CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

In power distribution networks, reactive power is the main cause of increasing

distribution system losses and various power
quality problems. Conventionally, Static Var Compensators (SVCs) have been used
in conjunction with passive filters at the distribution level for reactive power
compensation and mitigation of power quality problems . Though SVCs
are very effective system controllers used to
provide reactive power compensation at the transmission level, their limited
bandwidth, higher passive element count that increases size and losses, and
slower response make them inapt for the modern day distribution requirement.
Another compensating system has been proposed by, employing a combination
of SVC and active power filter, which can compensate three phase loads in a
minimum of two cycles. Thus, a controller which continuously monitors the load
voltages and currents to determine the right amount of compensation required by
the system and the less response time should e a viable alternative. Distribution
Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) has the capacity to overcome the above
mentioned drawbacks by providing precise control and fast response during
transient and steady state, with reduced foot print and weight.

A DSTATCOM is basically a converter based distribution

flexible AC transmission controller, sharing many similar concepts with that of a
Static Compensator (STATCOM) used at the transmission level. At the
transmission level, STATCOM handles only fundamental reactive power and
provides voltage support, while a DSTATCOM is employed at the distribution level
or at the load end for dynamic compensation. The latter, DSTATCOM, can be one
of the viable alternatives to SVC in a distribution network. Additionally, a
DSTATCOM can also behave as a shunt active filter , to eliminate unbalance or
distortions in the source current or the supply voltage, as per the IEEE-519
standard limits. Since a DSTATCOM is such a multifunctional device, the main
objective of any control algorithm should be to make it flexible and easy to
implement, in addition to exploiting its multi functionality to the maximum. Prior
to the type of control algorithm incorporated, the choice of converter
configuration is an important criterion. The two converter configurations
are voltage source converter or current source converter, in addition to passive
storage elements, either a capacitor or an inductor respectively.
Normally, voltage source converters are preferred due to their smaller size, less
heat dissipation and less cost of the capacitor, as compared to an inductor for the
same rating.

This paper focuses on the comparative study of the

control techniques or voltage source converter based DSTATCOM, broadly
classified into voltage control DSTATCOM and current control DSTATCOM. Under
the former, phase shift control is compared with the latter, considering indirect
decoupled current control and regulation of AC bus and DC link voltage with
hysteresis current control . The first two schemes have been successfully
implemented for STATCOM control at the transmission level, for
reactive power compensation, and voltage support and are recently
being incorporated to control a DSTATCOM employed at the distribution end . The
following indices are considered
for comparison – measurement and signal conditioning requirement,
performance with varying linear/nonlinear load, total harmonic distortion (THD),
DC link voltage variation and switching frequency. The paper briefly describes the
salient features of each strategy, with their merits and demerits. The paper also
emphasizes the choice of current control technique, as it significantly affects the
performance of a DSTATCOM. A dynamic simulation model of the DSTATCOM
has been developed for various control algorithms in Matlab / SimPower System
environment.
CHAPTER 2
 2. FACTS DEVICES

Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well
known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power
electronic devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various
applications worldwide. A number of new types of devices are in the stage of
being introduced in practice. In most of the applications the controllability is used
to avoid cost intensive or landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for
instance like upgrades or additions of substations and power lines. FACTS-devices
provide a better adaptation to varying operational conditions and improve the
usage of existing installations. The basic applications of FACTS-devices are:

• Power flow control,

• Increase of transmission capability,

• Voltage control,

• Reactive power compensation,

• Stability improvement,

• Power quality improvement,

• Power conditioning,

• Flicker mitigation,

• Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.

 The usage of lines for active power transmission should be
ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability limits shall be shifted with
the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can be seen that with growing
line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and more important.
The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt
compensation , series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work
electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic
allows very short reaction times down to far below one second.

The development of FACTS-devices has started with

the growing capabilities of power electronic components. Devices for high power
levels have been made available in converters
for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network
elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power
system. Figure 1.2 number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones
and the FACTS-devices. For FACTS side the taxonomy
in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some explanation. The term 'dynamic' is
used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-devices provided by the power
electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the conventional
devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like
mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the
FACTS-devices can equally be static and dynamic
2.1. Shunt Devices:

The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with

Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as
reactive power compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution
and industrial networks are:
• Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore
reduced network losses.

• Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced

reactive power.

• Compensation of consumers and improvement of power

quality especially with huge demand fluctuations like
industrial machines, metal melting plants, railways systems.

• Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in

conventional HVDC lines.

• Improvement of static or transient stability.

Almost half of the SVC and more than half of the STATCOMs are used for industrial
applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require
power quality. Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of
industrial processes due to insufficient power quality. Railway or underground
systems with huge load variations require SVCs or STATCOMs.

2.1.1. SVC:
 Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the
transmitted load varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive
power balance in a grid varies as well. The result can be unacceptable voltage
amplitude variations or even a voltage depression, at the extreme a voltage
collapse. A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can continuously
provide the reactive power required to control dynamic voltage oscillati ons
under various system conditi ons and thereby improve the power system
transmission and distribution stability.

Applications of the SVC systems in transmission systems:

a. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability

margin

b. To damp power oscillations

c. To achieve effective voltage control

In addition, SVCs are also used,

1.In Transmission Systems

a. To reduce temporary over voltages

b. To damp sub synchronous resonances

c. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems

2. In Traction Systems

a. To balance loads

b. To improve power factor

c. To improve voltage regulation

3. In HVDC systems

a. To provide reactive power to ac–dc converters

4. In Arc Furnaces

a. To reduce voltage variations and associated light flicker Installing

an SVC at one or more suitable points in the network can increase
transfer capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile
under different network conditions.

