GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY

Department of Sociology

ntroduction To ocial ciences

Course Code: SLFS1001

Program: B A(H) Sociology ,Economics,
Political Science, Psychology ,English
Course Instructor: Dr. A P Pandey
Associate Professor & Programme Chair.
C-17, C Block Ground Floor
Mob: 8057296792
Course Handout

Foundation of Social Sciences

Course Title : Foundation of Social Sciences
Course Code : SLSS 1001
Program : B. A (H) all Programs School Core Paper
Batch : 2018-2021
Semester :1
Credits :4
Version : 1.01 (Generic Elective course)

Course Description: This course helps you to develop the knowledge and
skills for your chosen degree through a specialist pathway . The course
helps in developing a sound foundation of social sciences and enable to
develop interdisciplinary approach to learn subjects offered by liberal arts.

Course Objectives: This course focus on developing understanding, interest and

acquaintance with the nature and scope of important disciplines of social sciences

Course Pre-requisite: None

 Course Outcomes: This course enable students to :

 Develop understanding of social Sciences, humanities and liberal arts
 Develop understanding of sociology, social anthropology and social work as
separate branches.
 Enable students to understand the role of individuals and states.
 Understand the Indian and western philosophical perspectives
 Understand significance of history and psychology
Prescribed Text:
● .
● Robertson, R. Globalization: Social theory and global culture. London: Sage.
Publishers. 1992
● Tomlinson, J. Globalization and Culture. Cambridge: Polity. 1999
● John Storey, ed., Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A Reader, Fourth Edition.
2009
● Orwell, George Orwell. Animal Farm: A Fairy Story. UK: Penguin UK, 1945
● Friedman, Thomas L. The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first
Century. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005
● Politics by Andrew Heywood, Palgrave
1.0 Pedagogy:
● Lectures, Discussion, Presentations,
● Poster /Pictorial Presentation
● Class room Quiz and Tests
● Documentary films.
● ABL

● written essays
● reports
● field notebooks
● practical exercises
● group and individual research projects
● bibliographical searches
● oral and video presentations
● problem solving

● Hypothesis driven Learning

2.0 Evaluation Scheme:

Assignment & Quiz(1,2,3) 20%

CAT-1 15%
CAT-2 15%
End Term Examination (3 hours) 50%
 Detailed Outline of the Course:

L T P C
SCH121 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL SCIENCES
3 0 0 3
Session. Additional
Module Topics Core Reading
No. Reference
01-05 Module-1 Social Sciences : Meaning, Definition, 2. Giddens,
Social Nature and Scope, Liberal Arts and 1. Berger, Peter, A. (1999):
Sciences, Humanities as distinctive discipline 1963, Invitation to Sociology.
Liberal Arts Sociology: Brief Introduction, Nature and Sociology, Cambridge:
and Scope. Sociology as a science, Basic Polity Press
Hamondsworth:
Humanities Concepts, Society, Culture and Civilization,
Social structure and Social system, Social Penguin
Sociology, Inequalities & stratification and mobility,
2.Mukherjee
Social Social Change & Social Movements.
Ramkrishna, 1979,
Anthropology
Sociology Of Indian
& Social Work Social Anthropology: Areas &Scope
Sociology: Allied
Publishers
Social Work: Methods of Social Work
3-S Bhatt: Methods of
The Profession, Social Welfare, Social
Social Work
Work Practice. Social Problems
Political Science
● Meaning , definition, scope and
Module-2 Significance of the Discipline.
1. Politics by
● Individual and State
1.O. P. Gauba Andrew
Political ● Rights and Obedience in the State
2. S.N. Awasthi Heywood,
Science ● Justice
Palgrave.
● Power and Authority
 Central Concepts of Economics
Economics:
Meaning,Definitions,Fundamental Samuelson and
concepts of Economics Nardhaus (2011),
Economics, 19th Ed.
Introduction to Micro and Macro McGraw-Hill, India
Economics, p,3-7, P, 8-11
P,12-17,P,30-36
Introduction to Indian Economy
P, 37-40
II Economics Features of Indian Economy P,43-51
P,55-56
India,s economic interaction with world. Banarjee, Abhijit and
Duflo Esther (2011)
Poor Economics:
Rethinking Poverty
and the ways to End
it,

Philosophy: Brief introduction to Indian 1.B. Sheikh Ali:History 1.E. H. Carr:

and western philosophical school of its Theory and What is
thought. Silent features and importance of Methods History
2.Percy Brown: Indian 2.D. D.
Indian Philosophy. Meaning and Scope of
Architecture Kosambi: An
History, Development of Art & (Buddhist and Hindu Introduction
Architecture in Ancient and Medieval Period) to the Study
India. Role of Leaders/Intellectuals of 3.Bipan Chandra: of Indian
Philosophy
Modern India India’s Struggle for History
21-27 and History
Independence (1857- 3.Ebba Koch:
History
1947) The Mughal
4-Introduction to Architecture
Indian Philosophy: H 4.Sumit
P Sinha Sarkar:
2-Western Philosophy Modern
:C D Sharma India (1885-
1947)

1.Introduction to
Psychology: Meaning, Definition, nature Psychology,Cicerrali &
2.Introductio
and Scope. Social Psychology, Clinical Mayer
n to
28-33 Psychology Psychology, Psychology in organizational 2.Positive Psychology,
Psychology,
Behaviour Alan Carr
Baron
CO-6
CO-5
CO-4
CO-3
CO-2
CO-1
Sub.

Course
Course Name:

Social Sciences
Code:SLFS1001

Outcomes(COs)
Introduction To
Programme Out comes (POs)

1
Sociological Knowledge

3
2
2

1
Problem analysis

3
3
3
Design/development of solutions

2
Critical understanding of sociological

3
Concepts

1
2
5
Modern tool usage

1
6
The Sociology and society
MAPPING OF Cos and POs

3
1
2
7
Environment and sustainability

8
Ethics

3
9
Individual or team work

2
3
10

Communication

3
11

2
Projects on sociology
3

Life-long Learning
12
1=addressed to small extent; 2= addressed significantly; 3=major part of course
.

Lecture notes Module-1

Course Name: Introduction to Social Sciences

Program: B A (H) Sociology Course Code: SLFS1001

Topic: Introduction to :

Sociology ,

Social Anthropology,

Social Work

Faculty: Dr A P Pandey (Program Chair, Dept. of Sociology, C-17,C BLOCK GROUND FLOOR,
MOB8057296792 )

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------

Module-1

Liberal Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences

There is a bit of confusion when it comes to these two–Liberal Arts and the Humanities. Sometimes
they are used interchangeably, but that has led to misunderstanding and poor representation of
what they are. So we’re going to break down the differences between these two types of study.

First off, the Humanities are a part of Liberal Arts–like a subsection. Think back to geometry class for
a moment: all squares are technically rectangles, but not all rectangles are squares. All Humanities
are part of Liberal Arts, but not all Liberal Arts subjects are in the Humanities.

With that in mind, let’s talk about the bigger of the two categories. Liberal Arts can be broken down
into four categories: humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and mathematics. Yep, that’s
right–science and math! Why? Because Liberal Arts is overarching the study of the human–including
humanity’s history, the physical world we live in, and the natural laws of science we’re bound by. It
is a program that will teach the student critical thinking and give them a well-rounded, broader
education rather than a specific technical skill.

Liberal Arts classes can include:

• Biology

• Literary Studies

• World History

• Psychology

• Statistics

• Physics

• Anthropology

Let’s switch gears and talk about Humanities. We’ve already established that it’s a subcategory of
Liberal Arts, but we’ll still break it down for you further. It is the study of the human condition–the
“what makes us human” if you will.

This includes subjects like:

• Literature

• History

• Theology

• Music

• Art

• Speech

• Theater

• Journalism

• Foreign languages

• Film

• Communication.

When people hear “Liberal Arts” that is what they mistakenly think of. Many write off Liberal Arts as
“impractical” or “fanciful” just because they don’t see these subjects as particularly useful in the
working world.

However, the Humanities teach two vital things that are oftentimes missing from more technical
schools of study: critical thinking and communication. Those studying within the Humanities learn to
engage with the material, think about it from a multitude of angles, problem solve creatively, and
adapt to different situations. These are highly sought-after skills in the business world.

So there you have it, the difference between Liberal Arts and the Humanities. Next time someone
mixes the two up, you can teach them the truth.

Interested in either the Liberal Arts or Humanities? Check out the colleges who offer relevant
programs that are right for you with

What is Sociology?
Sociology is the scientific study of human social relationships and
institutions. Sociology's subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to
religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and social class
to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical
change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study
is sociology's purpose of understanding how human action and consciousness
both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures
Sociology is an exciting and illuminating field of study that analyzes and
explains important matters in our personal lives, our communities, and the
world. At the personal level, sociology investigates the social causes and
consequences of such things as romantic love, racial and gender identity,
family conflict, deviant behaviour, aging, and religious faith. At the societal
level, sociology examines and explains matters like crime and law, poverty and
wealth, prejudice and discrimination, schools and education, business firms,
urban community, and social movements.
At the global level, sociology studies such phenomena as population growth
and migration, war and peace, and economic development.
Sociologists emphasize the careful gathering and analysis of evidence about
social life to develop and enrich our understanding of key social processes. The
research methods sociologists use are varied. Sociologists observe the everyday
life of groups, conduct large-scale surveys, interpret historical documents,
analyze census data, study video-taped interactions, interview participants of
groups, and conduct laboratory experiments. The research methods and theories
of sociology yield powerful insights into the social processes shaping human
lives and social problems and prospects in the contemporary world. By better
understanding those social processes, we also come to understand more clearly
the forces shaping the personal experiences and outcomes of our own lives. The
ability to see and understand this connection between broad social forces and
personal experiences -- what C. Wright Mills called "the sociological
imagination" -- is extremely valuable academic preparation for living effective
and rewarding personal and professional lives in a changing and complex
society.
Definitions of Sociology
1}. August Comte, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology ‘as the
science of social phenomena’ "subject to natural and invariable laws, the
discovery of which is the object of investigation".
In the Year of 1838-39 in his book “Positive Polity August Comte laid founded
of this subject, Therefore he considered as Foundation of Sociology.
The word Sociology is composed of two different words: Socius (meaning-
about society) —from Latin root and Logos (meaning –scientific study) From
Greek root.
Thus the literal meaning of the term Sociology stands for scientific study of
society.

