1.Q)What do you mean by Comlpexometric titrations?

Ans. Complexometric titration (sometimes chelatometry) is a form of volumetric analysis in which the
formation of a colored complex is used to indicate the end point of a titration. Complexometric titrations are
particularly useful for the determination of a mixture of different metal ions in solution.

2.Q)What is Water Gas? Give its composition and uses.

Ans. A fuel gas containing about 5o percent carbon monoxide 40 percent hydrogen and small amount of
methane, carbon dioxide and nitrogen made by passing stem and air over heated coke and coal is known as
water gas.its composition is (CO+H2).it is used as fuel.

3.Q) Define Degree of freedom and Eutectic mixture.

Ans. Degrees of freedom :- A degree of freedom is an independent physical parameter in the formal
description of the state of a physical system. The set of all dimensions of a system is known as a phase space,
and degrees of freedom are sometimes referred to as its dimensions.
Eutectic mixture :-A eutectic mixture is defined as a mixture of two or more components which usually do not
interact to form a new chemical compound but, which at certain ratios, inhibit the crystallization process of one
another resulting in a system having a lower melting point than either of the components

4.Q) Write note on stress corrosion with the help of reactions and diagram.

Ans.Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a corrosive environment. It can lead to
unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metals subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated
temperature. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when
exposed to a small number of chemical environments. The chemical environment that causes SCC for a given
alloy is often one which is only mildly corrosive to the metal otherwise. Hence, metal parts with severe SCC
can appear bright and shiny, while being filled with microscopic cracks.

5.Q) What are FRP’s?

Ans.Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fibre-reinforced polymer) is a composite material made of a polymer
matrix reinforced with fibres. ... The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic;
phenol formaldehyde resins are still in use.
6.Q) What is natural gas? Give its composition and uses.
Ans. It contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, and other volatile
hydrocarbons, together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and is
used in a similar way to natural gas.
7.Q) What do you understand by redox titrations?
Ans. The titrant is the standardized solution; the analyte is the analyzed substance. Redox titration determines
the concentration of an unknown solution (analyte) that contains an oxidizing or reducing agent.

8.Q) Define Metastable Equilibrium and Triple Point.

Ans. Metastable Equilibrium :-The state of relatively stable or metastable equilibrium is defined as the state
in which a system remains for a long period of time, and any slight disturbance causing the system to deviate
from the metastable state does not result in the system passing into another state.
Triple Point:- In thermodynamics, the triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure at which the
three phases of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium.

9.Q) What do you meant by buffer solution and Equivalence Point.

Ans. A buffer solution is one which resists changes in pH when small quantities of an acid or an alkali are
added to it. An acidic buffer solution is simply one which has a pH less than 7. Acidic buffer solutions are
commonly made from a weak acid and one of its salts - often a sodium salt.
Equivalence Point:- An endpoint is indicated by some form of indicator at the end of a titration. An equivalence
point is when the moles of a standard solution (titrant) equal the moles of a solution of unknown concentration
(analyte).

10.Q) Write note on waterline corrosion with the help of reactions and diagram.

Ans. When water is stored in a metallic tank, it is observed that the metal below the waterline gets corroded. It
is because the water below the waterline is poorly oxygenated and acts as an anode. The metal above the
waterline is highly oxygenated and acts as a cathode. Hence corrosion of metal below the waterline takes place.
11.Q) Write note on: (a) Tacticity of polymer (b) Galvanization of iron.

Ans. Tacticity of polymer :-in a linear asymmetric polymer chain, the pendant groups can be arranged into
orderly configuarations or they can be completely random. The steric order is called tacticity. If all chiral
centers have the same configuration, the arrangement of the side groups is called isotactic, and if every other
chiral center has the same arrangement, it is called syndiotactic, whereas a random arrangement of the side
groups is called atactic or heterotactic.

Stereospecific macromolecules can also be polymerized from 1,2-disubstituted monomers. These polymers can
be distereoisomer. For example disubstituted olefins with two different side groups posess two asymmetric
carbon atoms.