In addition an SVC can mitigate active power oscillations

through voltage amplitude modulation.SVC installations consist of a number of
building blocks. The most important is the Thyristor value, i.e. stack assemblies of
series connected anti-parallel Thyristors to provide controllability. Air core
reactors and high voltage AC capacitors are the reactive power elements
together with the Thyristor values. The step up connection
of this equipment to the transmission voltage is achieved through a
power transformer.
Fig 2.1 SVC building Blocks

Fig 2.1 SVC Voltage and Current characteristics

Fig. 2.1. SVC building blocks and voltage / current characteristic.
SVC consists of Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) and Thyristor Switched or
Controlled Reactors (TSR / TCR). The coordinated control of a combination
of these branches varies the reactive power as shown in Figure. The first
commercial SVC was installed in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On transmission
level the first SVC was used in1979. Since then it is widely used and the most
accepted FACTS-device.

2.1.1.1. SVC Using TCR and FC:

In this arrangement, two or more FC (fixed
capacitor) banks are connected to a TCR (thyristor controlled reactor) through a
step-down transformer. The rating of the reactor is chosen larger than the rating
of the capacitor by an amount to provide the maximum lagging vars that have to
be absorbed from the system. By changing the firing angle of the thyristor
controlling the reactor from 90° to 180°, the reactive power can be varied over the
entire range from maximum lagging vars to leading vars that can be absorbed
from the system by this compensator.

fig. 2.2. SVC Using TCR and FC

2.1.1.2. SVC of the FC/TCR type:

The main disadvantage of this configuration is
the significant harmonics that will be generated because of the partial conduction
of the large reactor under normal sinusoidal steady-state operating condition
when the SVC is absorbing zero MVAR. These harmonics are filtered in the
following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled by arranging the TCR and the
secondary windings of the step-down transformer in delta connection. The
capacitor banks with the help of series reactors are tuned to filter fifth, seventh,
and other higher-order harmonics as a high-pass filter. Further losses are high due
to the circulating current between the reactor and capacitor banks.

Comparison of the loss characteristics of TSC–TCR, TCR–

FC compensators and synchronous condenser these SVCs do not have a short-time
overload capability because the reactors are usually of the air-core type. In
applications requiring overload capability, TCR must be designed for short-time
overloading, or separate thyristor-switched overload reactors must be employed.

2.1.1.3. SVC Using a TCR and TSC:

This compensator overcomes two major
shortcomings of the earlier compensators by reducing
losses under operating conditions and better performance under large system
disturbances. In view of the smaller rating of each capacitor bank, the rating of
the reactor bank will be 1/n times the maximum output of the SVC, thus reducing
the harmonics generated by the reactor. In those situations where harmonics
have to be reduced further, a small amount of FCs tuned as filters may be
connected in parallel with the TCR. SVC of combined TSC and TCR type When large
disturbances occur in a power system due to load rejection, there is a possibility
for large voltage transients because of oscillatory interaction between system and
the SVC capacitor bank or the parallel. The LC circuit of the SVC in the FC
compensator. In the TSC-TCR scheme, due to the flexibility of rapid switching of
capacitor banks without appreciable disturbance to the power system,
oscillations can be avoided, and hence the transients in the system can also be
avoided. The capital cost of this SVC is higher than that of
the earlier one due to the increased number of capacitor switches and
increased control complexity.

2.1.2. STATCOM:
In 1999 the first SVC with Voltage Source Converter called STATC
OM (STATIC COMPENSATOR)
went into operation. The STATCOM has a characteristic similar to the synchronous
condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the
synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower
investment cost and lower operating and maintenance costs. A STATCOM is build
with Thyristors with turn-off capability like GTO or today IGCT or with more and
more IGBTs. The static line between the current limitations has a certain steepness
determining the control characteristic for the voltage. The advantage of a
STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is independent from the actual
voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the
maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the SVC.
This means, that even during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM keeps its
full capability. In the distributed energy sector the usage
of Voltage Source Converters for grid interconnection is common practice today.
The next step in STATCOM development is the combination with energy storages
on the DC-side. The performance for power quality and balanced network
operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and
reactive power

Fig. 2.1.2 STATCOM structure and voltage / current characteristic

STATCOMs are based on Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topology and utilize
either Gate-Turn-off Thyristors (GTO) or
Isolated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) devices. The STATCOM
is a very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser. If the
STATCOM voltage, Vs, (which is proportional to the dc bus voltage Vc) is larger
than bus voltage, Es, then leading or capacitive VARS are produced. If Vs is smaller
then Es then lagging or inductive VARS are produced.
2.1.2.1.2 Pulses STATCOM:
The three phases STATCOM makes use of the fact
that on a three phase, fundamental frequency, steady state basis, and the
instantaneous power entering a purely reactive device must be zero. The reactive
power in each phase is supplied by circulating the instantaneous real Power
between the phases. This is achieved by firing the
GTO/diode switches in a manner that maintains the phase difference between the
ac bus voltage ES and the STATCOM generated voltage VS. Ideally it is possible to
construct a device based on circulating instantaneous power which has no energy
storage device (i.e. no dc capacitor).

Fig. 2.1.2.1 Pulses STATCOM

A practical STATCOM requires some amount of energy storage to accommodateha

rmonic power and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real power is
non-zero. Themaximum energy storage required for the STATCOM is much less
than for a TCR/TSC type of SVC compensator of comparable rating.

2.1.2.2. STATCOM Equivalent Circuit:

 Several different control techniques
can be used for the firing control of the STATCOM. Fundamental switching
of the GTO/diode once per cycle can be used. This approach will minimize
switching losses, but will generally utilize more complex transformer topologies.
As an alternative, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) techniques, which turn on and
off the GTO or IGBT switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This approach
allows for simpler transformer topologies at the expense of higher switching
losses . The 6 Pulse STATCOM using fundamental switching will of course produce
the 6 N1 harmonics. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics.
These methods include the basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta
transformer connections, a complete elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic
current using series connection of star/star and star/delta transformers and a
quasi 12 pulse method with a single star-star transformer, and two secondary
windings, using control of firing angle to produce a 30phase shift between the
two 6 pulse bridges. This method can be extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48
pulse STATCOM, thus eliminating harmonics even further. Another possible
approach for harmonic cancellation is a multi-level configuration which allows for
more than one switching element per level and therefore more than one
switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has a staircase effect,
dependent on the number of levels. This staircase voltage can be controlled to
eliminate harmonics.
2.2. Series Devices:

Series devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically switched
compensations to the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) or even
Voltage Source Converter based devices. The main applications are:

• Reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line,
• Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power tr
ansmissions,

• Improvement of system damping resp. damping of oscillations,

• Limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations,

• Avoidance of loop flows resp. power flow adjustments.

