Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
 ADP + Pi → ATP + H2O
Energy
In physics, energy is the
property that mustbbe transferred to
an object in order to perform work
on, or to heat, the object. It can be
converted in form, but not created or
destroyed.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
It is the major energy
currency of the cell that provides the
energy for most of the energy-
consuming activities of the cell. The
ATP regulates many biochemical
pathways.
Mechanism: When the third
phosphate group of ATP is removed
by hydrolysis, a substantial amount
of free energy is released.
ATP Hydrolysis
ATP hydrolysis is the final
link between the energy derived from
food or sunlight and useful work such
as muscle contraction, the
establishment of electrochemical
gradients across membranes, and
biosynthetic processes necessary to
maintain life.
Hundreds of reactions in the
cell from metabolic transformations
to signalling events are coupled to
the hydrolysis (literally meaning
“water loosening”) of ATP by water .
The reaction ATP + H2O <—-> ADP
+ Pi transforms adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic
phosphate (Pi).
Synthesis of ATP Extracellular ATP
In mammals, ATP also
 requires energy: 7.3 functions outside of cells. ATP is
kcal/mole released in the following examples:
 occurs in the cytosol by • from damaged cells to elicit
glycolysis inflammation and pain• from
the carotid body to signal a
 occurs in mitochondria by shortage of oxygen in the
cellular respiration blood
 occurs in chloroplasts by • from taste receptor cells to
photosynthesis trigger action potentials in
the sensory nerves leading
Consumption of ATP back to the brain
ATP powers most energy-
consuming activities of cells, such • from the stretched wall of the
as: urinary bladder to signal
when the bladder needs
1. anabolic (synthesis) reactions, emptying
such as:
 joining transfer RNAs to
amino acids for assembly
into proteins
 synthesis of nucleoside
triphosphates for assembly
into DNA and RNA
 synthesis of
polysaccharides
 synthesis of fats
2. active transport of molecules and
ions conduction of nerve impulses
3. maintenance of cell volume by
osmosis
4. addition of phosphate groups
(phosphorylation) to different proteins
(e.g., to alter their activity in cell
signaling)
5. muscle contraction
6. beating of cilia and flagella
(including sperm)
7. bioluminescence
The Evolutionary Origins of
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
Mitochondria and
chloroplasts display similarities with
bacteria that led to the
endosymbiont theory
This theory states that an
early ancestor of eukaryotic cells
engulfed an oxygen-using
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell.
Eventually, the engulfed cell
formed a relationship with the host
cell in which it was enclosed,
becoming an endosymbiont (a cell
living within another cell).
Indeed, over the course of
evolution, the host cell and its
endosymbiont merged into a single
organism, a eukaryotic cell with a
mitochondrion.
At least one of these cells
may have then taken up a
photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming
the ancestor of eukaryotic cells that
contain chloroplasts.
Evidences of the Past
First, rather than being
bounded by a single membrane like
organelles of the endomembrane
system, mitochondria and typical
chloroplasts have two membranes
surrounding them. (Chloroplasts also
have an internal system of
membranous sacs.)
There is evidence that the
ancestral engulfed prokaryotes had
two outer membranes, which
became the double membranes of
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Second, like prokaryotes,
mitochondria and chloroplasts
contain ribosomes, as well as
multiple circular DNA molecules
associated with their inner
membranes.
Third, also consistent with
their probable evolutionary origins as
cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts
are autonomous (somewhat
independent) organelles that grow
and reproduce within the cell.
MITOCHONDRIA
(Chemical Energy Conversion)
Singular: mitochondrion
Mitochondria are the sites of
cellular respiration, the metabolic
process that uses oxygen to drive
the generation of ATP by extracting
energy from sugars, fats, and other
fuels.
The mitochondria are oval-
shaped organelles found in most
eukaryotic cells.
They are considered to be
the ‘powerhouses’ of the cell.
As the site of cellular
respiration, mitochondria serve to
transform molecules such as glucose
into an energy molecule known as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ATP fuels cellular processes
by breaking its high-energy chemical
bonds.
Mitochondria are most
plentiful in cells that require
significant amounts of energy to
function, such as liver and muscle
cells.
Mitochondria are found in
nearly all eukaryotic cells, including
those of plants, animals, fungi, and
most unicellular eukaryotes.
Some cells have a single
large mitochondrion, but more often
a cell has hundreds or even
thousands of mitochondria; the
number correlates with the cell’s
level of metabolic activity.
For example, cells that move
or contract have proportionally more
mitochondria per volume than less
active cells.
Each of the two membranes
enclosing the mitochondrion is a
phospholipid bilayer with a unique
collection of embedded proteins.
The mitochondria has two
membranes that are similar in
composition to the cell membrane:
Outer membrane
is a selectively permeable
membrane that surrounds the
mitochondria. It is the site of
attachment for the respiratory
assembly of the electron transport
chain and ATP Synthase
It has integral proteins and
pores for transporting molecules just
like the cell membrane
Inner membrane
folds inward (called cristae)
to increase surfaces for cellular
metabolism. It contains ribosomes
and the DNA of the mitochondria.