Polymers with different arrangements of side groups have noticeable different properties. For example, the
difference of the glass transition temperature (Tg) of syndiotatic and isotatic polymethacrylates lies in the range
of 112 K. This has been confirmed by a theoretical derivation based on the Gibbs–Di Marzio (1958) theory of
the glass transition(1). For polymers with only one substituent group other than hydrogen, the affect of tacticity
on the glass transition temperature is much less pronounced. For example, for polystyrene and poly(alkyl
acrylates), the variations in Tg are only around 20 K, whereas for poly(α-chloro acrylates) and for poly(α-
methyl styrene) variations of 90 K and 65 K have been observed. The explanation for this behavior lies in the
added steric repulsion to rotation due to the presence of the asymmetric double-sided groups on alternate chain
backbone atoms, which increases the stiffness of the polymer significantly compared to an atactic polymer. For
example, the extended planar zigzag configurations and the different helical forms are not obeserved in highly
syndiotactic chains. Also, the greater order in syndio and atactic chains favors crystallization, that is, tactic
polymers are often (partially) crystalline. The table below gives glass temperatures for some syndiotactic,
isotactic and atactic (meth)acrylate polymers.
Galvanization:- Galvanization (or galvanizing as it is most commonly called in that industry) is the process of
applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip
galvanizing, in which parts are submerged in a bath of molten zinc.

12.Q) Give the estimation of moisture in a sample of coal.

Ans. Coal Analysis techniques are specific analytical methods designed to measure the particular physical and
chemical properties of coals. These methods are used primarily to determine the suitability of coal for coking,
power generation or for iron ore smelting in the manufacture of steel.

Moisture

Moisture is an important property of coal, as all coals are mined wet. Groundwater and other extraneous
moisture is known as adventitious moisture and is readily evaporated. Moisture held within the coal itself is
known as inherent moisture and is analysed quantitatively. Moisture may occur in four possible forms within
coal:

 Surface moisture: water held on the surface of coal particles or macerals

 Hydroscopic moisture: water held by capillary action within the microfractures of the coal
 Decomposition moisture: water held within the coal's decomposed organic compounds
 Mineral moisture: water which comprises part of the crystal structure of hydrous silicates such as clays

Total moisture is analysed by loss of mass between an untreated sample and the sample once analysed. This is
achieved by any of the following methods;

1. Heating the coal with toluene

2. Drying in a minimum free-space oven at 150 °C (302 °F) within a nitrogen atmosphere
3. Drying in air at 100 to 105 °C (212 to 221 °F) and relative loss of mass determined

Methods 1 and 2 are suitable with low-rank coals, but method 3 is only suitable for high-rank coals as free air
drying low-rank coals may promote oxidation. Inherent moisture is analysed similarly, though it may be done in
a vacuum.

13.Q) What are the different products obtained by refining of crude oil? Give their uses also.
Ans. Petroleum refining processes are the chemical engineering processes and other facilities used in petroleum
refineries (also referred to as oil refineries) to transform crude oil into useful products such as liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils. Crude oil needs to be
processed before it can be used. Three major types of operation are performed to refine the oil into finished
products: separation, conversion and treating.

Separation
In the first step, molecules are separated through atmospheric distillation (i.e. at normal atmospheric pressure),
according to their molecular weight. During the process, which is also known as topping, the oil is heated at the
bottom of a 60-meter distillation column at a temperature of 350 to 400°C, causing it to vaporize. The vapors
rise inside the column while the heaviest molecules, or residuals, remain at the bottom, without vaporizing. As
the vapors rise, the molecules condense into liquids at different temperatures in the column. Only gases reach
the top, where the temperature has dropped to 150°C. The liquids, which are become increasingly light the
higher they are found in the column, are collected on trays located at different heights of the column. Each tray
collects a different fraction, also known as a petroleum cut, with highly viscous hydrocarbons like asphalt
(bitumen) at the bottom and gases at the top.

The heavy residuals left over after atmospheric distillation still contain many products of medium density. The
residuals are transferred to another column where they undergo a second distillation to recover middle
distillates like heavy fuel oil and diesel.

Conversion

There are still many too heavy hydrocarbon molecules remaining after the separation process. To meet demand
for lighter products, the heavy molecules are “cracked” into two or more lighter ones.

The conversion process, which is carried out at 500°C, is also known as catalytic cracking because it uses a
substance called a catalyst to speed up the chemical reaction. This process converts 75% of the heavy products
into gas, gasoline and diesel. The yield can be increased further by adding hydrogen, a process called
hydrocracking, or by using deep conversion to remove carbon.