2.2.1. TCSC:
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) address specific
dynamical problems in
transmission systems. Firstly it increases damping when large electrical systems ar
e interconnected. Secondly it can overcome the problem of Sub Synchronous
Resonance (SSR), a phenomenon that involves an interaction between large
thermal generating units and series compensated transmission systems. The
TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling
line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines,
and allows for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various
contingencies. The TCSC also can regulate steady-state power flow within its rating
limits.

From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC

resembles the conventional series capacitor. All
the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including the
Thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank.
Likewise the control and protection is located on ground potential together with
other auxiliary systems. Figure shows the principle setup of a TCSC and its
operational diagram. The firing angle and the thermal limits of the Thyristors
determine the boundaries of the operational diagram.
Fig. 2.7. TCSC circuit and operation diagram

2.2.2. Advantages:

• Continuous control of desired compensation level

• Direct smooth control of power flow within the network

• Improved capacitor bank protection

 Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR).

• Damping of electromechanical (0.5-2 Hz)

power oscillations which often arise between areas in a large interconnected
power network. These oscillations are due to the dynamics of inter area power
transfer and often exhibit poor damping when the aggregate power transfer over
a corridor is high relative to the transmission strength.
2.3. Shunt And Series Devices

2.3.1. Dynamic Power Flow Controller(DFC)

A new device in the area of power flow control is the Dynamic Power Flow
Controller (DFC). The DFC is a hybrid device between a Phase Shifting Transformer
(PST) and switched series compensation

A functional single line diagram of the Dynamic Flow Controller is shown in Figure
1.19.The Dynamic Flow Controller consists of the following components:

• A standard phase shifting transformer with tap-changer (PST)

• Series-connected Thyristor Switched Capacitors and Reactors(TSC / TSR)

• A mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is optional depending on

the system reactive power requirements)
Fig. 2.8. principle configuration of DFC

Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series TSC
or TSR. The mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage
support in case of overload and other conditions. Normally the reactance of
reactors and the capacitors are selected based on a binary basis to result in a
desired stepped reactance variation. If a higher power flow resolution is needed, a
reactance equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be added. The switching
of series reactors occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics. However, in
general, the principle of phase-angle control used in TCSC can be applied for a
continuous control as well. The operation of a DFC is based on the following rules:

• TSC / TSR are switched when a fast response is required.

• The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC
/TSR

• The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the
currents higher than normal loading.

• The total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimized by the
operation of the MSC, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors.

In order to visualize the steady state operating range of the

DFC, we assume an inductance in parallel representing parallel
transmission paths. The overall control objective in steady state would be to
control the distribution of power flow between the branch with the DFC and the
parallel path. This control is accomplished by control of the injected series voltage.
The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature with
the node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature
with the through put current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor
close to one, the two parts of the series voltage will be close to collinear. However,
in terms of speed of control, influence on reactive power balance and
effectiveness at high/low loading the two parts of the series voltage has quite
different characteristics. The steady
state control range for loadings up to rated current is illustrated in Figure 1.20,
where the x-axis corresponds to the throughput current and the y-axis
corresponds to the injected series voltage

Fig. 2.9. Operational diagram of a DFC

Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power

through the DFC, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants
corresponds to increasing the power flow through the DFC. The slope of the line
passing through the origin (at which the tap is at zero and TSC / TSR are bypassed)
depends on the short circuit reactance of the PST. Starting at rated current (2 kA)
the short circuit reactance by itself provides an injected voltage (approximately 20
kV in this case). If more inductance is switched in and/or the tap is increased , the
series voltage increases and the current through the DFC decreases (and the flow
on parallel branches increases). The operating point moves along lines parallel
to the arrows in the figure. The slope of these arrows depends on the size of the
parallel reactance. The maximum series voltage in the first quadrant is obtained
when all inductive steps are switched in and the tap is at its maximum. Now,
assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases (due
e.g. to changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease. At zero
current, it will not matter whether the TSC / TSR steps are in or out, they will not
contribute to the series voltage. Consequently, the series voltage at zero current
corresponds to rated PST series voltage. Next, moving into the second quadrant,
the operating range will be limited by the line corresponding to maximum tap
and the capacitive step being switched in (and the inductive steps by-
passed). In this case, the capacitive step is approximately as large as the
short circuit reactance of the PST, giving an almost constant maximum voltage in
the second quadrant.
2.3.2. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC):

The UPFC is a combination of a static compensator and static series

compensation. It acts as a shunt compensating and a phase shifting device
simultaneously.

Fig. 2.10. Principle configuration of an UPFC

The UPFC consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected via
two voltage source converters with a common DC-capacitor. The DC-circuit allows
the active power exchange between shunt and series transformer to control the
phase shift of the series voltage. This setup, as shown in Figure 1.21, provides the
full controllability for voltage and power flow. The series converter needs to be
protected with a Thyristor bridge. Due to the high efforts for the Voltage Source
Converters and the protection, an UPFC is getting quite expensive, which limits
the practical applications where the voltage and power flow control is required
simultaneously.

2.3.2.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF UPFC:

The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source

inverters (VSIs) sharing a common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the
power system through coupling transformers. One VSI is connected to in shunt to
the transmission system via a shunt transformer, while the other one is connected
in series through a series transformer. A basic UPFC functional scheme is shown
in fig.2.11.
Fig. 2.11. UPFC

The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage

system (Vse), of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to
control active and reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter
will exchange active and reactive power with the line. The reactive power is
electronically provided by the series inverter, and the active power is transmitted
to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is operated in such a way as to demand
this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the line keeping the voltage
across the storage capacitor Vdc constant. So, the net real power absorbed from
the line by the UPFC is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their
transformers. The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to
exchange reactive power with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the
connection point. The two VSI’s can work independently of each other by
separating the dc side. So in that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a
STATCOM that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the voltage
magnitude at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is operating as
SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and
hence the power low on the transmission line.
The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is
operating in such a way to inject a controllable current, Ish into the transmission
line.