2}. Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general science of society".

3}. Harry M. Johnson opines that "sociology is the science that deals with
social groups".

4}. Emile Durkheim: "Science of social institutions".

5}. Robert E Park regards sociology as "the science of collective behaviour".

Scope of Sociology:
Scope refers to the field of sociology or area of sociological investigation.
Unfortunately there is no consensus among sociologists about the scope of
sociology. Since the days of Comte, Spencer’s, Durkheim and Giddings,
sociologists have attempted to define and limit the field of sociological
investigation.

Social Morphology:
It deals with the quantity and quality of population. It also includes social
structure, social groups and institutions.
Social Control:
This consists of the study of factors such as law, religion, fashion and modes
etc. which exercise some kind of control over the individuals in society.

Social Processes:
Interactions like cooperation, assimilation, conflict etc. are studied in this
branch.

Social Pathology:
This includes the study of various social problems like poverty, unemployment,
crime, prostitution, social disorganisation etc.

Subject Matter of Sociology

Ever since the beginning of sociology, sociologists have shown a great concern
in man and in the dynamics of society. It is quite natural that sociologists have
developed different approaches from time to time in their attempts to enrich its
study. The main concern of sociology is sociological analysis. It means the
sociology seeks to provide an analysis of human society and culture with a
sociological perspective. He evinces his interest in the evolution of society and
tries to reconstruct the major stages in the evolutionary process. An attempt is
also made to analyze the factors and forces underlying historical transformation
of society.

Sociology has given sufficient attention to the study of primary units of social
life. In this area it is concerned with social acts and social relationships,
individual personality, groups of all varieties, communities, associations,
organization and population.

Sociology has been concerned with the development, structure and function of a
wide variety of basic social institutions such as the family and kinship, religion
and property, economic, political, legal, educational and scientific, recreational
and welfare, aesthetic and expressive institutions

Nature of Sociology

Sociology is the branch of knowledge and it has its own characteristics.

Sociology has different nature in society. It is different from other sciences in
certain respects.
The following are the main characteristics of sociology as enlisted by Robert
Bierstadt in his book " The Social Order" and they are as follows:-

Sociology is an independent science: - It is not treated and studies as a branch

of any other science like philosophy or political philosophy or history.

Sociology is the social science and not a physical science: - As a social

science it concentrates its attention on man, his social behaviour, social
activities and social life.

Sociology is the categorical and not a normative discipline :- Sociology

"Confines itself to statement about what is, not what should be or ought to be".
As a social science sociology is necessarily silent about questions of value and
it is ethically neutral.

Sociology is the pure science and not an applied science :- The main aim of
pure science is the acquisition of knowledge and it is not bothered weather the
acquired knowledge is useful or can be put to use.

Sociology is the relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science :-

Sociology does not confine itself to the study of this society of that particular
society or social organization, or marriage, or religion, or group and so on. It is
in this simple sense that sociology is an abstract nor a concrete science.

Sociology is the generalizing and not a particularizing or individualizing

science :- Sociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about human
interaction and association, about the nature, from, content and the structure of
human groups and societies. It tries to make generalisations on the basis of the
study of some selected events.

Sociology is the general science not a special science :- The area of inquiry of
sociology is general not specialised. It is concerned with human interaction and
human life in general. It only studies human activities in a general way.
Anthropology and social psychology often claim themselves to be general social
science.

Sociology is both rational and an empirical science :- There are two broad
ways of approach to scientific knowledge. Empiricism is the approach that
emphasis experience and the facts that result from observation and
experimentation. Rationalism is stresses reason and the theories that result from
logical inference.
Above are the nature of sociology which helps to know about the sociology
character on its field. It is clear from the above that sociology is an independent,
a social, a categorical, a pure, an abstract, a generalising, both a rational and a
empirical and a general science.

Sociology and Its Relationship to the Other social

Sciences
Sociologists had a clear distinction between the nature and scope of sociology in a view
of other social sciences such as political science, Economics, Psychology, History.
1. Political Science: According to Prof Gilchrist, political science is the science
of state or political society. Sociology studies the man as a social being and political
science is a special kind of social organisation.The scope of sociology is much wider
than Political science such as Political science studies the state and government only
where sociology studies all social institutions.
2. Economics: It is the subject studies the economic activites of man.
Sociology linked with relationships not only economic but also social. The scope of
economics limited to material happiness of man where sociology has wider scope than
it.
3. History: It is collection of historical events of society in choronological order
where sociology is to generalize the events which happened in history and draw
conclusion. The scope of these subjects are different and history has limited with past
and sociology has much wider scope which involves history and present events.
4. Psychology: It studies the mental systems where sociology studies the social
systems. The scope of psychology is attributed to human brain and sociology is related
to social events on that brain which are different.
Hence, Sociologists has compared sociology with various social sciences to differentiate
the nature and scope of soc
 BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOCIOLOGY

Society

A human society is a group of people involved in persistent interpersonal

relationships, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social
territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural
expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships
(social relations) between individuals who share a
distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum
total of such relationships among its constituent members.

Definitions of Society

August Comte the father of sociology saw society

As a social organism possessing a harmony of structure and function

.Emile Durkheim the founding father of the modern sociology treated society

As a reality in its own right.

According to Talcott Parsons

Society is a total complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of

the action in terms of means-end relationship intrinsic or symbolic.

G.H Mead conceived society as an exchange of gestures which involves the use
of symbols.

Morris Ginsberg defines society as a collection of individuals united by

certain relations or mode of behaviour which mark them off from others who do
not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behaviour.
Cole sees Society as the complex of organized associations and institutions with
a community.

According to Maclver and Page society is a system of usages and procedures

of authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of
human behaviour and liberties. This ever changing complex system which is
called society is a web of social relationship

Characteristics of Society

1-Society is universal ubiquitous, universal and Continuous in Nature.

2- Society has a composite culture

3-Society is a union in itself

4- Society has both Cooperation and conflict

5- Society is a system. There are several functional pre requisites of Social

system

6- Society is not a boundary laden concept.

7- Society is ultimate reality. This is a true God. Society is sui-generis (self

evolved). Society never comes to an end. Therefore this is an absolute reality

8- Society is both static and dynamic.

9-There is a Dynamic Equilibrium in the society .Society works on the principle

of cybernetic /automotive/ cybernetic principle of control.

Community

The term "community" is used extensively in almost all areas of our lives. It is
used in both our common, everyday language and also by professionals,
politicians and corporations. We frequently hear about "community care",
"community revitalization", "community service" and many other references to
community. Yet, while everyone seems to have a fairly common understanding
of what is meant by "community" it eludes a clear and comprehensive
definition. The word "community" is derived from Latin and has been used in
the English language since the 14thcentury. It refers to both the development of
a social grouping and also the nature of the relationship among the members.
 The term is most often associated with one or more of the following
characteristics:
 common people, as distinguished from those of rank or authority;
 a relatively small society
 the people of a district;
 the quality of holding something in common
 a sense of common identity and characteristics.

The concept of community was further developed in the 19th century to contrast
the dynamics and relationships of residents within a local setting to that of
larger and more complex industrial societies. It is related to the
terms commune (French) and Gemeinshaft (German), in terms of denoting
particular kind of relationships. Relationships within a community were thought
to be more direct, holistic and significant than the more formal and abstract
relationships with the larger society

Difference between society and community

Community
Population is one of the most essential
characteristics of a community
irrespective of the consideration
whether people have or do not have
conscious relations.
Society
Population is important but here the
population is conditioned by a feeling
of oneness. Thus conscious relations
are more important than the mere
population for a society

A community by nature is discrete as By nature and character society is

compared with society
For community area or locality is very
essential and that perhaps is the reason
that the community had a definite
shape.
abstract
.
Society is area less and shapeless and
for a society area is no consideration.

A community has comparatively A society has heterogeneity and

narrow scope of community because of its wide scope and field can
sentiments and as such it cannot have embrace people having different
wide heterogeneity. conflicts.

The scope of community is narrow The society has much wider scope as
than that of society because compared with the community.
community came much later than the
society. Though the primitive people
might not have understood the
importance of community but they
realized that of the society and lived in
it.

In a community every effort is made to In a society likeness and conflict can

avoid differences or conflicts and to exist side by side and in fact the scope
bring likeness as nearly as possible of society is so vast that there is every
because cooperation and conflicts possibility of adjustment
cannot exist in a community.

A community cannot be self sufficient It is possible for a society to become

because of its limited scope, nature self-sufficient. In fact every society
and it is more or less impossible in our tries to throw bonds of dependency to
modern complex society. the extent possible.

Social institutions
Definition

Social institutions are a system of behavioural and relationship patterns that are
densely interwoven and enduring, and function across an entire society. They
order and structure the behaviour of individuals by means of their normative
character. Institutions regulate the behaviour of individuals in core areas of
society:

a) family and relationship networks carry out social reproduction and

socialization;

b) institutions in the realm of education and training ensure the

transmission and cultivation of knowledge, abilities and specialized skills;

c) institutions in the labour-market and economy provide for the production and
distribution of goods and services;

d) institutions in the realm of law, governance and politics provide for the
maintenance of the social order;

e) while cultural, media and religious institutions further the development of

contexts of meaning, value orientations and symbolic codes.