The more complex the operation, the more it costs and the more energy it uses. The refining industry’s ongoing
objective is to find a balance between yield and the cost of conversion.

Treating

Treating involves removing or significantly reducing molecules that are corrosive or cause air pollution,
especially sulfur. European Union sulfur emission standards are very stringent. Since January 1, 2009, gasoline
and diesel sold in Europe cannot contain more than 10 parts per million (ppm), or 10 milligrams per kilogram,
of sulfur. The purpose of these measures is to improve air quality and optimize the effectiveness of catalytic
converters used to treat exhaust gas. For diesel, desulfurization, or sulfur removal, is performed at 370°C, at a
pressure of 60 bar. The hydrogen used in the process combines with the sulfur to form hydrogen sulfide (H 2S),
which is then treated to remove the sulfur, a substance used in industry.

Kerosene, butane and propane are washed in a caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) solution to remove thiols, also
known as mercaptans. This process called sweetening.

Refined Petroleum Products and Their Uses

Each refined petroleum product obtained from crude oil has a specific use:

 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), also known as butane and propane, is used as an automotive fuel or
packaged in bottles and used for household purposes.
 Gasoline and diesel are used as fuels for motor vehicles.
 Kerosene is used as jet fuel.
  Naphtha is a major petrochemical feedstock.
 Heating oil is used to heat buildings.
 Base oils are used to make lubricants.
 Asphalt, sometimes called bitumen, is used to pave roads.

14.Q) Describe various methods used to protect the metals from corrosion.

Ans. Whenever you get iron, water and oxygen together, you get rust. So the best way to prevent it is to keep
them apart; that's what paint does, or the spray-on wax and oil coatings that the car protection companies sell.
Keep your tools dry; wipe down your bike after a ride; keep the water away and it can't rust.Cathodic
protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making that surface the cathode of
an electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection systems are most commonly used to protect steel, and pipelines
and tanks; steel pier piles, ships, and offshore oil platforms. Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction that
appears in several forms, such as chemical corrosion and atmospheric corrosion, the latter of which is the most
common form. When acidic substances (including water) come in contact with metals, such as iron and/or steel,
rust begins to form. here are some helpful ways to prevent corrosion of metals:

 Turn to non-corrosive metals such as aluminum and stainless steel.

 Keep the area around the metal surface dry.
 Use drying agents and moisture barrier products.
 Make sure underground piping is laid in a layer of backfill, such as limestone.
 Make sure any electrical components are cleaned regularly

15.Q) What is the importance of composites materials in modern days?

Ans. A Composite material (also called a composition material or shortened to composite, which is the common
name) is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual.
Concrete is a composite. ... Obviously we mean composites made from polymers, or from polymers along with
other kinds of materials. But specifically we're going to deal with fiber-reinforced composites. These are
materials in which a fiber made of one material is embedded in another material.
Using composites rather than conventional materials such as steel usually provides major weight savings. This
is partly due to the specific properties and low weight of the individual components, and partly because it is
possible to manufacture composites for very particular purposes.

15.Q) What is reduced phase rule? How Pb-Ag system helps in desilverization of lead? Explain in detail
with the help of diagram.
Ans. A rule used in thermodynamics stating that the number of degrees of freedom in a physical system at
equilibrium is equal to the number of chemical components in the system minus the number of phases plus the
constant 2. Also called Gibbs phase rule.

The rule applies to non-reactive multi-component heterogeneous systems in thermodynamic equilibrium and is
given by the equality

F=C-P+2

where F is the number of degrees of freedom, C is the number of components and P is the number of phases in
thermodynamic equilibrium with each other.

Advantages of phase rule:

 It is applicable to both chemical and physical equilibria.

 It is applicable to macroscopic systems and hence no information is required regarding molecular,
micro structure.
 We can conveniently classify equilibrium states in terms of phases, components and degree of
freedom.
 The behaviour of system can be predicted under different conditions.
 According to phase rule, different systems behave similarly if they have same degrees of freedom.
 Phase rule helps in deciding under a given set of conditions:
(a) Existence of equilibrium among various substances.
(b) Inter convergence of substances.
(c) Disappearance of some of the substances.

Limitations of phase rule:

 It is applicable only for the systems which are in equilibrium.

 Only three degrees of freedom Viz., Temperature, pressure and composition are allowed to influence
the equilibrium systems.