The shunt inverter can be controlled in two different modes

VAR Control Mode:

The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request.

The shunt inverter control translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt
current request and adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current.
For this mode of control a feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc, is
also required.

Automatic Voltage Control Mode:

The shunt inverter reactive current is automatically regulated
to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection to a reference
value. For this mode of control, voltage feedback signals are obtained from the
sending end bus feeding the shunt coupling transformer. The series inverter
controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with the line to
influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage can
be obtained in several ways.

Direct Voltage Injection Mode:

The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase
angle of the series voltage.

Phase Angle Shifter Emulati on mode:

 The reference input is phase displacement
between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage.

Line Impedance Emulation mode:

The reference input is an impedance value to insert in series

with the line impedance.

Automatic Power Flow Control Mode:

The reference inputs are values of P and Q to maintain on the

transmission line despite system changes.
CHAPTER 3
 D-STATCOM

3.1. INTRODUCTION:
In power distribution networks, reactive power is the mai
n cause of increasing distribution system losses and various power
quality problems. Conventionally, Static Var Compensators (SVCs) have been used
in conjunction with passive filters at the distribution level for reactive power
compensation and mitigation of power quality problems. Though SVCs are very
effective system controllers used to provide reactive power compensation at the
transmission level, their limited bandwidth, higher passive element count that
increases size and losses, and slower response make them inapt for the modern
day distribution requirement. Another compensating system has been proposed
by , employing a combination of SVC and active power filter, which can
compensate three phase loads in a minimum of two cycles. Thus, a controller
which continuously monitors the load voltages and currents to determine the
right amount of compensation required by the system and the less response time
should be a viable alternative. Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) has
the capacity to overcome the above mentioned drawbacks by providing precise
control and fast response during transient and steady state, with reduced foot
print and weight. A DSTATCOM is basically a converter based distribution flexible
AC transmission controller, sharing many similar concepts with that of a Static
Compensator (STATCOM) used at the transmission level. At the transmission level,
STATCOM handles only fundamental reactive power and provides voltage support,
while a DSTATCOM is employed at the distribution level or at the load end for
dynamic compensation .The latter, DSTATCOM, can be one of the viable
alternatives to SVC in a distribution network. Additionally, a DSTATCOM can also
behave as a shunt active filter, to eliminate unbalance or distortions in the source
current or the supply voltage, as per the IEEE-519 standard limits. Since a
DSTATCOM is such a multifunctional device, the main objective of any control
algorithm should be to make it flexible and easy to implement,
in addition to exploiting its multi functionality to the maximum. Prior to the type
of control algorithm incorporated, the choice of converter configuration
is an important criterion. The two converter configurations are voltage source con
verter or current source converter, in addition to passive storage elements, either
a capacitor or an inductor respectively. Normally, voltage source converters are
preferred due to their smaller size, less heat dissipation and less cost of the
capacitor, as compared to an inductor for the same rating . This paper focuses on
the comparative study of the control techniques for voltage source
converter based DSTATCOM, broadly classified into voltage control DSTATCOM
and current control DSTATCOM. Under the former, phase shift control is compared
with the latter, considering indirect decoupled current control and regulation of
AC bus and DC link voltage with hysteresis current control. The first two schemes
have been successfully implemented for STATCOM control at the transmission
level, for reactive power compensation, and voltage support and are recently
being incorporated to control a DSTATCOM employed at the distribution end. The
following indices are considered for comparison - measurement and signal
conditioning requirement, performance with varying linear/nonlinear load, total
harmonic distortion (THD) DC link voltage variation and switching frequency. The
paper briefly describes the salient features of each strategy, with their merits and
demerits. The paper also emphasizes the choice
of current control technique, as it significantly affects the performance
of a DSTATCOM. A
dynamic simulation model of the DSTATCOM has been developed for various contr
ol algorithms in Matlab/SimPower System environment.

3.2. Basic Principle of DSTATCOM:

A DSTATCOM is a controlled reactive source, which includes a Voltage Source

Converter (VSC) and a DC link capacitor connected in shunt, capable of generating
and/or absorbing reactive power. The operating principles of a DSTATCOM are
based on the exact equivalence of the conventional rotating synchronous
compensator. The AC terminals of the VSC are connected to the Point of Common
Coupling (PCC) through an inductance, which could be a filter inductance or
the leakage inductance of the coupling transformer, as shown in Fig. 3.1
Fig.3.1. Block diagram of D-STATCOM

The DC side of the converter is connected to a DC capacitor, which carries the

input ripple current of the converter and is the main reactive energy storage
element. This capacitor could be charged by a battery source, or could be
precharged by the converter itself. If the output voltage of the VSC is equal to the
AC terminal voltage, no reactive power is delivered to the system. If the output
voltage is greater than the AC terminal voltage, the DSTATCOM is in the capacitive
mode of operation and vice versa. The quantity of reactive power flow is
proportional to the difference in the two voltages.

It is to be noted that voltage regulation at PCC and power

factor correction cannot be
achieved simultaneously. For a DSTATCOM used for voltage regulation at the PCC,
the compensation should be such that the supply currents should lead the supply
voltages; where as, for power factor correction, the supply current should be in
phase with the supply voltages. The control strategies studied in this paper are
applied with a view to studying the performance of a DSTATCOM for power factor
correction and harmonic mitigation.