Examples of Social Institutions

Marriage

Family

Religion

Difference between Culture and

Civilization

Have you ever wondered why the one who is poor and in a shabby attire is
regarded as uncivilized, even though he may be the most cultured person and
the one in a sophisticated outfit, is called civilized, but, may not be having the
sense of culture? Culture is everything about the human society, i.e. it refers
to the knowledge and features of a specific group of people living in a region.
On the other extreme, civilization is the breakthrough of the human society
meaning that it is the advanced level of social and human development.

People often conflate the terms culture and civilization and end up using them
synonymously. Go through with the article presented before you, to have a
deeper understanding of the difference between culture and civilization.

Content: Culture Vs Civilization

1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Conclusion

Difference Between Culture and Civilization

BASIS FOR
CULTURE CIVILIZATION
COMPARISON

Meaning Culture is a term used to Civilization refers to the process through

denote the manifestation of which a region or society, outstretches an
the manner in which we think, advanced stage of human development
behave and act. and organization.

What is it? End Means

Represents What we are? What we possess?

Reflected in Religion, art, dance, Law, administration, infrastructure,

literature, customs, morals, architecture, social arrangement, etc.
music, philosophy, etc.

Expression Higher level of inner Higher level of general development.

refinement.

Advancement No Yes
 BASIS FOR
CULTURE CIVILIZATION
COMPARISON

Interdependency Culture can grow and exist Civilization cannot grow and exist
without civilization. without culture.

Family
The family forms the basic unit of social organization and it is difficult to
imagine how human society could function without it. The family has been seen
as a universal social institution an inevitable part of human society. It includes
adults of both sexes at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual
relationship and one or more children own or adopted of the sexually co-
habiting adults.

Nimkoff says that family is a more or less durable association of husband and
wife with or without child or of a man or woman alone with children.
According to Maclver family is a group defined by sex relationships
sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing
of children.

Main characteristics of family

Universality: There is no human society in which some form of the family does
not appear. Malinowski writes the typical family a group consisting of mother,
father and their progeny is found in all communities, savage, barbarians and
civilized. The irresistible sex need, the urge for reproduction and the common
economic needs have contributed to this universality.

Emotional basis: The family is grounded in emotions and sentiments. It is

based on our impulses of mating, procreation, maternal devotion, fraternal love
and parental care. It is built upon sentiments of love, affection, sympathy,
cooperation and friendship.

Limited size: The family is smaller in size. As a primary group its size is
necessarily limited. It is a smallest social unit.
Formative influence: The family welds an environment which surrounds trains
and educates the child. It shapes the personality and moulds the character of its
members. It emotionally conditions the child.

Nuclear position in the social structure: The family is the nucleus of all other
social organizations. The whole social structure is built of family units.

Responsibility of the members: The members of the family have certain

responsibilities, duties and obligations. Maclver points out that in times of crisis
men may work and fight and die for their country but they toil for their families
all their lives.

Social regulation: The family is guarded both by social taboos and by legal
regulations. The society takes precaution to safeguard this organization from
any possible breakdown.

Changing Structure of Family

With the advancement of technology, new factors of social transformation

began to accumulate which were potent enough to cause social changes and in
term shattered many of the old foundations of family life. The old size of the
family and the scope of economic security it could provide have almost
vanished. Family is gradually becoming the smallest unit of human association
which is essential for the prime act of procreation. Similarly large family has
become in most cases an economic liability instead of an economical asset. The
economic foundation of old family the scope of social as well as economical
security it could provide have all become things of past. Now even the husband
and wife has to live separately mostly for economic reasons. Under such
circumstances, the old organization and nature of family cannot remain intact
and because family is the unbreakable institution of man the accelerated speed
of social changes has caused the widest cracks in family structure. The
reduction of the functions of family, lightening the tasks of the home,
shortening of the period of child-bearing and increasing gap between the arrival
of successive children have transformed the position of women in the family
structure.

Some of the important functions of family are As Follows:

Family is the most universal and fundamental social institution which performs
a variety of functions in human society. Different sociologists have viewed or
classified the functions of family into different types.
But famous Sociologist MacIver classified the functions of family into two
broad categories such as essential and non-essential functions.

However, these different functions of family are as described below:

(A) Essential functions of family:

Maclver has divided functions of family into essential and non-essential types.
However family performs the following essential functions:

(1) Stable satisfaction of Sexual needs:

This is the most important essential function of family. Family has been
performing this functions since the inceptions of human civilization. It is a well
known fact that sex urge is the most important and powerful instinct and natural
urge of human being. It is the primary duty of family to satisfy the sexual urge
of its members in a stable and desirable way.

Through the mechanism of marriage family regulate the sexual behavior of it’s
members. Because satisfaction of sex instinct brings the desire for life long
partnership of husband and wife. Satisfaction of this sex needs in a desirable
way helps in the normal development of personality. Ancient Hindu
Philosopher Manu and Vatsayan opines that satisfaction of sex needs is the
primary objective of family. If it is suppressed it creates personality
maladjustments.

(2) Procreation and Rearing of Children:

It is another important sectional function of family .Necessary arrangement of
stable satisfaction of sexual urge resulted in procreation. Family provides the
legitimate basis for production of children. It institutionalizes the process of
procreation. By performing this function of procreation family contributes to the
continuity of family and ultimately human race. Hence perpetuation of human
race or society is the most important function of family. Not only is the
production of children but also child rearing another important function of
family. Family is the only place where the function of child rearing is better
performed.

It provides food, shelter, affection, protection and security to all its members. It
plays a vital role in the process of socialization of child. It provides healthy
atmosphere in which the personality of the child develops properly. Family
takes care of the child at the time of need. Hence it is rightly remarked that
family is an institution par excellence for the procreation and rearing of
children. It has no parallels.

(3) Provision of Home:

Family perform another important function of providing a home for common
living to all it’s members. It is only in a home that children are born and brought
up. Even if children are born in hospitals in modern time still they are taken care
of and properly nourished in a home only. Because family and a home have no
substitute. In a home all the members of family live together and a child is
brought up under the strict vigilance of all it’s members.

All the members need a home to live happily with comfort, peace and
protection. A home provides emotional and psychological support to all it’s
members. Man’s necessity of love and human response got fulfilled here.
Family provides recreation to it’s members. In a home family performs the role
of a modern club. Man got peace by living in a home.

(4) Socialization:
It is another important essential function of family. It is said man is not born
human but made human. New born human baby became human being after they
are socialized. Family plays an important role in the socialization process.

It is one of the primary agents of socialization. Living in a family human baby

learns norms, values, morals and ideals of society. He learns culture and
acquires character through the process of socialization. His personality develops
in the course of his living in family. From family he learns what is right and
wrong and what is good or bad. Through socialization he became a social man
and acquires good character.

(B) Non-essential or secondary functions of family:

Famous Sociologist Maclver has divided functions into essential and non-
essential functions. Under non-essential or secondary functions he includes
economic, religious, educational, health and recreational functions. Along with
the essential functions family also performs these non-essential functions. These
functions are non-essential or secondary in the sense that these are also
performed simultaneously by other social institutions in family. These functions
are as follows:
(1) Economic functions:
Since ancient times family has been performing several economic functions. It
is an important economic unit. In ancient time family was both a production and
consumption unit. It used to fulfill almost all the economic needs of it’s
members such as food, clothing, housing etc. In the then days family was self-
sufficient. But now a days almost all the economic functions of family is
performed by other agencies and family only remain as a consumption unit. It
do not produce anything. All the members of family now working outside the
home.

But in spite of all family still performing some economic functions of

purchasing, protecting and maintaining property. It also equally distribute
property among it’s members.

(2) Educational functions:

Family performs many educational functions for it’s members. As an primary
educational institution family used to teach letters, knowledge, skill and trade
secret to all it’s members. It looks after the primary education of it’s members
and moulds their career and character. Mother act as the first and best teacher of
a child. Besides he learns all sorts of informal education such as discipline,
obedience, manners etc. from family..

(3) Religious functions:

Family is the centre of all religious activities. All the family members offer their
prayers together and observe different religious rites, rituals and practices
jointly. All the members believe in a particular religion and observe religious
ceremonies at home..

(4) Health related functions:

Family as a primary social group performs several health related functions for
its members. It look after the health and vigor of its members. It takes care of
the sick old and aged persons of the family. By providing necessary nutritive
food to its members family takes care of the health of all.

(5) Recreational function:

Family-performs several recreational functions for it’s members by entertaining
them in various ways. In ancient period family was the only centre of
recreation. All the members together organize family feasts, visit the family
relations, organize family picnics etc.
 (6) Cultural functions:
Family also performs several cultural functions as well. It preserves different
cultural traits. Man learns and acquires culture from family and transmits it to
succeeding generations. That is why family is considered as centre of culture.

(7) Social functions:

Family performs a number of social functions. It teaches about social customs,
mores, traditions, norms, etiquette to the coming generations. Family exercises
social control over its members and bring them into conformity with accepted
standards. Senior members of family directly control the behavior of children
and thereby they became a good citizen.

Impact of Industrialization on Family System

1. Decline of Extended Family System:

With the impact of technology and industrial change, there is a worldwide movement towards small,
nuclear family maintaining a separate and independent household and breaking down of the
traditional extended (joint) family system and other types of kin groups.

Their influence is declining in every field of life. A modified extended family structure is emerging in
which individual nuclear families retain considerable autonomy and yet maintain connections with
other nuclear families or so-called ‘joint family’.

2. Changing Authority Pattern:

There is a change in the division of labour and authority in the family. Male authority is declining in
the modern family. The concepts of ‘symmetrical family- (Young and Willnott, 1973) and ‘egalitarian
family’ are taking place of traditional patriarchal family.

The authority is slipping from the hands of family elders because of new economic and political
opportunities. Young couples do not rely on family elders for job instructions or education of their
children. Because of the dual-career marriages (husband and wife both working), there is a
significant change in the attitude towards equality between married partners.