Phase diagram:

The diagram which represents the conditions of equilibrium between different phases is called phase
diagram.
Lead – Silver system:

It is a two – component system with four possible phases – solid Ag, solid Pb, solution of Ag + Pb
and its vapour. The two metals are completely miscible with each other in liquid state and do not form any
chemical compound. There is almost no effect of pressure on equilibrium, the temperature and composition
are considered to construct the phase diagram at constant atmospheric pressure.
 Phase diagram of Pb – Ag system.

It consists of (1) Curves AO and BO.

(2) Eutectic point – “O” .
(3) Areas: Above AOB / Below AO / Below BO.

Curves AO & BO:

CURVE AO CURVE BO
o o
It is the freezing point curve of Ag (961 C) It is the freezing point curve of Pb (327 C)

It shows decrease in freezing point / melting It shows decrease in freezing point / melting
point of Ag due to the addition of Pb to Ag point of Pb due to the addition of Ag to Pb.

Solid Ag is equilibrium with solution of Pb in Solid Pb is equilibrium with solution of Ag

Ag. in Pb.

Here C = 2 and P = 2, then the reduced phase rule is F = C – P + 1 = 2 – 2 +1 = 1.

o
Hence the system is univariant. The point O (303 C) represents a fixed composition of
97.4 % Pb and 2.6 % Ag, and is called eutectic composition. On cooling, the whole mass crystallizes out as
such.
Eutectic point ‘O’:

The curves AO & BO meet at the point O is called eutectic point. Here, solid Ag, Solid
Pb and solution of Ag & Pb are in equilibrium. Thus, C = 2 and P = 3.
Hence the reduced phase rule is F = C – P + 1 = 2 – 3 + 1 = 0 and the system is invariant. The
o
point O (303 C) represents a fixed composition of 97.4 % Pb and 2.6 % Ag, and is called
eutectic composition.

16.Q) What do you mean by calorific value of fuel? How HCV and LCV is determined
experimentally in case of solid fuels by Bomb calorimeter?
Ans. calorific value (plural calorific values) The amount of energy produced by the complete
combustion of a material or fuel. Measured in units of energy per amount of material, e.g. kJ/kg.
Calorific Value (CV) is a measure of heating power and is dependent upon the composition of
the gas. The CV refers to the amount of energy released when a known volume of gas is
completely combusted under specified conditions. Higher calorific values for some common
fuels - coke, oil, wood, hydrogen and others. Sponsored Links. The calorific value of a fuel is the
quantity of heat produced by its combustion - at constant pressure and under "normal"
("standard") conditions (i.e. to 0oC and under a pressure of 1013 mbar).

'Bomb Calorimeter' for determination of Calorific Value of solid and liquid fuel
Calorific value (CV) of a fuel is a characteristic of fuel which is defined as the energy liberated
per kg of fuel burnt. Fuels are found in three phase viz. solid, liquid and gaseous. Junker's
calorimeter is used to measure the CV of gaseous fuels.

Bomb Calorimeter experiment to measure calorific value of fuel:

 It is used to measure the calorific value (CV) of solid as well as liquid fuel. But to
determine the CV of gas, one need to choose Junker's calorimeter.
 A calorimeter contains thick walled cylindrical vessel and it consists of the lid which
supports two electrodes which are in contact with fuse and fuel sample of known weight.
 The lid also contains oxygen inlet valve through which high-pressure oxygen gas (at
about 25 to 30 atm) is supplied.
 Entire lid with fuel sample is now held in a copper calorimeter containing known weight
of water. A mechanical stirrer is provided to stirred well for uniform heating of water.
 A thermometer is also provided to measure the change in temperature of water due to
combustion of fuel in Lid.
  Higher Calorific Value of fuel = (m1+m2) x (Tc + T1 - T2 ) x Cw / mf

 Where,
 m1 and m2 are the mass of water in the copper calorimeter and water equivalent of bomb
calorimeter respectively.
 mf is the mass of fuel sample whose calorific value is to be determined.
 T1 and T2 are the final and initial temperature of the water sample. Tc is temperature
correction for radiation losses.
 Cw is specific heat of water
 Water equivalent of bomb calorimeter can be found out for particular bomb calorimeter
by first by doing an experiment based on known fuel sample whose calorific value is
already known. It depends on the manufacturer of the Bomb calorimeter.
 Practical applications of Bomb Calorimeter:

 Bomb Calorimeter is used for the measurement of the calorific value of fuel oils, gasoline
or petrol, coke, coal, combustion waste, foodstuffs and building materials etc.
 A bomb calorimeter is also used for energy balance study in ecology and study of Nano-
material, ceramics, zeolite. The bomb calorimeter is helpful to study the thermodynamics
of common combustible materials.