3.3. Operating Principles of the D-STATCOM:

The STATCOM is the solid-state-based power converter

version of the SVC. The concept of the STATCOM was proposed by Gyugyi in 1976.
Operating as a shunt-connected SVC, its capacitive or inductive output currents
can be controlled independently from its connected AC bus voltage. Because of
the fast-switching characteristic of power converters, the STATCOM provides much
faster response as compared to the SVC. In addition, in the event of a rapid
change in system voltage, the capacitor voltage does not change instantaneously;
therefore, the STATCOM effectively reacts for the desired responses. For example,
if the system voltage drops for any reason, there is a tendency for the STATCOM to
inject capacitive power to support the dipped voltages .Theoretically, the power
converter employed in the STATCOM can be either a VSC or a current-source
converter (CSC).

In practice, however, the VSC is preferred because of the

bi directional voltage-blocking capability required by the power semiconductor
devices used in CSCs. To achieve this kind switch characteristic, an additional
diode must be connected in series with a conventional semiconductor switch, or
else the physical structure of the semiconductor must be modified. Both of these
alternatives increase the conduction losses and total system cost In general, a CSC
derives its terminal power from a current source, i.e., a reactor. In comparison, a
charged reactor is much lossier than a charged capacitor. Moreover, the VSC
requires a current-source filter at its AC terminals, which is naturally provided by
the coupling transformer leakage inductance, while additional capacitor banks are
needed at the AC terminals of the CSC. In conclusion, the VSCs can operate with
higher efficiency than the CSCs do in high-power applications. A suitable VSC is
selected based on the following considerations: the voltage rating of the power
network, the current harmonic requirement, the control system complexity, etc.
Basically, the STATCOM system is comprised of three main parts: a VSC, a set of
coupling reactors or a step-up transformer, and a controller. In a very-high-voltage
system, the leakage inductances of the step-up power transformers can function
as coupling reactors.

The main purpose of the coupling inductors is to filter out

the current harmonic components that are generated mainly by the pulsating
output voltage of the power converters. The STATCOM is connected to the power
networks at a PCC, where the voltage-quality problem is a concern. All required
voltages and currents are measured and are fed into the controller to be
compared with the commands. The controller then performs feedback control and
outputs a set of switching signals to drive the main semiconductor switches of the
power converter accordingly. The single line diagram of the STATCOM system is
illustrated in Figure 1. In general, the VSC is represented by an ideal voltage source
associated with internal loss connected to the AC power via coupling reactors. In
principle, the exchange of real power and reactive power between the STATCOM
and the power system can be controlled by adjusting the amplitude and phase of
the converter output voltage. In the case of an ideal lossless power converter, the
output voltage of the converter is controlled to be in phase with that of the power
system. In this case, there is no real power circulated in the STATCOM; therefore, a
real power source is not needed. To operate the STATCOM in capacitive mode or
var generation, +Q, the magnitude of the converter output voltage is controlled to
be greater than the voltage at the PCC. In contrast, the magnitude of the output
voltage of the converter is controlled to be less than that of the power system at
the PCC on order to absorb reactive power or to operate the STATCOM in
inductive mode, -Q. However, in practice, the converter is associated with internal
losses caused by non-ideal power semiconductor devices and passive
components.

As a result, without any proper controls, the capacitor voltage

will be discharged to compensate these losses, and will continuously decrease in
magnitude. To regulate the capacitor voltage, a small phase shift d is introduced
between the converter voltage and the power system voltage. A small lag of the
converter voltage with respect to the voltage at the PCC causes real power to flow
from the power system to the STATCOM [13], while the real power is transferred
from the STATCOM to the power system by controlling the converter voltage so
that it leads the voltage at the PCC. Figure 2 illustrates phasor diagrams of the
voltage at the PCC, converter output current and voltage in all four quadrants of
the PQ plane.
3.4. Control Strategies:

Satisfactory performance, fast response, flexible and easy implem

entation are the

main objectives of any compensation strategy. The control strategies of a

DSTATCOM are mainly implemented in the following steps:

• Measurements of system variables and signal conditioning

• Extraction of reference compensating signals

• Generation of firing angles for switching devices

Fig. 3.4 Schematic diagram of DSTATCOM control

Fig. 3.4 shows the schematic diagram of DSTATCOM control, taking into
consideration the
above steps. The generation of proper pulse width modulation (PWM)
firing is the most important part of DSTATCOM control and it has a great impact on
its compensation objectives, transient as well as steady state performance. Since a
DSTATCOM shares many concepts with that of a STATCOM at the transmission
level, a few control techniques have been directly implemented to a DSTATCOM,
incorporating PWM switching, rather than fundamental frequency switching (FFS)
methods. A PWM based distribution static compensator offers faster response and
capability for harmonic elimination. This paper is an attempt to compare the
following schemes of a DSTATCOM for power factor correction and harmonic
mitigation based on:1.Phase shift control2.Indirect decoupled current
control3.Regulation of AC bus and DC link voltage.The performance of DSTATCOM
with different control schemes have been studied through digital simulations for
common system parameters, as given in the Appendix.
CHAPTER 4
4. POWER QUALITY

4.1. INTRODUCTION:

The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is
often enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed
performance, and levels of automation that can be achieved. Although these
features and their indirectly related computer based enhancements are key issues
to an efficient terminal operation, we must not forget the foundation upon
which we are building. Power quality is the mortar which bonds the
Foundation blocks. Power quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane
reliability, our environment, and initial investment in power distribution systems
to support new crane installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which
accompanied the last monthly issue of my home utility billing: ‘Using electricity
wisely is a good environmental and business practice which saves you money,
reduces emissions from generating plants, and conserves our natural resources.’
As we are all aware, container crane performance requirements continue to
increase at an astounding rate. Next generation container cranes, already in the
bidding process, will require average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW –
almost double the total average demand three years ago. The rapid increase in
power demand levels, an increase in container crane population, SCR converter
crane drive retrofits and the large AC and DC drives needed to power and control
these cranes will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very near
future.

4.2POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:

For he purpose of this article, we shall
define power quality problems as:
“Any power problem that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment,
Manifests itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces negative
impacts on the environment.”