3. Changing Status of Women:

The rights of women are becoming more recognized in respect to both initi-ation of marriage and
decision-making in the family. The ‘quite revolution’ in women’s employment along with the
feminist movements has changed the status of women in the family. Now, they are no more chattel
or deaf and dumb like animals.

4. Changing Economic Functions:

The modern family is no longer united by shared work on the farm. It is now a unit of consumption
instead of a unit of production as it was in the agrarian society. It is now united by feelings of
companionship, affection and recre-ation only.

5. Free Choice of Mate Selection:

A new freedom of personal choice, of freer opportunities for romantic love and sexual intimacy has
now entered the society. The individualism, which indus-trialism had created, permeated all spheres
of social life, not just economic; it encouraged the ideal of romantic love and free choice of mate.
Young people began to give more attention to their own feelings, and less to parental wishes.

6. Decline in Family Size:

Most married couples want to have children, but economic considerations force them to have
smaller family with one or two children. Young people believe that reproduction is not the duty of all
married couples. Today, a joint family often or more children living under one roof is rare to find.
Children are no more economically necessary, unlike in an agrarian society. Neo-localism is
devel­oping in which married couples live alone wherever they wish. Couples prefer to have a ‘car’
rather than a ‘child’ these days.

7. Changing Attitudes towards Sex and Marriage:

There is a revolution in sexual attitudes and practices. Higher levels of sexual freedom (open
expression of pre-marital and extra-marital sex) are developing in societies that were earlier very
restrictive. For the young, sex has become as casual as having a cup of coffee together.

Pre-marital pregnancies have increased considerably in Western countries and America. There is an
increase in male-female couples who choose to live together without marriage. This has given rise to
the concepts of ‘living together,’ ‘living arrangements’ or ‘live-in relationships’.

Such couples engage in what is commonly called ‘cohabitation’. Because of these changes, some
new forms of families have emerged such as families of unmarried couples, families of single or lone
(single) parent and families of homosexuals.

8. Declining Trend in Non-essential Functions:

The most of the socializing functions today, like child raising, education, occupational training, caring
of elderly, etc., have been taken over by the outside agencies, such as crèches, media, nursery
schools, hospitals, occupational training centers, hospice institutions, funeral contractors, etc. These
tasks were once exclusively performed by the family.

Marriage
Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that
establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children, and
between them and their in-laws. The definition of marriage varies according to different
cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships,
usually sexual, are acknowledged. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered
to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity. When defined broadly, marriage is
considered a cultural universal.

Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, a religious authority, a tribal group, a

local community or peers. It is often viewed as a contract. Civil marriage is a marriage
without religious content carried out by a government institution in accordance with marriage
laws of the jurisdiction, and recognised as creating the rights and obligations intrinsic to
matrimony. Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting
via a wedding ceremony. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations
between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce. In terms of legal
recognition, most sovereign states and other jurisdictions limit marriage to opposite-
sex couples and a diminishing number of these permit polygyny, child marriages, and forced
marriages. Over the twentieth century, a growing number of countries and other jurisdictions
have lifted bans on and have established legal recognition for interracial marriage, interfaith
marriage and most lately, same-sex marriage.[3] Some cultures allow the dissolution of
marriage through divorce or annulment. In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may
occur in spite of national laws against the practice.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF MARRIAGE

1- Gate way to the association of Family

2-Social and Cultural Functions
3-Legitimacy of offspring
4-Relation recognized by custom or law
5- Right of sexual access

Types of Marriage

Monogamy
Monogamy is a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse
during their lifetime or at any one time (serial monogamy).
In the countries which do not permit polygamy, a person who marries in one of
those countries a person while still being lawfully married to another commits
the crime of bigamy
Serial monogamy
Governments that support monogamy may allow easy divorce. In a number of
Western countries divorce rates approach 50%. Those who remarry do so on
average 3 times. Divorce and remarriage can thus result in "serial monogamy",
i.e. multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time.
Polygamy
Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two partners.[19] When a man
is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny,
and there is no marriage bond between the wives; and when a woman is married
to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry, and there is no
marriage bond between the husbands. If a marriage includes multiple husbands
and wives, it can be called group marriage
Polygyny
Although a society may be classified as polgynous, not all marriages in it
necessarily are; monogamous marriages may in fact predominate. It is to this
flexibility that Anthropologist Robin Fox attributes its success as a social
support system: "This has often meant – given the imbalance in the sex ratios,
the higher male infant mortality, the shorter life span of males, the loss of males
in wartime, etc. – that often women were left without financial support from
husbands.
Polyandry
Polyandry is notably more rare than Polygyny, though less rare than the figure
commonly cited in the Ethnographic Atlas (1980) which listed only those
polyandrous societies found in the Himalayan Mountains. More recent studies
have found 53 societies outside of the 28 found in the Himalayans which
practice polyandry. It is most common in egalitarian societies marked by high
male mortality or male absenteeism.

Impact of Industrialization on Marriage

Late marriages
Preferential orientation
Weakened conjugal bonding
Live in Relationships
Increase in Divorce rate and broken marriages.
In traditional India, marriage was considered a continual sacred union between
man and woman. Marriage was said to be made in heaven and was sanctified by
God, and was a way to attain salvation. Furthermore, arranged marriages and
child-marriages were common. With the coming of industrialization, however,
things have impeccably changed. Marriage has been reduced to a social contract
that can be broken anytime. People are marring outside their religion and caste,
and love marriages have become more common. Divorces are common and
many people have adopted to remain singles all their lives.

Religion
Religion is the set of beliefs, feelings, dogmas and practices that define the
relations between human being and sacred or divinity. A given religion is
defined by specific elements of a community of believers: dogmas, sacred
books, rites, worship, sacrament, moral prescription, interdicts, organization.
The majority of religions have developed starting from a revelation based on the
exemplary history of a nation, of a prophet or a wise man who taught an ideal of
life.

A religion may be defined with its three great characteristics:

 Believes and religious practices

 The religious feeling i.e. faith
 Unity in a community of those who share the same faith: the Church. It is
what differentiates religion from magic.

The study of disappeared or existing religions shows the universal character of

this phenomenon and a very large variety in the ritual doctrines and practices.
One generally distinguishes the religions called primitive or animists, the
Oriental religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Shintoism, Confucianism, Taoism...)
and the religions monotheists derived from the Bible (Judaism, Christianity,
Islam). Christianity has itself given birth to several religions or Christian
Churches (Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Evangelic...)

Sacred
The consciousness and the perception of sacred are constants of religions and
constitute the heart of these. The principal components of sacred are:
  The fear of the infinite power, of what nobody can approach without
precaution, from where the necessity of a ritual of approach. This fear is
at the origin of the religious respect and veneration.
 The mystery of unknowable, of unexplainable, of transcendental.
 The power of the religious objects or symbols and the interdicts that are
associated to them.

Faith

In the faith, we may see the consequence of the feeling of man's finitude and of
dependence in relation to a force that is beyond him and to which he is
subjected. See the page "Why does man believe so easily?"
Faith is in relation to essential and mysterious principles that are inaccessible to
reason and asserts to know the Truth about the "Who?" and the "Why?" of the
things (nature, life, universe...). It involves the being of believers in its totality
toward something that remains a mystery. This is why it is illusory to try to
convince an adult believer to atheism or that he has better to change for another
religion. Only a process of personal and interior maturation (being able to be fed
with knowledge or exchanges with the external world) can lead a believer
believing to evolve.

Functions of Religion

The structural-functional approach to religion has its roots in Emile Durkheim's

work on religion. Durkheim argued that religion is, in a sense, the celebration
and even (self-) worship of human society. Given this approach, Durkheim
proposed that religion has three major functions in society: it provides social
cohesion to help maintain social solidarity through shared rituals and beliefs,
social control to enforce religious-based morals and norms to help
maintain conformity and control in society, and it offers meaning and purpose
to answer any existential questions. Further, Durkheim placed himself in the
positivist tradition, meaning that he thought of his study of society as
dispassionate and scientific. He was deeply interested in the problem of what
held complex modern societies together. Religion, he argued, was an expression
of social cohesion.
Religion, for Durkheim, is not imaginary, although he does deprive it of what
many believers find essential. Religion is very real; it is an expression of society
itself, and indeed, there is no society that does not have religion. We perceive as
individuals a force greater than ourselves and give
that perception a supernatural face. We then express ourselves religiously in
groups, which for Durkheim makes the symbolic power greater. Religion is an
expression of our collective consciousness, which is the fusion of all of our
individual consciousness, which then creates a reality of its own.
It follows, then, that less complex societies, such as the Australian Aborigines,
have less complex religious systems, involving totems associated
with particular clans. The more complex a particular society is, the more
complex the religious system. As societies come in contact with other societies,
there is a tendency for religious systems to emphasize universalism to a greater
and greater extent. However, as the division of labor makes the individual seem
more important, religious systems increasingly focus on individual salvation
and conscience.
The primary criticism of the structural-functional approach to religion is that it
overlooks religion's dysfunctions. For instance, religion can be used to
justify terrorism and violence. Religion has often been the justification of, and
motivation for, war. In one sense, this still fits the structural-functional approach
as it provides social cohesion among the members of one party in a conflict. For
instance, the social cohesion among the members of a terrorist group is high,
but in a broader sense, religion is obviously resulting in conflict without
questioning its actions against other members of society.

Impact of Industrialization on Religion

With the coming of industrialization, religion is seen as an outdated belief system. Science is
as in opposition to religion, and people who reason based on science are seen as
modernized. Recently, however, science and religion are seen as different sides of the same
coin. Industrialization is closely related to science and technology, religious influence on the
industrialized society is weaning. People of different religious backgrounds work and live
together in peace.