16.Q) .Differentiate between gross and net calorific values? How are these related with
each other?

Ans. GCV (gross calorific value) is the quantity of heat produced by combustion when the water
produced by combustion is allowed to return to the liquid state. NCV (net calorific value) is the
quantity of heat produced by combustion when the water produced by combustion remains
gaseous. Since water releases heat when it condenses, GCV is clearly bigger than NCV. GCV is
also called HHV (higher heating value); NCV is also called LHV (lower heating value.)

17.Q) Derive the mathematical expression for Langmuir Adsorption Theory on the basis of
their assumption.

Ans. In 1916, Irving Langmuir proposed another Adsorption Isotherm which explained the
variation of Adsorption with pressure. Based on his theory, he derived Langmuir Equation which
depicted a relationship between the number of active sites of the surface undergoing adsorption
and pressure.
Assumptions of Langmuir Isotherm

Langmuir proposed his theory by making following assumptions.

1. Fixed number of vacant or adsorption sites are available on the surface of solid.
2. All the vacant sites are of equal size and shape on the surface of adsorbent.
3. Each site can hold maximum of one gaseous molecule and a constant amount of heat energy is
released during this process.
4. Dynamic equilibrium exists between adsorbed gaseous molecules and the free gaseous
molecules.

Where A (g) is unadsorbed gaseous molecule, B(s) is unoccupied metal surface and AB is
Adsorbed gaseous molecule.

5. Adsorption is monolayer or unilayer.

The Langmuir adsorption model explains adsorption by assuming an adsorbate behaves as an

ideal gas at isothermal conditions. At these conditions the adsorbate's partial pressure, PA, is
related to the volume of it, V, adsorbed onto a solid adsorbent. The adsorbent, as indicated in
Figure 1, is assumed to be an ideal solid surface composed of series of distinct sites capable of
binding the adsorbate. The adsorbate binding is treated as a chemical reaction between the
adsorbate molecule Ag and an empty site, S. This reaction yields an adsorbed complex Aad with
an associated equilibrium constant Kaq

Ag + S Aad
18.Q) Write note on Differential aeration corrosion.
Ans. Differential aeration corrosion is a type of corrosion that occurs when oxygen
concentrations vary across a metal's surface. The varying concentration of oxygen creates an
anode and a cathode on the metal's surface. Oxidation then occurs because an anode and a
cathode have been established on the surface.

In differential aeration corrosion, the area with the higher oxygen concentration becomes the
cathode. The area with the lower oxygen concentration becomes the anode. Consequently, the
portion of the metal that has the lower oxygen concentration is the portion subject to corrosion.

Some examples where varying concentrations of oxygen may be found are metals that are
buried, certain joint types, crevices and cracks. Metals that are partially submerged in water are
also subject to differential aeration corrosion because the oxygen concentration in the water is
typically different from the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere.

19.Q) Write note on Differential aeration corrosion.

1. Ans. Thermoplastics polymers get soften and melt on heating where as thermosetting
polymers don’t soften on heating but rather become hard.
2. The former can be reshaped while the later can’t be reshaped.
3. Thermoplastics polymers are less brittle and soluble in organic solvents. Thermosetting
polymers are brittle and insoluble in organic solvents.
4. One more difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers is thermoplastic
polymers are usually linear structures while thermosetting polymers have three
dimensional cross linked structures.

20.Q) What is proximate analysis of coal? Explain the estimation of Moisture.

Ans. Proximate analysis parameters include sulfur, moisture, volatile matter, ash, and fixed
carbon. Ultimate analysis, which is more comprehensive, is dependent on quantitative analysis of
various elements present in the coal sample, such as carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and
nitrogen.