When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade
power quality include:

• Power Factor

• Harmonic Distortion

• Voltage Transients

• Voltage Sags or Dips

• Voltage Swells

The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are
significant contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion. Whereas
SCR phase control creates the desirable average power factor, DC SCR drives
operate at less than this. In addition, line notching occurs when SCR’s commutate,
creating transient peak recovery voltages that can be 3to 4 times the nominal line
voltage depending upon the system impedance and the size of the drives. The
frequency and severity of these power system disturbances varies with the speed
of the drive. Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives will be highest when
the drives are operating at slow speeds. Power factor will be lowest when DC
drives are operating at slow speeds or during initial acceleration and
deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum value when the SCR’s are phased
on to produce rated or base speed. Above base speed, the power factor
essentially remains constant. Unfortunately, container cranes can spend
considerable time at low speeds as the operator attempts to spot and land
containers. Poor power factor places a greater kVA demand burden on the utility
or engine-alternator power source. Low power factor loads can also affect the
voltage stability which can ultimately result in detrimental effects on the
Life of sensitive electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction. Voltage
transients created by DC drive SCR
line notching, AC drive voltage chopping, and high frequency harmonic voltages
and currents are all significant sources of noise and disturbance to sensitive
electronic equipment. It has been our experience that end users often do not
associate power quality problems with Container cranes, either because they are
totally unaware of such issues or there was no economic Consequence if power
quality was not addressed. Before the advent of solid-state power supplies, Power
factor was reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal. Not until the
crane Population multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static
power conversion became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to
emerge. Even as harmonic distortion and power Factor issues surfaced, no one
was really prepared. Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System
vendors avoid the issue during competitive bidding for new cranes . Rather than
focus on Awareness and understanding of the potential issues, the power quality
issue is intentionally or unintentionally ignored. Power quality problem solutions
are available . Although the solutions are not free, in most cases, they do
represent a good return on investment . However, if power quality is not specified,
it most likely will not be delivered.

4.3.Power Quality Improvement:

Power quality can be improved through:

• Power factor correction,

• Harmonic filtering,

• Special line notch filtering,

• Transient voltage surge suppression,

• Proper earthing systems.

In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may not be
fully aware of the potential power quality issues. If this article accomplishes
nothing else, we would hope to provide that awareness .In many cases, those
involved with specification and procurement of container cranes may not be
cognizant of such issues, do not pay the utility billings, or consider it someone
else’s concern. As a result, container crane specifications may not include
definitive power quality
criteria such as power factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Also, many of th
ose specifications which do require power quality equipment do not properly
define the criteria.

Early in the process of preparing the crane specification:

• Consult with the utility company to determine regulatory or contract

requirements that must be satisfied, if any.

• Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power
quality profiles that can be expected based on the drive sizes and technologies
proposed for the specific project.

• Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the

present situation, but consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the
future development plans for the terminal.

4.4 THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY:

Power quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of th

e terminal operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects
other consumers served by the same utility
service. Each of these concerns is explored in the following paragraphs.
4.4.1. Economic Impact:

The economic impact of power quality is the

foremost incenti ve to container terminal operators. Economic impact can
be significant and manifest itself in several ways:

a. Power Factor Penalties:

Many utility companies invoke penalties for
low power factor on monthly billings. There is no industry standard followed by
utility companies. Methods of metering and calculating power factor penalties
vary from one utility company to the next. Some utility companies
actually meter kVAR usage and establish a fixed rate times the number of kVAR-
hours consumed. Other utility companies monitor kVAR demands and calculate
power factor. If the power factor falls below a fixed limit value over a demand
period, a penalty is billed in the form of an adjustment to the peak demand
charges. A number of utility companies servicing container terminal equipment do
not yet invoke power factor penalties. However, their service contract with the
Port may still require that a minimum power factor over a defined demand period
be met. The utility company may not continuously monitor power factor or kVAR
usage and reflect them in the monthly utility billings; however, they do reserve
the right to monitor the Port service at any time. If The power factor criteria set
forth in the service contract are not met, the user may be penalized, or required
to take corrective actions at the user’s expense. One utility company, which
supplies power service to several east coast container terminals in the USA, does
not reflect power factor penalties in their monthly billings, however, their service
contract with the terminal reads as follows: ‘The average power factor under
operating conditions of customer’s load at the point where service is metered
shall be not less than 85%. If below 85%, the customer may be required to furnish,
install and maintain at its expense corrective apparatus which will increase the
Power factor of the entire installation to not less than 85%. The customer shall
ensure that no excessive harmonics or transients are introduced on to the [utility]
system. This may require special power conditioning equipment or filters. The IEEE
Std. 519-1992 is used as a guide in Determining appropriate design requirements.
The Port or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for maintaining
container cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment, should be aware
of these requirements. Utility deregulation will most likely force utilities to enforce
requirements such as the example above. Terminal operators who do not deal
with penalty issues today may be faced with some
rather severe penalties in the future. A sound, future terminal growth
plan should include contingencies for addressing the possible economic impact of
utility deregulation.

b. System Losses:
Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear
loads, not only result in possible power factor penalties, but also increase the
power losses in the distribution system. These losses are not visible as a separate
item on your monthly utility billing, but you pay for them each month. Container
cranes are significant contributors to harmonic currents and low power factor.
Based on the typical demands of today’s high speed container cranes, correction
of power factor alone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result in a
reduction of system losses that converts to a 6 to 10% reduction in the monthly
utility billing. For most of the larger terminals, this is a significant annual saving in
the cost of operation.

c. Power Service Initial Capital Investments:

The power distribution system design and installation

for new terminals, as well as modification of systems for terminal capacity
upgrades, involves high cost, specialized, high and medium voltage
equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing cables,
collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the kVA demand. Thus cost of the
equipment is directly related to the total kVA demand. As the relationship above
indicates, kVA demand is inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e. a
lower power factor demands higher kVA for the same kW load. Container cranes
are one of the most significant users of power in the terminal. Since container
cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power factor, the
total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power
factor correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some
common bus location in the terminal. In the absence of power quality
corrective equipment, transformers are larger, switch gear current ratings must
be higher, feeder cable copper sizes are larger, collector system and cable reel
cables must be larger, etc. Consequently, the cost of the initial power distribution
system equipment for a system which does not address power quality will most
likely be higher than the same system which includes power quality equipment.