Morals and ethics stem from religion. With the weakening grip of religion on society, morals
and ethics are also departing from society or changing altogether. For example, abortions
are commonplace and sex before marriage is also common. People have a rational and
materialistic outlook toward life. Due to the loosening social control, there has also been in
increase in crimes.

Orthodoxy and superstitions have flourished under the grab of religion. Superstitions are

due to ignorance. The process of industrialization has resulted in spread and dissemination

of science and practical knowledge. It attacked religion and superstition. Misery, distress
and exploitation made religion and morality as if nonexistent.
Hence, science and technology as well as the conditions of life resulted in lost of faith in the

goods of heaven and divinity. Religion ceased to be solace of man. The industrial prosperity
and the social reforms brought leisure and comfort, literacy and missionary activity.

Christianity was subjected to a devastating intellectual attack in the nineteenth century,

largely from the perspective of the new doctrine of biological evolution. The ancient corpus

of sacred literature was subjected to minute examination. The Bible began to be treated not

as a thing apart but as any other book: it was submitted to those canons of proof and

probability which the scrupulous conscience of the historical scholar applies to a classical
text or to a medieval chronicle.

In face of this evidence it was no longer possible to accept the narrative of genesis as other
than a religions and poetical allegory.

As the area of scientific knowledge and technology widened, the area of religion shrinked. In

modern industrial societies, the hold of religious beliefs has declined. Many of the
traditional functions of religion are now taken care of by secular institutions.

Social Process?

What is meant by Social Process?

When social interaction becomes continuous and repeated many times it leads
to some results and then it becomes a social process.

A social process is a group of related activities involved in the transition from

one social condition to another.
Thus we can say that the ways in which human beings determine their
relationship between each other in any society may be described as social
processes.

Definitions of Social Process

According to ‘Horton and Hunt’ the term ‘Social Process refers to a

repetitive form of behaviour, which is commonly found in social life’

According to ‘Morris Ginsberg.’ –Social Processes mean the various mode

of interaction between individuals and groups including co-operation ,
confict, social differentiation ,integration, development, arrest and decay.

According to’ R M MacIver’ and ‘C H Page’- Social Process is the manner

in which the relations of the membersof a group, once brought together,
acquire a certain distinctive character.

Essential Elements of Social Process:

1- Sequence of events or elements

2- Repetition of events
3- Relationship with the events
4- Continuity ofevents
5- Social results

Classification of Social Processes

Social Process may be classified into three ways as under:

1-By the number of persons involved, i.e.,

 One-with one,
 One-with group, and its reverse
 Group –with-one, and group-with group

2-By the degree of intimacy of the individual and groups in interaction. For
eg. Primary,secondary and tertiary or marginal groups.

3- By the nature or Types of the processes.

There are ,of course hundreds of social processes- political, economic,

educational, industrial ,religious and others.

Among those of more general social processes are categorized into two:
A ---ASSOCIATIVE/ INTEGRETIVE SOCIAL PROCESSES : Co-
operation, Accomodation, Assimilation, Acculturation,--etc,

B---DISSOCIATIVE /DISINTEGRETIVE SOCIAL PROCESSES:

Competition, Conflict, War, Revolution, Movement , Controvention,
Confrontation,…etc.

ASSOCIATIVE/ INTEGRETIVE SOCIAL PROCESSES

 CO-OPERATION
 ASSIMILATION
 ACCULTURATION
 ACCOMODATION

CO-OPERATION
What is meant by co-operation?
It is a basic process of social life. Its nature is associative. Society
cannot exist without cooperation. Society is produced by the
cooperative activity of human beings and human organism becomes
human only in the society.

Co-operation generally means working togetherin the pursuit of

common interests. It is a joint activity carried out for share rewards.
It is Co-ordinated effort to reach mutual goals.
Co-operation implies a regard for the wishes of other people.
Cooperation involves sacrifice, effort, subordination of private
interests and inclination to the joint ends of the community.
The tendency to co-operate seems to be fundamental.
Definitions of Co-operation
According to ‘Merrill and Eldredge’
‘Co-operation is a form of social interaction where in two or more
persons work together to gain a common end.’
According to H P Fairchild
‘Cooperation is the process by which individuals or groups combine
their effort, in a more or less organized way for the attainment of
common objectives.’
According to Robert A Nisbet
‘Cooperation is joint or collective behaviour towards some goal in which
there is common interest.’
Cooperation May Be :
1-Spontaneous/ directed(Planned as in bureaucracy)
2-Voluntary/ involuntary
3-large/small in scale
Elements of Cooperation
Following are the main elements of co-operation:
1-Two or more than two persons
2- Common end or goal
3-Joint Activity
4-Conscious Efforts
5- Restrain over ego-centred drives.

TYPES OF CO-OPERATION
Taking several examples of cooperation into consideration, one finds that
co-operation may be of following types;
Direct Co-operation or Primary Group Co-operation

Indirect co-operation or Secondary Group Co-operation

Direct Co-operation or Primary Group Co-operation

Co-operation by members of small groups ( Family, recreation groups,
work association) is very common in our society.
The nature of this type of co-operation is personal and direct.
For examples; playing together or working together.

Indirect co-operation or Secondary Group Co-operation

This type of cooperation is found among secondary groups or large
organizations, industry, government, trade unions—etc. the nature of
such co-operation is indirect and impersonal.
This type of cooperation is based on renowned principles of division of
labour and specializations. In this type of cooperation people do
 unlike tasks for fulfilling common goal/end. Indirect cooperation is
the main characteristic of modern industrial society.

Conflict and Alienation

Karl Marx lived in the early stages of industrial capitalism in Europe. Marx
believed the owners of these industries were the capitalists, those people who
owned and operated businesses in pursuit of profits. The system of capitalism
turns most people in any society into proletariats, those people who sell their
labor for wages. To Marx, such a system will inevitably lead to class conflict
between the capitalist and proletariats.
Marx further believed that capitalism would lead to feelings of alienation for the
workers. Alienation is the experience of isolation and misery that results from
feelings of powerlessness. The only way to avoid this is to reorganize society.
He imagined a system of economic production that could provide the needs of
all members of society. In his view, socialism was the answer to the failings of a
capitalist system.

Competition is an elementary, impersonal and universal form of social

interaction. Competition is the struggle for possession of rewards which are
limited insuply-money, goods, status, power---etc.

According to Sutherland ,Woodward and Maxwell-

Competition is an impersonal ,unconscious, continuous struggle between

individuals or groupsf or satisfaction which, because of their limited supply, all
may not have.

SOCIAL INEQULATY AND STRATIFICATION

Definition of Social Stratification

Social stratification refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of
people in a hierarchy. In the United States, it is perfectly clear that some groups
have greater status, power, and wealth than other groups. These differences are
what lead to social stratification. Social stratification is based on four major
principles:

1. Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of

individual differences
2. Social stratification persists over generations
3. Social stratification is universal (it happens everywhere) but variable (it
takes different forms across different societies)
4. Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well
(inequality is rooted in a society's philosophy)

Why does social stratification exist, and why are some countries more stratified
than others? To analyze this question, we can look at social stratification
through three major perspectives: structural functionalism, social conflict, and
symbolic interaction.

The Functions of Social Stratification

Structural functionalists argue that social inequality plays a vital role in the
smooth operation of a society. The Davis-Moore thesis states that social
stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of society. Davis and
Moore argue that the most difficult jobs in any society are the most necessary
and require the highest rewards and compensation to sufficiently motivate
individuals to fill them. Certain jobs, like mowing grass or cleaning toilets, can
be performed by almost anyone, while other jobs, such as performing brain
surgery, are difficult and require the most talented people to perform them.
In order to lure the most talented people away from less-important work, a
society must offer those people rewards and incentives. Davis and Moore
further claim that any society can be equal, but only to the extent that people are
willing to let anyone perform any job. This would also require that even those
who do their job poorly are rewarded equally. What would be the incentive for
people to do their best if everyone was rewarded equally?
Forms of Social Stratification
Social stratification can be classified into four forms - slavery, estates, caste and
class.

 Verna System
 The slavery system
 The estate system
 The caste system
The slavery system
It is an extreme form of inequality in which some individuals are owned by
others as their property. The slave owner has full control including using
violence over the slave. L.T Hobhouse defined slave as a man whom law and
custom regard as the property of another. In extreme cases he is wholly without
rights. He is in lower condition as compared with freemen. The slaves have no
political rights he does not choose his government, he does not attend the public
councils. Socially he is despised. He is compelled to work. The slavery system
has existed sporadically at many times and places but there are two major
examples of slavery - societies of the ancient world based upon slavery (Greek
and Roman) and southern states of USA in the 18th and 19th centuries.
According to H.J Nieboer the basis of slavery is always economic because with
it emerged a kind of aristocracy which lived upon slave labour

The estate system

The estate system is synonymous with Feudalism. The feudal estates had three
important characteristics .In the first place they were legally defined; each estate
had a status with legal rights and duties, privileges and obligations. Secondly
the estates represented a broad division of labor and were regarded as having
definite functions. The nobility were ordained to defend all, the clergy to pray
for all and the commons to provide food for all. Thirdly the feudal estates were
political groups. An assembly of estates possessed political power. From this
point of view the serfs did not constitute an estate until 12th century. This
period saw the emergence of third estate -burghers who were a distinctive group
within the system. Thus the three estates -clergy, nobility and commoners
functioned like three political groups.

Caste System
Caste is closely connected with the Hindu philosophy and religion, custom and
tradition .It is believed to have had a divine origin and sanction. It is deeply
rooted social institution in India. There are more than 2800 castes and sub-
castes with all their peculiarities. The term caste is derived from the Spanish
word caste meaning breed or lineage. The word caste also signifies race or kind.
The Sanskrit word for caste is varna which means colour.The caste stratification
of the Indian society had its origin in the chaturvarna system. According to this
doctrine the Hindu society was divided into four main varnas - Brahmins,
Kashtriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.The Varna system prevalent during the Vedic
period was mainly based on division of labour and occupation. The caste system
owns its origin to the Varna system. Ghurye says any attempt to define caste is
bound to fail because of the complexity of the phenomenon.