Proximate analysis measures four types of moisture. Surface moisture surrounds and coats the
coal but is not part of its structure. Hydroscopic moisture is similar but is found only in
microscopic passageways inside the coal sample. Decompositional moisture is also found within
coal samples but belongs to incorporated organic material rather than to the coal itself. The
fourth type of moisture is mineral moisture, which reveals the presence of clay and other wet
minerals.
The second component of proximate coal analysis tests the quantity of volatile compounds in the
sample. These are flammable and potentially dangerous. The portion of proximate analysis
dedicated to them must meet strict legal and scientific guidelines established to ensure accuracy.
The United States' guidelines call for placing the coal sample in a platinum crucible and heating
it to 1,740 F. Other countries use different guidelines.

Volatile compound analysis destroys some of the sample's carbon content. The carbon that
remains is called fixed carbon and is represented as a fraction or percentage of the original
sample's weight. After recording this measurement, the tester burns the coal. The remaining
material is ash. As with fixed carbon, a sample's ash content is expressed as a percentage of the
weight of the original coal sample.

21.Q) What are biodegradable polymers?

Ans. Biodegradable polymers are a specific type of polymer that breaks down after its intended
purpose to result in natural byproducts such as gases (CO 2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic
salts. These polymers are found both naturally and synthetically made, and largely consist of
ester, amide, and ether functional groups. Their properties and breakdown mechanism are
determined by their exact structure. These polymers are often synthesized by condensation
reactions, ring opening polymerization, and metal catalysts. There are vast examples and
applications of biodegradable polymers.

Structure

Biodegradable polymers tend to consist of ester, amide, or ether bonds. In general, biodegradable
polymers can be grouped into two large groups based on their structure and synthesis. One of
these groups is agro-polymers, or those derived from biomass. The other consists of
biopolyesters, which are those derived from microorganisms or synthetically made from either
naturally or synthetic monomers.

Properties

Even though biodegradable polymers have numerous applications, there are properties that tend
to be common among them. All biodegradable polymers should be stable and durable enough for
use in their particular application, but upon disposal they should easily break down. Polymers,
specifically biodegradable polymers, have extremely strong carbon backbones that are difficult
to break, such that degradation often starts from the end-groups. Since the degradation begins at
the end, a high surface area is common as it allows easy access for either the chemical, light, or
organism.Biodegradable polymers also tend to have minimal chain branching as this cross
linking often decreases the number of end groups per unit weight. Crystallinity is often low as it
also inhibits access to end groups.
21.Q) What are acid-base titrations? Explain with choice if indicators.

Ans. An acid–base titration is the determination of the concentration of an acid or base by

exactly neutralizing the acid or base with an acid or base of known concentration. This allows for
quantitative analysis of the concentration of an unknown acid or base solution. It makes use of
the neutralization reaction that occurs between acids and bases. pKa and Ka (acid constants) can
also be determined from a pH titration graph.Acid–base titrations can also be used to find percent
purity of chemicals.

Because a noticeable pH change occurs near the equivalence point of acid-base titrations, an
indicator can be used to signal the end of a titration. When selecting an indicator for acid-
base titrations, choose an indicator whose pH range falls within the pH change of the reaction.
Acid-base indicators (hereafter called indicators) are weak organic acids. Unlike most acids,
however, the acid and base forms of indicators are different colors. Since the color of the
indicator depends on the pH of the solution, indicators find wide use in applications that involve
pH changes, such as titrations, pH testing, and science demonstrations.

The most important property of an indicator is its pH range, which is dependent on the
indicator’s acid strength. An indicator’s pH range is the range of pH values over which the
indicator changes colors from its acid form to its base form. It extends from the highest pH at
which only the acid form is visible to the lowest pH at which only the base form is visible. The
indicator is not sensitive to pH changes outside its range because the indicator does not change
color over these pH values. For example, methyl red does not change color over the pH values 1
to 4 or 6 and above. The pH range is 4 to 6

Q. What is the difference of adsorption and absorption?

Adsorption:

Adsorption is the adhesion of molecules (or ions and atoms) to the surface of a solid or liquid.
The molecules get accumulated only at the surface and do not enter the bulk of the adsorbing
material.

 The substance whose molecules get adsorbed at the surface is called the adsorbate.
 The substance on whose surface the process takes place is called the adsorbent.
 It is a surface phenomenon.
 Adsorption examples

Alumina gel, silica gel, zeolites, activated carbon, graphite, finely divided metals, etc. are
some examples of good adsorbents.

 Desorption
 Desorption is the reverse process in which the adsorbed substance is removed from the
surface of the adsorbent.