4.4.2. Equipment Reliability:

Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment

reliability and reduce the life of components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and
voltage system sags and swells are all power quality problems and are all
interdependent. Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transientscan induce
harmonics, the same phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC
SCR Variable speed drives are responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically
varying power factor of the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The
effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line
notch ringing can be mitigated using specially designed filters.

4.4.3. Power System Adequacy:

When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power

distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine
the adequacy of the system
tosupport additional crane loads. Power quality corrective actions may be dictated
due to inadequacy of existing power distribution systems to which new or
relocated cranes are to be connected. In other words, addition of power quality
equipment may render a workable scenario on an existing power distribution
system, which would otherwise be inadequate to support additional cranes
without high risk of problems.

4.4.4. Environment:

No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality

on our environment. Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a
reduction in the consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in power
plant emissions. It is our responsibility as occupants of this planet to encourage
conservation of our natural resources and support measures which improve our
air quality.
Chapter 5
5. Harmonics

5.1Introduction:
The typical definition for a harmonic is “a sinusoidal component of a periodic
wave or\quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the
fundamental frequency.” [1]. Somereferences refer to “clean” or “pure” power as
those without any harmonics. But such cleanwaveforms typically only exist in a
laboratory. Harmonics have been around for a long time andwill continue to do so.
In fact, musicians have been aware of such since the invention of the firststring or
woodwind instrument. Harmonics (called “overtones” in music) are responsible
for what makes a trumpet sound like a trumpet, and a clarinet like a clarinet.
Electrical generators try to produce electric power where the voltage waveform
has only
one frequency associated with it, the fundamental frequency. In the North Americ
a, this frequency is 60 Hz, or cycles per second. In European countries and other
parts of the world, this frequency is usually 50 Hz. Aircraft often uses 400 Hz as
the fundamental frequency. At 60 Hz, this means that sixty times a second, the
voltage waveform increases to a maximum positive value, then decreases to zero,
further decreasing to a maximum negative value, and then back to zero. The rate
at which these changes occur is the trigometric function called a sine wave, as
shown in figure 1. This function occurs in many natural phenomena, such as the
speed of a pendulum as it swings back and forth, or the way a string on a voilin
vibrates when plucked. Fig 5.1. Sine wave The frequency of the harmonics is
different, depending on the fundamental frequency. For example, the 2nd
harmonic on a 60 Hz system is 2*60 or 120 Hz. At 50Hz, the second harmonic is 2*
50 or 100Hz.300Hz is the 5th harmonic in a 60 Hz system, or the 6th harmonic in a
50 Hz system. Figure 2 shows how a signal with two harmonics would appear on
an oscilloscope-type display, which some power quality analyzers provide

In order to be able to analyze complex signals that have many different

frequencies present, a number of mathematical methods were developed. One of
the more popular is called the Fourier Transform.
However, duplicating the mathematical steps required in a microprocessor or
computer-based instrument is quite difficult. So more compatible processes,
called the FFT for Fast Fourier transform, or DFT for Discrete Fourier Transform,
are used. These methods only work properly if the signal is composed of only the
fundamental and harmonic frequencies in a certain frequency range (called the
Nyquist frequency, which is one-half of the sampling frequency). The frequency
values must not change during the measurement period. Failure of these rules to
be maintained can result in mis-information. For example, if a voltage waveform
is comprised of 60 Hz and 200 Hz signals, the FFT cannot directly see the 200Hz. It
only knows 60, 120, 180, 240,..., which are often called “bins”. The result would be
that the energy of the 200 Hz signal would appear partially in the 180Hz bin, and
partially in the 240Hz bin. An FFT-based processer could show a voltage value of
115V at 60 Hz, 18 V at the 3rdharmonic, and 12 V at the 4th harmonic, when it
really should have been 30 V at 200 Hz. These in-
between frequencies are called “inter harmonics”. There is also a special category
of inter harmonics, which are frequency values less than the fundamental
frequency value, called sub-harmonics. For example, the process of melting metal
in an electric arc furnace can result large currents that are comprised of the
fundamental , inter harmonic, and sub harmonic frequencies being drawn from
the electric power grid. These levels can be quite high during the melt-down
phase, and usually effect the voltage waveform.

5.2.Effects of harmonics:

The presence of harmonics does not mean that the factory or office cannot run
properly .Like other power quality phenomena, it depends on the “stiffness” of
the power distribution system and the susceptibility of the equipment. As shown
below, there are a number of different types of equipment that can have mis-
operations or failures due to high harmonic voltage and/or current levels. In
addition, one factory may be the source of high harmonics but able to
run properly. This harmonic pollution is often carried back onto the electric utility
distribution system, and may effect facilities on the same system which are more
susceptible.

Some typical types of equipment susceptible to harmonic

pollution include: - Excessive neutral current, resulting in overheated neutrals. The
odd triplen harmonics in three phase wye circuits are actually additive in the
neutral. This is because the harmonic number multiplied by the 120 degree phase
shift between phases is a integer multiple of 360 degrees. This puts the harmonics
from each of the three phase legs “in-phase” with each other in the neutral, as
shown in figure
-Incorrect reading meters, including induction disc W-hr meters and averaging
type current meters

- Reduced true PF, where PF= Watts/VA.

- Overheated transformers, especially delta windings where triplen harmonics

generated on the load side of a delta

-wye transformer will circulate in the primary side. Some type of losses goes up as
the square of harmonic value (such as skin effect and eddy current losses). This is
also true for solenoid coils and lighting ballasts.
- Zero, negative sequence voltages on motors and generators. In a balanced
system, voltage harmonics can either be positive (fundamental, 4th, 7th,...),
negative (2nd, 5th,8th...) or zero (3rd, 6th, 9th,...) sequencing values. This means
that the voltage at that particular frequency tries to rotate the motor forward,
backward, or neither (just heats up the motor), respectively. There is also heating
from increased losses as in a transformer.