The major attributes of caste are the hierarchy, the separation and the division of
labour.Weber sees caste as the enhancement and transformation of social
distance into religious or strictly a magical principle. For Adrian Mayer caste
hierarchy is not just determined by economic and political factors although
these are important.

Main features of caste system

Caste system hierarchically divides the society. A sense of highness and
lowness or superiority and inferiority is associated with this gradation or
ranking. The Brahmins are placed at the top of the hierarchy and are
regarded as pure or supreme. The degraded caste or the untouchables
have occupied the other end of the hierarchy.
Caste is an endogamous group. Each caste is subdivided into certain sub
castes which are again endogamous. Inter caste marriages are still looked
down upon in the traditional Indian society.

Functions of the caste system

The caste system is credited to ensure the continuity of the traditional social
organization of India. It has accommodated multiple communities including
invading tribes in the Indian society. The knowledge and skills of the
occupations have passed down from one generation to the next. Through
subsystems like Jajmani system the caste system promoted interdependent
interaction between various castes and communities with in a village. The
rituals and traditions promoted cooperation and unity between members of the
different castes.

The dysfunctions

Caste system promoted untouchability and discrimination against certain

members of the society. It hindered both horizontal and vertical social mobility
forcing an individual to carry on the traditional occupation against his or her
will and capacity. The status of women was affected and they were relegated to
the background. The caste system divided the society into mutually hostile and
conflicting groups and subgroups
Sanskritization
Prof M.N Srinivas introduced the term sanskritization to Indian Sociology. The
term refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to adopt
upper caste practices and beliefs to acquire higher status. It indicates a process
of cultural mobility that is taking place in the traditional social system of
India.M.N Srinivas in his study of the Coorg in Karnataka found that lower
castes in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy adopted some
customs and practices of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own which
were considered to be impure by the higher castes. For example they gave up
meat eating, drinking liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities. They imitiated
Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By this they could claim higher
positions in the hierarchy of castes within a generation. The reference group in
this process is not always Brahmins but may be the dominant caste of the
locality.Sanskritization has occurred usually in groups who have enjoyed
political and economic power but were not ranked high in ritual ranking.
According to Yogendra Singh the process of sanskritization is an endogenous
source of social change .Mackim Marriot observes that sanskritic rites are often
added on to non-sanskritic rites without replacing them. Harold Gould writes,
often the motive force behind sanskritisation is not of cultural imitation per se
but an expression of challenge and revolt against the socioeconomic
deprivations.

Class System

The class system is universal phenomenon denoting a category or group of

persons having a definite status in society which permanently determines their
relation to other groups. The social classes are de facto groups (not legally or
religiously defined and sanctioned) they are relatively open not closed. Their
basis is indisputably economic but they are more than economic groups. They
are characteristic groups of the industrial societies which have developed since
17th century. The relative importance and definition of membership in a
particular class differs greatly over time and between societies, particularly in
societies that have a legal differentiation of groups of people by birth or
occupation. In the well-known example of socioeconomic class, many scholars
view societies as stratifying into a hierarchical system based on occupation,
economic status, wealth, or income.
In Marxist terms a class is a group of people defined by their relationship to the
means of production. Classes are seen to have their origin in the division of the
social product into a necessary product and a surplus product. Marxists explain
history in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and
those who actually produce the goods or services in society (and also
developments in technology and the like). In the Marxist view of capitalism this
is a conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage workers (proletariat).
Class antagonism is rooted in the situation that control over social production
necessarily entails control over the class which produces goods -- in capitalism
this is the exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie. Marx saw class categories
as defined by continuing historical processes. Classes, in Marxism, are not static
entities, but are regenerated daily through the productive process. Marxism
views classes as human social relationships which change over time, with
historical commonality created through shared productive processes.

"Maclver and Page defines social class as any portion of the community marked
off from the rest by social status.Max Weber suggest that social classes are
aggregates of individuals who have the same opportunities of acquiring goods,
the same exhibited standard of living. He formulated a three component theory
of stratification with social, status and party classes (or politics) as conceptually
distinct elements.

 Social class is based on economic relationship to the market (owner,

renter, employee, etc.)
 Status class has to do with non-economic qualities such as education,
honour and prestige
 Party class refers to factors having to do with affiliations in the political
domain

According to Weber a more complex division of labour made the class more
heterogeneous.In contrast to simple income--property hierarchies, and to
structural class schemes like Weber's or Marx's, there are theories of class based
on other distinctions, such as culture or educational attainment.

Characteristics of Social Class

A social class is essentially a status group. Class is related to status. Different

statuses arise in a society as people do different things, engage in different
activities and pursue different vocations. Status in the case of class system is
achieved and not ascribed. Birth is not the criterion of status. Achievements of
an individual mostly decide his status. Class is almost universal phenomenon. It
occurs in all the modern complex societies of the world. Each social class has
its own status in the society. Status is associated with prestige
Sociologists have given three-fold classification of classes which consists of -
upper class, middle class and lower class. Sorokin has spoken of three major
types of class stratification -they are economic, political and occupational
classes. Lloyd Warner shows how class distinctions contribute to social
stability. Veblen analyzed the consumption pattern of the rich class by the
concept of conspicuous consumption. Warner has classified classes into six
types- upper-upper class, upper-middle class, upper-lower class, lower-upper
class, the lower middle class and lower class. Anthony Giddens's three class
model is the upper, middle and lower (working) class

Social Mobility:
 Social mobility refers to the movement within the social structure, from
one social position to another. It means a change in social status. All
societies provide some opportunity for social mobility. But the societies
differ from each other to extent in which individuals can move from one
class or status level to another.
 Types of Social Mobility:
 In social stratification the movement occurs in three directions.
 (a) From lower to higher
 (b) From higher to lower
 (c) Between two positions at the same level.
 Social mobility is of two types:
 (i) Vertical mobility
 (ii) Horizontal mobility
 (i) Vertical mobility:
 It refers to the movement of people from one stratum to another or from
one status to another. It brings changes in class, occupation and power. It
involves movement fromlower to higher or higher to lower. There are two
types of vertical mobility. One is upward and other is downward
mobility.


 When an individual moves from lower status to higher status, it is called
upward mobility. For example, if the son of a peon joins a bank as an
officer, it is said to be upward social mobility but if he loses the job due
to any other reason or inefficiency, he is downwardly mobile from his
previous job. So downward mobility takes place when a person moves
down from one position to another and change his status.
 (ii) Horizontal Mobility:
 It refers to the movement of people from one social group to another
situated on the same level. It means that the ranks of these two groups are
not different. It indicates change in position without the change in status.
For example, if a teacher leaves one school and joins another school or a
bank officer leaves one branch to work in another or change of residence
are the horizontal mobility.
 Horizontal mobility


 Apart from the above two broad types of social stratification, there are
two other types of social stratification in terms of dimension of time.
They are:
 (i) Inter-generational mobility:
 When changes in status occur from one generation to another, it is called
intergenerational mobility. For example, if the son changes his status
either by taking upon occupation of higher or lower rank with that of his
father, there inter-generational mobility takes place.
 (ii) Intra-generational mobility:
 When changes in status occur within one generation, it is called intra-
generational mobility. For example, the rise and fall in the occupational
structure of a family which leads to change in its social status within one
generation is called intra-generational mobility.
 Stratification and Caste:
 Under the caste system status is hereditary. It is based on birth, it is
purely an ascribed status. Once such positions are assigned, they can not
advance and improve their social status in any way. Hence, caste as a
major type of social stratification does not facilitate vertical social
mobility.
 Social Stratification and Class:
 Class is an “open” system. Under this system vertical mobility is
absolutely free. Movement from one status to another has no barrier.
Status is based on achievement. It is determined by the talents, wealth,
money, intelligence, power, education, income, etc. of a person. There is
no inheritance of parental status.
 Gender:
  Like caste and class gender is another kind of social stratification system.
Gender, perhaps is the oldest and permanent source of social
differentiation. But within the broad hierarchy of caste and class, gender
cuts across caste and class. In present day

Social change

Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. Social

change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours,
or social relations.
Social change may refer to the notion of social progress or socio cultural
Evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by
dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer to a paradigmatic change in the
socio-economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism and
towards capitalism. Accordingly it may also refer to social revolution, such as
the Socialist revolution presented in Marxism, or to other social movements,
such as Women's suffrage or the Civil rights movement. Social change may be
driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces.
Process of Social Change
Social change happens all the time. Not every social change will be as
dramatic as 9/11. One clear way we can see social change happening is
through technology. It seems that even the newest technology is outdated a few
days after you purchase it! Not all changes occur as fast as technology - some
changes (and societies) are much slower to adapt to change.
Social change is sometimes intentional, but oftentimes unplanned. Industrial
societies such as the United States actively promote many kinds of change.
While many dreamed of the day when cell phones would be commonplace,
very few could have imagined all the consequences that were created as a
result of that one device.
Social change is controversial. One only has to look at the various equal rights
movements to see that social change, oftentimes, involves controversy. Even
the various changes set into motion because of 9/11 were controversial in
nature - many of you will remember the various debates surrounding the
passing of the Patriot Act.
Some changes matter more than others. Changes in hairstyles and clothing
patterns (while embarrassing when looking at old pictures) carry little
significance in the 'big picture'. Other changes, such as the invention of the
automobile, computer, and cell phone changed the way the world interacts.

Causes of Social Change

are various social changes set into motion? Social change has many causes. A
few of these include:
Culture and Change
There are three major ways that culture produces social change.
Invention produces new ideas, objects, and social patterns. The invention of
the personal computer is a good example. Discovery is when people take note
of existing elements of the world and create new social patterns. While the
personal computer was an invention, consider all of the different ways we have
discovered to use it. Where would we be without the internet?
Finally, diffusion occurs as these products, ideas and social patterns spread
from on society to another. How boring would our food choices be without
diffusion?