Absorption:

Absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules or ions

enter some bulk phase – solid or liquid material. This is a different process from adsorption since
molecules undergoing absorption are taken up by the volume, not by the surface. Adsorption is a
based on the surface where a film of adsorbate is developed on the surface, and absorption
includes the complete volume of the absorbing agent.

Differences between Absorption and Adsorption

Criteria Absorption Adsorption

Assimilation of the molecular Accumulation of molecular species

Definition system throughout the bulk of the at the bottom instead of the liquid or
solid or liquid medium. solid.

Phenomenon A bulk phenomenon. A surface phenomenon.

Heat exchange Endothermic process Exothermic process

Temperature The temperature has no effect. Influenced by low temperature

Increases steadily and reaches

Rate of reaction Occurs at a uniform rate.
equilibrium.

The Concentration at the bottom of

It is constant throughout the
Concentration adsorbent is different from that in
medium.
bulk.

Q. Distinguish between Physical Adsorption and Chemisorption?

 PHYSICAL ADSORPTION CHEMISORPTIONS
The forces operating in these are weak vander The forces operating in these cases are similar to
Waal’s forces. those of a chemical bond.

The heat of adsorption are low i.e. about 20 – 40 The heat of adsorption are high i.e. about 40 –
kJ mol-1 400 kJ mol-1

No compound formation takes place in these Surface compounds are formed.

cases.

The process is reversible i.e. desorption of the The process is irreversible. Efforts to free the
gas occurs by increasing the temperature or adsorbed gas give some definite compound.
decreasing the pressure.

It does not require any activation energy. It requires any activation energy.

This type of adsorption decreases with increase This type of adsorption first increases with
of temperature. increase of temperature. The effect is called
activated adsorption.

It is not specific in nature i.e. all gases are It is specific in nature and occurs only when
adsorbed on all solids to some extent. there is some possibility of compound formation
between the gas being adsorbed and the solid
adsorbent.

The amount of the gas adsorbed is related to the There is no such correlation exists.
ease of liquefaction of the gas.

It forms multimolecular layer. It forms unimolecular layer.

Q. Define calorific value.

Fuel Calorific Values. The calorific value of a fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its
combustion – at constant pressure and under “normal” (standard) conditions (i.e. to 0 oC and
under a pressure of 1,013 mbar).
Q.Octane Number
Measure of the ignition quality of gas (gasoline or petrol). Higher this number, the less
susceptible is the gas to 'knocking' (explosion caused by its premature burning in the combustion
chamber) when burnt in a standard (spark-ignition internal combustion) engine.
Q. Explain any three types of Corrosions.

UNIFORM CORROSION
Uniform corrosion is considered an even attack across the surface of a material and is the most
common type of corrosion. It is also the most benign as the extent of the attack is relatively
easily judged, and the resulting impact on material performance is fairly easily evaluated due to
an ability to consistently reproduce and test the phenomenon. This type of corrosion typically
occurs over relatively large areas of a material’s surface.
PITTING CORROSION
Pitting is one of the most destructive types of corrosion, as it can be hard to predict, detect and
characterize. Pitting is a localized form of corrosion, in which either a local anodic point, or
more commonly a cathodic point, forms a small corrosion cell with the surrounding normal
surface. Once a pit has initiated, it grows into a “hole” or “cavity” that takes on one of a variety
of different shapes. Pits typically penetrate from the surface downward in a vertical direction.
Pitting corrosion can be caused by a local break or damage to the protective oxide film or a
protective coating; it can also be caused by non-uniformities in the metal structure itself.
GALVANIC CORROSION
Galvanic corrosion is the degradation of one metal near a joint or juncture that occurs when two
electrochemically dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in an electrolytic environment; for
example, when copper is in contact with steel in a saltwater environment. However, even when
these three conditions are satisfied, there are many other factors that affect the potential for, and
the amount of, corrosion, such as temperature and surface finish of the metals. Large engineered
systems employing many types of metal in their construction, including various fastener types
and materials, are susceptible to galvanic corrosion if care is not exercised during the design
phase.

Q, What do you understand by indicators

What are indicators? An indicator is a specific, observable and measurable characteristic that can
be used to show changes or progress a programme is making toward achieving a specific
outcome. There should be at least one indicator for each outcome.

