrastructure for providing domestic
fuel supply to several Asian countries coupled with the surge in demand for cost-effective,
clean, and alternative fuels in transportation sector have stimulated the use of DME fuels.
Increasing R&D activities related to DME production in advanced nations of Asia Pacific
along with increasing production capacity in Japan and China are anticipated to boost the
regional market.

U.S. dimethyl ether market size marked revenue close to USD 300 million in 2015. Regional
market is anticipated to be driven by increasing bio based dimethyl ether acceptance on
account of its low emission characteristics. In addition, Europe is forecast to experience gains
at over 10% CAGR from 2016 to 2024. Increasing automakers initiative such as R&D

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towards low emitting vehicles will drive industry growth. For instance, Ford Motors
announced R&D investment of approximately USD 3.5 million towards latest internal
combustion engines with environmental benefits similar to an electric vehicle.

Global Dimethyl Ether (DME) Market: Competitive Analysis

Key automakers and fuel producers are making substantial investments in various programs
meant for evaluating the viability of DME as a cost-effective and environmental-friendly
fuel. Out of large number of companies exploring lucrative avenues in the DME market,
major players include Akzo Nobel NV, Korea Gas Corporation, China Energy Ltd., Royal
Dutch Shell plc, Mitsubishi Corporation, Oberon Fuels, Inc., Shenhua Ningxia Coal Industry
Group Co., Ltd., Fuel DME Production Co., Ltd., and Grillo-Werke AG, and Guangdong
JOVO Group Co., Ltd.

The DME Industry: DME Milestones

DME (dimethyl ether) is a clean, colourless gas that is easy to liquefy and transport. It has
remarkable potential for increased use as an automotive fuel, for electric power generation,
and in domestic applications such as heating and cooking.

DME has been used for decades in the personal care industry (as a benign aerosol propellant),
and is now increasingly being exploited for use as a clean burning alternative to LPG
(liquefied
petroleum gas), diesel and gasoline.

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 Fig. 12. DME Milestones (International DME Association)

2.1 The DME Industry: Supply and Demand

The report "Dimethyl Ether Market” published by MarketsandMarkets says DME is projected
to reach USD 9.7 Million in terms of value by 2020, signifying firm annualized growth of
19.65% between 2015 and 2020.

Fig. 13. DME Production Worldwide (International DME Association)

The majority of global DME production is currently in China. Japan has production facilities,
and major new capacity additions are planned or under construction in Trinidad and Tobago,
North America, Indonesia, and Uzbekistan. Asia-Pacific is the largest market of DME,
registering a significant share of 95.66% of the total market.

Fig. 14. DME Current and Planned Production Capacity (International DME Association)

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2.2 DME: Production in INDIA

Production of DME

DME is now being tried in USA and Japan to achieve severe emission reduction targets of as
low as 50% of the proposed Euro-IV levels. Recognizing that DME can be a new economical
fuel, India's Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas invited British Petroleum (BP) in 1997 to
develop DME supplies in an exclusive partnership with India's leading energy marketers and
research organizations.

Intention of this project was to establish DME as a multi-purpose fuel for India but in the
initial stages the project identified some southern Indian states to supply DME as a feedstock
for power plants.

In INDIA a 265 KTPY capacity plant is planned. Australia’s CSIRO and its equivalent in
India, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), have launched a three-year,
US$5.6-million collaboration focused on the production of dimethyl ether (DME). The
project is being jointly funded by the Australian and Indian governments.

2.4 DME: Areas of Consumption

More than 75% of DME currently produced is blended with LPG. DME can be blended with
LPG and used for domestic cooking and heating. Growth in DME’s use for such domestic
applications is increasing sharply as DME blending becomes more widespread within the
large, and growing, LPG market – in particular in developing countries where portable
(bottled) fuel is providing a safer, cleaner, and more environmentally benign fuel for cooking
and heating. Only modest modifications are required to convert a diesel engine to run on
DME, and engine and vehicle manufacturers, including Volvo, Mack, Isuzu, Nissan, and
Shanghai Diesel have developed heavy vehicles running on diesel engines fuelled with DME.
It is as a replacement for diesel fuel that DME particularly demonstrates its most distinct
advantages.

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 Fig. 15. Consumption of DME in Different areas

DME: Market Size

Worldwide market for DME is segmented into ENN Group Company, AKzo Nobel N.V,
Grillo-Werk AG, Korea Gas Corp, and Oberon fuels, The Chemours Company, Jiutai Energy
Group, Royal Dutch Shell Plc., Zagros Petrochemical Company, China Energy Limited and
Methanex Corp. Due to unavailability of export infrastructure and trading norms of DME, the
compound is rarely traded among the countries. In the recent times, there have been
numerous DME plant announcements; this is expected to bridge the gap between potential
DME demands.

3. DME: FUEL FOR FUTURE

With slight modification in fuel injection systems, DME could further replace diesel in
conventional engines. In addition, Continuous increase in diesel consumption will impact the
DME market as the transport fuel. Furthermore, due to clean combustion property of DME,
market is likely to undergo high growth over the forecast period. Overall market for DME
application is segmented into power generation, LPG blending, aerosol propellant and others.
Dimethyl ether market also finds its applications in welding and brazing operations, chemical
feedstock and refrigerant. Being the most dominant regional market, Asia Pacific will
account for the maximum growth over the coming years. China consumes more than 85% of
the worldwide demand for DME. Japan, South Korea, India and Indonesia are the regions
projected to undergo considerable growth. This will majorly impact the development of DME

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manufacturing.

4. DME: CHALLENGES TO MARKET GROWTH

Conventional fuel injection & delivery systems are not compatible for DME use, as the
product has no lubrication properties. Hence, diesel engines require a fuel-tolerant system or
must find ways for necessary lubrication. These factors may pose challenges to DME market
growth in the coming years.

5. REFERENCES

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_reforming

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

3. Dongsen Mao and Xiaoming Guo, “Dimethyl Ether Synthesis from Syngas over the

Admixed Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 Catalyst and Alkaline Earth Oxide-Modified HZSM-5 Zeolite,

Energy Technology, 2013.

4. https://www.toyo-eng.com/jp/en/products/energy/dme/

5. official site of Ministry of Commerce and Industry (http://commerce.gov.in/)

6. https://www.engineering-airliquide.com/autothermal-reforming-atr-syngas-generation

7. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/cs500967j?src=recsys

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8. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378775305007846

9. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10916466.2018.1428630?src=recsys&

10. http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/Reactors/Slurry/Slurry.html

11. http://ppac.org.in/content/155_1_GasPrices.aspx

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