Sanskritization
Prof M.N Srinivas introduced the term sanskritization to Indian Sociology. The
term refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to adopt
upper caste practices and beliefs to acquire higher status. It indicates a process
of cultural mobility that is taking place in the traditional social system of
India.M.N Srinivas in his study of the Coorgs in Karnataka found that lower
castes in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy adopted some
customs and practices of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own which
were considered to be impure by the higher castes. For example they gave up
meat eating, drinking liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities. They imitiated
Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By this they could claim higher
positions in the hierarchy of castes within a generation. The reference group in
this process is not always Brahmins but may be the dominant caste of the
locality.Sanskritization has occurred usually in groups who have enjoyed
political and economic power but were not ranked high in ritual ranking.
According to Yogendra Singh the process of sanskritization is an endogenous
source of social change .Mackim Marriot observes that sanskritic rites are often
added on to non-sanskritic rites without replacing them. Harold Gould writes,
often the motive force behind sanskritisation is not of cultural imitation per se
but an expression of challenge and revolt against the socioeconomic
deprivations.

Westernization
Westernization is a process whereby societies come under or adopt Western
culture in
areassuchas industry,technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, clothin
g, language, alphabet, religion, philosophy, and values.[1] Westernization has
been a pervasive and accelerating influence across the world in the last few
centuries, with some thinkers assuming westernization to be the equivalent of
modernization, a way of thought that is often debated. The overall process of
westernization is often two-sided in that Western influences and interests
themselves are joined with parts of the affected society, at minimum, to change
towards a more Westernized society, in the hope of attaining Western life or
some aspects of it. To assume, however, Western societies are not affected or
changed by this process and interaction with non-Western groups is misleading.
Westernization can also be related to acculturation and enculturation.
Acculturation is "the process of cultural and psychological change that takes
place as a result of contact between cultural groups and their individual
members." After contact, changes in cultural patterns are evident
withinone or both cultures. Specific to westernization and the non-Western
culture, foreign societies tend to adopt changes in their own social systems
relative to Western ideology, lifestyle, and physical appearance, along with
numerous other aspects, and shifts in culture patterns can be seen to take root as
a community becomes acculturated to Western customs and characteristics – in
other words, westernized
Urbanization is the increasing number of people that migrate from rural to urban
areas. It predominantly results in the physical growth of urban areas, be it
horizontal or vertical. The United Nations projected that half of the world's
population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008.[1] By 2050 it is
predicted that 64.1% and 85.9% of the developing and developed world
respectively will be urbanized.
Urbanization is closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and
the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization can describe a specific
condition at a set time, i.e. the proportion of total population or area in cities or
towns, or the term can describe the increase of this proportion over time. So the
term urbanization can represent the level of urban development relative to
overall population, or it can represent the rate at which the urban proportion is
increasing.
Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic
transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby
predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban
culture. The last major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation
of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousand years ago. Village culture is
characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal
behaviour whereas urban culture is characterized by distant bloodlines,
unfamiliar relations, and competitive behaviour. This unprecedented movement
of people is forecast to continue and intensify in the next few decades,
mushrooming cities to sizes incomprehensible only a century ago. Indeed,
today, in Asia the urban agglomerations
of Dhaka, Karachi, Jakarta, Mumbai, Delhi, Manila,Seoul and Beijing are each
already home to over 20 million people, while the Pearl River Delta, Shanghai-
Suzhou and Tokyo are forecast to approach or exceed 40 million people each
within the coming decade. Outside Asia, Mexico City, Sao Paulo, New York
City, Lagos and Cairo are fast approaching being, or are already, home to over
20 million people.

Social movements
Social movements are any broad social alliances of people who are connected
through their shared interest in blocking or affecting social change. Social
movements do not have to be formally organized. Multiple alliances may work
separately for common causes and still be considered a social movement.
Anthony Giddens has identified four areas in which social movements operate
in modern societies:

1. democratic movements that work for political rights

2. labour movements that work for control of the workplace
3. ecological movements that are concerned with the environment
4. peace movements that work toward, well, peace
Types of Social Movements
Aberle described four types of social movements based upon two
characteristics: (1) who is the movement attempting to change and (2) how
much change is being advocated. Social movements can be aimed at change on
an individual level or change on a broader, group or even societal level Social
movements can also advocate for minor changes

Social deviance
Social deviance is a phenomenon that has existed in all societies where there
have been norms. There are two possibilities for how an individual will act in
the face of social norms; conform or violate. There are implicit social norms and
explicit social norms. Explicit social norms are not necessarily laws (such as a
sign at a computer lab that says food and drink are prohibited). In reality, there
is often a blend of conformity and deviance in the ways people behave. Rarely
if ever does a person deviate from or conform to all norms. Furthermore, some
behaviors in themselves reflect both conformity and deviance at once. Consider
breaking the speed limit, which is technically a legal violation, but which is also
conformist, particularly on freeways where motorists "go with the flow." That is
a critical feature of deviance, conformity, and norms. Relativity abounds. That
is, norms can change over time (e.g. women in the paid labor force), depend on
situational context (e.g. laughing at a party as opposed to doing so at a funeral),
depend on statuses (e.g. an adolescent blowing up neighbors' mailboxes as
opposed to an elderly woman doing so), and any number of other factors. But
it's not all relative. There are forms of deviance (and certain norms) that are
about as universal as anything in the social sciences can be, such as when one
maliciously harms a child. In light of the way we think about norms, deviance,
and conformity, many thinkers throughout history have tried to explain the
causes behind deviance.

Anthropology
Anthropology, “the science of humanity,” which studies human beings in aspects
ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the
features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other
animal species. Because of the diverse subject matter it encompasses,
anthropology has become, especially since the middle of the 20th century, a
collection of more specialized fields. Physical anthropology is the branch that
concentrates on the biology and evolution of humanity. It is discussed in greater
detail in the article human evolution. The branches that study the social and
cultural constructions of human groups are variously recognized as belonging to
cultural anthropology (or ethnology), social anthropology, linguistic anthropology,
and psychological anthropology . Archaeology as the method of investigation of
prehistoric cultures, has been an integral part of anthropology since it became a
self-conscious discipline in the latter half of the 19th century. (For a longer
treatment of the history of archaeology,

Social and cultural anthropology

A distinctive “social” or “cultural” anthropology emerged in the 1920s. It was associated with the
social sciences and linguistics, rather than with human biology and archaeology. In Britain in
particular social anthropologists came to regard themselves as comparative sociologists, but the
assumption persisted that anthropologists were primarily concerned with “primitive” peoples, and in
practice evolutionary ways of thinking may often be discerned below the surface of functionalist
argument that represents itself as ahistorical. A stream of significant monographs and comparative
studies appeared in the 1930s and ’40s that described and classified the social structures of what
were termed tribal societies. In African Political Systems (1940), Meyer Fortes and Edward Evans-
Pritchard proposed a triadic classification of African politics. Some African societies were organized
into kin-based bands. Others (e.g., the Nuer and the Tallensi) were federations of unilineal descent
groups, each of which was associated with a territorial segment. Finally, there were territorially
based states (e.g., those of the Tswana of southern Africa and the Kongo of central Africa, or the
emirates of northwestern Africa), in which kinship and descent regulated only domestic
relationships. Kin-based bands lived by foraging, lineage-based societies were often pastoralists, and
the states combined agriculture, pastoralism, and trade. In effect, this was a transformation of the
evolutionist stages into a synchronic classification of types. Though speculations about origins were
discouraged, it was apparent that the types could easily be rearranged in a chronological sequence
from the most primitive to the most sophisticated.

There were similar attempts to classify systems of kinship and marriage, the most famous being that
of the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. In 1949 he presented a classification of marriage
systems from diverse localities, again within the framework of an implicit evolutionary series. The
crucial evolutionary moment was the introduction of the incest taboo, which obliged men to
exchange their sisters and daughters with other men in order to acquire wives for themselves and
their sons. These marriage exchanges in turn bound family groups together into societies. In
societies organized by what Lévi-Strauss termed “elementary systems” of kinship and marriage, the
key social units were exogamous descent groups. He represented the Australian Aboriginals as the
most fully realized example of an elementary system, while most of the societies with complex
kinship systems were to be found in the modern world, in complex civilizations.

Cultural Anthropology
Socio-cultural anthropologists explore how people in different places live and understand the world
around them. They want to know what people think is important and the rules they make about how
they should interact with one another. Even within one country or society, people may disagree
about how they should speak, dress, eat, or treat others. Anthropologists want to listen to all voices
and viewpoints in order to understand how societies vary and what they have in common. Socio
cultural anthropologists often find that the best way to learn about diverse peoples and cultures is
to spend time living among them. They try to understand the perspectives, practices, and social
organization of other groups whose values and life ways may be very different from their own. The
knowledge they gain can enrich human understanding on a broader level.