The inner membrane creates two
enclosed spaces within the
mitochondria:
 intermembrane space
between the outer
membrane and the inner
membrane; and
  matrix that is enclosed within
the inner membrane.
Mitochondria's two membranes
Outer Membrane
— fully surrounds the inner
membrane, with a small
intermembrane space in between
— has many protein-based pores
that are big enough to allow the
passage of ions and molecules as
large as a small protein
Inner membrane
— has restricted permeability like the
plasma membrane
— is loaded with proteins involved in
electron transport and ATP synthesis
— surrounds the mitochondrial
matrix, where the citric acid cycle
produces the electrons that travel
from one protein complex to the next
in the inner membrane. At the end of
this electron transport chain, the final
electron acceptor is oxygen, and this
ultimately forms water (H20). At the
same time, the electron transport
chain produces ATP in a process
called oxidative phosphorylation.
CHLOROPLASTS
(Capture of Light Energy)
Chloroplasts, which are
found in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis.
This process converts solar
energy to chemical energy by
absorbing sunlight and using it to
drive the synthesis of organic
compounds such as sugars from
carbon dioxide and water.
The word chloroplast is
derived from the Greek word chloros
which means ‘green’ and plastes
which means ‘the one who forms’.
Chloroplasts are double
membrane-bound organelles and are
the sites of photosynthesis.
The chloroplast has a
system of three membranes: the
outer membrane, the inner
membrane, and the thylakoid system
Structure of the Chloroplast
1. Outer membrane
This is a semi-porous
membrane and is permeable to small
molecules and ions which diffuse
easily
The outer membrane is not
permeable to larger proteins
2. Intermembrane Space
This is usually a thin
intermembrane space about 10-20
nanometers and is present between
the outer and the inner membrane of
the chloroplast.
3. Inner membrane
The inner membrane of the
chloroplast forms a border to the
stroma
It regulates passage of
materials in and out of the
chloroplast
In addition to the regulation
activity, fatty acids, lipids and
carotenoids are synthesized in the
inner chloroplast membrane.
4. Stroma
This is an alkaline, aqueous
fluid that is protein-rich and is
present within the inner membrane of
the chloroplast
It is the space outside the
thylakoid space
The chloroplast DNA,
chloroplast ribosomes, thylakoid
system, starch granules, and other
proteins are found floating around
the stroma.
5. Thylakoid System
Is suspended in the stroma.
It is a collection of membranous
sacks called thylakoids.
Thylakoids are small sacks
that are interconnected.
The membranes of these
thylakoids are the sites for the light
reactions of the photosynthesis to
take place.
The chlorophyll is found in
the thylakoids. The thylakoids are
arranged in stacks known as grana.
Each granum contains around 10-20
The word thylakoid is
derived from the Greek word
thylakos which means 'sack'.
Important protein complexes which
carry out the light reaction of
photosynthesis are embedded in the
membranes of the thylakoids.
—> The Photosystem I and the
Photosystem II are complexes that
harvest light with chlorophyll and
carotenoids. They absorb the light
energy and use it to energize the
electrons.
—> The molecules present in the
thylakoid membrane use the
electrons that are energized to pump
hydrogen ions into the thylakoid
space. This decreases the pH and
causes it to become acidic in nature.
—> A large protein complex known
as the ATP synthase controls
theconcentration gradient of the
hydrogen ions in the thylakoid space
to generate ATP energy. The
hydrogen ions flow back into the
stroma.
Two Types of Thylakoids
1. Granal thylakoids
• arranged in the grana
• These circular discs that are
about 300-600 nanometers
in diameter
• contains only Photosystem II
protein complex
• This allows them to stack
tightly and form many
granal layers with granal
membrane.
• This structure increases
stability and surface area for
the capture of light
2. Stromal thylakoids
• are in contact with the
stroma and are in the form
of helicoid sheets.
• The Photosystem I and ATP
synthase protein complexes
are present in the stroma.
• These protein complexes act
as spacers between the
sheets of stromal
thylakoids.
Chloroplasts
As with mitochondria, the
static and rigid appearance of
chloroplasts in micrographs or
schematic diagrams is not true to
their dynamic behavior in the living
cell.
Their shape is changeable,
and they grow and occasionally
pinch in two, reproducing
themselves.
They are mobile and, with
mitochondria and other organelles,
move around the cell along tracks of
the cytoskeleton.
The chloroplast is a
specialized member of a family of
closely related plant organelles
called plastids.
One type of plastid, the
amyloplast, is a colorless organelle
that storesstarch (amylose),
particularly in roots and tubers.
Another is the chromoplast,
which has pigments that give fruits
and flowers their orange and yellow
hues.
Plastids
Plastos: formed, molded
A major double-membrane
oraganelle (cells of plants, algae and
some eukaryotic organisms)
Site of manufacture and
storage of important chemical
compounds used by the cell.
Often contain pigments used
in photosynthesis, and the types of
pigments present can change or
determine the cell’s color.