Q. What are the different types of indicators?

Universal indicator.
Litmus.
Phenolphthalein.
Methyl orange.
Bromothymol blue.
Choice of indicator summary.
Q. buffer solution?

A buffer solution is one which resists changes in pH when small quantities of an acid or an alkali
are added to it. Acidic buffer solutions. An acidic buffer solution is simply one which has a pH
less than 7. Acidic buffer solutions are commonly made from a weak acid and one of its salts -
often a sodium salt.

Q. Difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers

Difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers:

1. Thermoplastics polymers get soften and melt on heating where as thermosetting polymers
don’t soften on heating but rather become hard.
2. The former can be reshaped while the later can’t be reshaped.
3. Thermoplastics polymers are less brittle and soluble in organic solvents. Thermosetting
polymers are brittle and insoluble in organic solvents.
4. One more difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers is thermoplastic
polymers are usually linear structures while thermosetting polymers have three dimensional
cross linked structures.

Thermosetting Plastic Advantages:

More resistant to high temperatures
Highly flexible design
Thick to thin wall capabilities
High levels of dimensional stability
Cost-effective

Thermosetting Plastics Disadvantages:

Can’t be recycled
More difficult to surface finish
Can’t be remolded or reshaped

Thermoplastic Advantages:
Highly recyclable
High-Impact resistance
Reshaping capabilities
Chemical resistant
Aesthetically superior finishesHard crystalline or rubbery surface options.
Hard crystalline or rubbery surface options

Thermoplastic Disadvantages:
Expensive
Can melt if heated

Q. Explain theories for indicator.

An indicator is a substance which is used to determine the end point in a titration. In. acid-base
titrations, organic substances (weak acids or weak bases) are generally used. as indicators. They
change their colour within a certain pH range.
Although they may all be used for pH detection they are not all suitable for the same purpose.
Universal indicator.
Litmus.
Phenolphthalein.
Methyl orange.
Bromothymol blue.
Choice of indicator summary.

1. Ostwald's theory: According to this theory: (a) The colour change is due to ionisation of the
acid-base indicator. The unionised form has different colour than the ionised form. (b) The
ionisation of the indicator is largely affected in acids and bases as it is either a weak acid or a
weak base.

Ostwald's dilution law is a relationship between the dissociation constant and the degree of
dissociation of a weak electrolyte (acids, bases) But concentration C = 1/v. for a weak electrolyte
a is very small

Q. What is Fuel? Give classification for Fuel and its properties.

A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical
or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work.
Liqued Fuels
Liquid fuels like furnace oil and are predominantly used in industrial applications. Most liquid
fuels in widespread use are derived from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by
exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust. However, there are several types, such as
hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, jet fuel and biodiesel which are all categorized as a
liquid fuel.

Types of liquid fuel

Petroleum
Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil
Alcohols, etc.
Solid Fuels
Solid fuel refers to various types of solid material that are used as fuel to produce energy and
provide heating, usually released through combustion. Coal is classified into three major types;
anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. However, there is no clear demarcation between them. Coal is
further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous. Anthracite is the
oldest coal from a geological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little
volatile content and practically no moisture.
Types of solid fuel
Wood
Coal
Oil shale
Tanbark
Bagasse
Straw
Charcoal
Coke
Briquettes
Gaseous Fuel
Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions are gaseous. Many fuel
gases are composed of hydrocarbons ,hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such
gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily transmitted and
distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of consumption. Fuel gas
is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though some fuel gases are liquefied for
storage or transport. While their gaseous nature can be advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of
transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be
dangerous.

Types of gaseous fuel

Natural gas
Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
Refinery gases
Methane from coal mines
Fuel gases made from solid fuel
Gases derived from coal
Gases derived from waste and biomass
Q. equivalence point

The equivalence point, or stoichio metric point, of a chemical reaction is the point at which
chemically equivalent quantities of bases and acids have been mixed. ... The endpoint (related to,
but not the same as the equivalence point) refers to the point at which the indicator changes
colour in a colourimetric titration.

Q. end point?
Endpoint (chemistry), the conclusion of a chemical reaction, particularly for titration.
Clinical endpoint, in clinical research, a disease, symptom, or sign that constitutes one of the
target outcomes of the trial or its participants. Communication endpoint, the entity on one end of
a transport layer connection.