Social Work
Social work is the application of Sociology.
Social work is a broadly defined profession encompassing many different kinds of professionals who all
serve people in need. The International Federation of Social Workers External link calls social work “an
interrelated system of values, theory and practice.” Social workers are unique in the way that they look at
many different aspects of a problem, from the individual to the societal, from the psychological to the
political. Common ways of serving clients include providing counseling, therapy and education, as well as
connecting clients to appropriate public or private resources
Social workers are found in every facet of community life, including schools, hospitals, mental health
clinics, senior centres, elected office, private practices, prisons, military, corporations, and in numerous
public and private agencies.
Some social workers help clients who face a disability or a life-threatening disease or a social problem,
such as inadequate housing, unemployment, or substance abuse. Social workers also assist families that
have serious domestic conflicts, sometimes involving child or spousal abuse.
Some social workers conduct research, advocate for improved services, engage in systems design or are
involved in planning or policy development. Many social workers specialize in serving a particular
population or working in a specific setting.
Aadministration and Management
Social work administrators are proactive leaders in public and private agencies that provide services to
clients. Many elements of this area of social work practice are common to administration in other
organizations. However, administration and management also require knowledge about social policy and
the delivery of social services, vision for future planning, an understanding of human behavior, and
commitment to social work ethics and values.
Advocacy and Community Organization
Advocacy is one of the keystones of social work practice. Social work advocates champion the rights of
individuals and communities with the goal of achieving social justice. Community organizing and
advocacy work with the power of numbers—many people thinking, working, and acting together—to
counterbalance wealthy and powerful groups and the means they have to protect and extend themselves.
Historically, community organizing and social work were responses to the many forces that created
inequality in our society. They remain as necessary and effective as ever today.
Aging
Social workers link older adults with services that help them live independently and with dignity, thereby
maximizing their quality of life and participation in society. Social work with older adults focuses on the
physical, psychological, social, and economic aspects of daily living.
Alcohol, Tobacco and other Drugs
Social workers help individuals, families, and communities find ways to recover from substance use. They
provide a much-needed ecological perspective to treatment that focuses on the client in relation to family
and neighborhood environments, community support systems, cultural attitudes, and policies.
Consequently, social workers trained in treating alcohol, tobacco, and other drug addictions can be found
doing case management, group and individual therapy, family counseling, advocacy for jobs and housing
needs, community resource development, education, and policy making.
Child Welfare
Child welfare social workers serve some of the most vulnerable children, youths, and families. Social
workers specialize in building on the strengths of families and helping them to provide a safe and nurturing
environmentfor children and youths. However, when families are unable to do this, social workers must
intervene to protect the children from harm. Child welfare social workers ensure that children and youths
who have experienced abuse or neglect are supported through a range of services.

Developmental Disabilities
Social workers also help parents of children with developmental disabilities understand their legal rights.
They help parents learn to be advocates and find special services that enable their children to be as
independent as possible.
Health Care
Since the early 1900s, professionally trained social workers have helped people deal with personal and
social factors that affect health and wellness. Some health care social workers are in direct services and
concentrate on individuals, families, and small groups. Others work in settings where the focus is on
planning, administration, and policy. In the health care setting, social workers may conduct research,
develop programs, and administer social work and other departments.
International
The functions of social work in international development are diverse. They include direct services in
communities, refugee camps, orphanages, hospitals, and schools, as well as supporting the efforts of
national governments, intergovernmental organizations, and nongovernment organizations to enhance
social well-being.
Justice and Corrections
Social workers who work in justice and corrections can be found in courts, rape crisis centers, police
departments, and correctional facilities.
Mental Health and Clinical Social Work
Clinical social workers are one of the nation’s largest groups of providers of mental health services. They
provide mental health services in both urban and rural settings, where they may be the only licensed
provider of mental health services available.

Occupational and Employee Assistance Program (EAP) Social Work

Occupational social workers help organizations re-engineer their structure and methods to improve
efficiency, creativity, productivity, and morale. They may also work for a union and be involved in job
counseling or organizing.

Policy and Planning

Social workers analyze policies, programs, and regulations to see what is most effective. They identify
social problems, study needs and related issues, conduct research, propose legislation, and suggest
alternative approaches or new programs. They may foster coalitions of groups with similar interests and
develop organizational networks.
Politics
There is a natural progression in the careers of many social workers from activism to leadership.
Increasingly social workers are holding elective offices from school boards to city and county
governments, from state legislatures all the way to the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate.
Social workers also play leadership roles in local, state and federal agencies.

Public Welfare
Social work in public welfare entails planning, administering, and financing programs, training and
supervising staff, and setting and evaluating standards and criteria for service delivery. Public welfare
offers many challenges that require creative thinking and leadership from professional social workers.
Research
Social workers in research typically tend to be academics with postgraduate degrees in social work.
Research provides the framework for effective practice. Although considered an art by some, social work
is also a science based on evidence.

School Social Work

School social workers act as the connection for school, home, and community services to help children
with emotional, developmental, and educational needs. Most school social workers practice in public and
private schools, although a small percentage may work in social services agencies or other service sites
such as a preschool program or residential treatment center for children who are emotionally disturbed

Social Work Methods

Social Work Methods are systematic ways of problem solving in people’s lives. These are
systematic ways of empowering people individually, in groups and as communities.
purpose of these methods is to enhance well-being for all. The methods of social work hasbeen
divided into primary methods and secondary methods
Primary means basic to something, or before all others. The primary methods of social workare the
methods in which social worker directly deal with individuals at the individual, groupand community
level. These three methods are

1) Social Case Work 2) Social Group Work 3) Community Organization

Secondary Methods

4) social welfare administration 5) Social Welfare Research 6) Social Action

1 . Social Case Work

Social case work is a method which helps by counseling the individual client to effect better social
relationships & a social adjustment that makes it possible him to lead a satisfying & useful life.
Gordon Hamilton points out that, “The objective of case work is to administer practical services &
offer counseling in such a way as to arouse & conserve psychological energies of the client activity to
involve him in the use of the service towards the solution of her/his dilemma.” Especially in
occupational health care it is important to pay attention to social support and team climate at work
when assessing the psychosocial factors at work and the employees’ well-being. The perceived social
support and team climate can be screened quite quickly in occupational health care when work-
related problems are encounter social casework helps to resolve problems

2. Social Group Work Social group work is an activity which helps to participate in the
activities of a group for their intellectual, emotional & physical growth and for the attainment of
desirable goals of the groups. Group work as such as a method by which the group worker enables
various types of groups to function in such a manner that both group interaction & programme
activities contribute to the growth of the individual & the programme activities contribute to the
growth of the individual & the achievement of desirable social goals.

3. Community Organization Community organization is the process of planning &

developing social services in order to meet the health & welfare needs of a community or larger unit.
Mildred Barry says,” Community organization in social work is the process of creating & maintaining
a progressively more effective adjustment between community resources & commuity welfare
needs.” From community development it can help to understand the Team Functioning and
individual role in community or organization development.

4. Social Action It s an organized group process solving general social problems & furthering
social welfare objectives by legislative, social, health or economic progress. The term social action
refers to organized & legally permitted activities designed to mobiles public opinion, legislation &
public administration in favor of objectives believed to be socially desirable.

5. Social Welfare Research Social welfare research systematic critically investigation of

questions in the social welfare field with the purpose of yielding answers to problems of social work
& of extending generally social work concept. The methods applies in social work research have
been to a large extent derived from those used in sociology & social psychology as well as in history
and Anthropology.

6.Social Welfare Administration

Social welfare administration process is to organize & to direct a social agency. The administrative
aspects of social work have to do with the organization & management of social agencies public &
private, including in those terms general administrative relationships among units of the same
organization, personal problems, questions of finance & so on.

Models of Social Work

Task-Centred Practice (TCP)

Sometimes referred to as one of social work’s original “evidence-based” practice models,
TCP has been around for nearly 40 years. At its core, TCP asks social workers and their
clients to come up with specific, achievable goals in order to treat target problems.
Task-Centred Practice uses a four-step process to do this.

 Define the problem

 Establish goals
 Work on goals
 Review goals
Once the problem has been defined, the process guides the social worker and client to
establish goals to deal with the problem, creating a contract between them. They then
engage in several sessions over some short period of time during which the clients and
social workers share the outcomes of their work toward these goals, and how well those
outcomes have succeeded at overcoming the initial problem.

Narrative Approach
The narrative approach to social work involves helping clients to talk about their
problems as if they were a story. This has several effects. First, it helps clients view the
problem as external to themselves, rather than some intrinsic part of them. Second, it helps
them see how the problem affects their lives, both in negative and positive ways, and can
assist them in developing compassion for themselves and their own situations. Finally, it
presents the opportunity for the social worker and client to come up with alternate stories
as a way for the client to envision what his or her life might be like without the problem in
question.
The primary benefit of the narrative approach is in helping the client gain distance and
objectivity in regards to the problem. The narrative approach can also be used to guide
clients into discerning the causality that led to the problem, which in turn can help inform
their future behavior.

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT)

SFBT assumes that clients are the experts on their problems and that they are the makers,
to some extent, of their own reality. The corollary to these assumptions is that clients
already have the solutions to their problems and just need help recognizing them. SFBT then
focuses on helping clients come up with their own solutions.
Much of this is done through hedging language, such as “I wonder what would happen if…”,
and coping questions, such as asking clients how they manage to fulfill their daily
obligations, even with the problem in question in the way. The “miracle question” is also a
common technique, wherein the social worker asks a question like, “Suppose some miracle
happened tomorrow and you no longer had this problem. What’s the first thing you’d
notice?” By asking these questions in this way, the social worker and client work together to
come up with achievable solutions and goals to help overcome or deal with problems.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

The basic principle of CBT is that our thoughts and feelings shape our reality, and that by
changing how we perceive the world, we can change how we experience it. For example, a
person with anxiety might believe that everything is going to go wrong during a given day.
This preconception then leads this person to pay disproportionate attention to things that
go wrong, which confirms the belief and strengthens it. CBT challenges the client to
confront that belief, to try to see things in a different way and be more aware of how things
are, rather than perceptions.
CBT techniques often incorporate meditation, mindfulness, relaxation and out-of-session
homework, in addition to traditional talk therapy. Through these techniques, CBT teaches
clients to take control of their own therapy and their own world, to be more present in the
moment and to be more aware of the reality around them.

Becoming a Social Worker

At Campbellsville University, the online Master of Social Work provides students with the
knowledge and field practice for careers assisting people in need. Campbellsville also offers
an online Bachelor of Social Work where students gain foundational skills for the
profession. Learn in a dynamic and engaging online environment that allows you to advance
your career on your schedule.