Table 1. Harmonic Sequencing Values in Balanced Systems- Nuisance operation of

protective devices, including false tripping of relays and failure of a UPS to transfer
properly, especially if controls incorporate zero-crossing sensing circuits.- Bearing
failure from shaft currents through un insulated bearings of electric motors.-
Blown-fuses on PF correction caps, due to high voltage and currents from
resonance with line impedance. Mis-operation or failure of electronic equipment-
If there are voltage sub harmonics in the range of 1-30Hz, the effect on lighting is
called flicker. This is especially true at 8.8Hz, where the human eye is most
sensitive, and just 0.5%variation in the voltage is noticeable with some types of
lighting.
5.3.Causes:

How this electricity is used by the different type of loads can have an
effect on “purity” of the voltage waveform. Some loads cause the voltage and
current waveforms to lose this pure
sine wave appearance and become distorted. This distortion may consist of predo
minately harmonics, depending on the type of load and system impedances. Since
this article is about harmonics, we will concentrate on those types of sources.“The
main sources of harmonic current are at present the phase angle controlled
rectifiers and inverters.” [3] These are often called static power converters. These
devices take AC power and convert it to another form, sometimes back to AC
power at the same or different
frequency, based on the firing scheme. The firing scheme refers to the controlling
mechanism that determines how and when current is conducted. One major
variation is the phase angle at which conduction begins and ends. A typical such
converter is the switching-type power supplies found in most personal computers
and peripheral equipment, such as printers. While they offer many benefits in size,
weight and cost, the large increase of this type of equipment over the past fifteen
years is largely responsible for the increased attention to harmonics. Figure shows
below how a switching-type power supply works. The AC voltage is converted into
a DC voltage, which is further converted into other voltages that the equipment
needs to run. The rectifier consists of semi-conductor devices (such as diodes)
that only conduct current in one direction. In order to do so, the voltage on the
one end must be greater than the other end. These devices feed current into a
capacitor, where the voltage value on the cap at anytime depends on how
much energy is being taken out by the rest of the power supply. When the input
voltage value is higher than voltage on the capacitor, the diode will conduct
current through it. This results in a current waveform as shown in Figure 5, and
harmonic spectrum in Figure 6. Obviously, this is not a pure sinusoidal waveform
with only a 60Hz frequency component

5.4.How do you find harmonics:

Hand-held harmonic meters can be useful tools

for making spot checks for known harmonic problems. However, harmonic values
will often change during the day, as different loads are turned on and off within
the facility or in other facilities on the same electric utility distribution system.
This requires the use of a harmonic monitor or power quality monitor with
harmonic capabilities (such as shown in Figure 8), which can record the harmonic
values over a period of time.

5.5. Effects of harmonics:

Most electrical loads (except half-wave rectifiers)
produce symmetrical current waveforms, which mean that the positive half of the
waveform looks like a mirror image of the negative half. This results in only odd
harmonic values being present. Even harmonics will disrupt this half-
wave symmetry. The presence of these even harmonics should cause the
investigator to suspect there is a half-wave rectifier on the circuit. This also results
from a full wave rectifier when one side of the rectifier has blown or damaged
components. Early detection of this condition in a UPS system can prevent a
complete failure when the load is switched onto back-up power. To determine
what is normal or acceptable levels, a number of standards have been
developed by various organizations. ANSI/IEEE C57.110 Recommended
Practice for Establishing Transformer Compatibility When Supplying No sinusoidal
Load Currents is a useful document for determining how much a transformer
should be rated from its name plate rating when operating in the presence of
harmonics. There are two parameters typically used, called K-factor and TDF
(transformer de reading factor). Some power quality harmonic monitors will
automatically calculate these values. IEEE 519-1992 Recommended
Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems
provides guidelines from determining what acceptable limits are. The harmonic
limits for current depend on the ratio of Short Circuit Current (SCC) at PCC (or how
stiff it is) to average Load Current of maximum demand over 1 year, as illustrated
in Table 5. Note how the limit decreases at the higher harmonic values, and
increases with larger ratios.

5.6. MINIMIZATION OF HARMONICS:

 Care should be undertaken to make sure that the
corrective action taken to minimize the harmonic problems don’t actually make
the system worse. This can be the result of resonance between harmonic filters,
PF correcting capacitors and the system impedance. Isolating harmonic pollution
devices on separate circuits with or without the use of harmonic filters are typical
ways of mitigating the effects of such. Loads can be relocated to try to balance the
system better. Neutral conductors should be properly sized according to the
latest NEC-1996 requirements covering such. Whereas the neutral may have been
undersized in the past, it may now be necessary to run a second neutral wire that
is the same size as the phase conductors. This is particularly important with some
modular office partition-type walls, which can exhibit high impedance values. The
operating limits of transformers and motors should be derated, in accordance
with industry standards from IEEE, ANSI and NEMA on such. Use of higher pulse
converters, such as 24-pulse rectifiers, can eliminate lower harmonic values, but
at the expense of creating higher harmonic values.

6. ADVANTAGES:

• The derivation of switching signals uses a hysteresis controller,

which is robust and simple, with fast dynamic response and automatic current
limiting capability.

• The algorithm is flexible and can be easily modified for

improved voltage regulation, harmonic suppression and load balancing.
 • The inherent property to provide self supporting dc bus does
not require complex abc dqO transformations.

• The THD in case of nonlinear loads is well below the IEEE-

519 standard limits
 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

MATLAB is a software package for computation in engineering, science, and

applied mathematics.

It offers a powerful programming language, excellent graphics, and a wide

range of expert knowledge. MATLAB is published by and a trademark of The
MathWorks, Inc.
 The focus in MATLAB is on computation, not mathematics: Symbolic
expressions and manipulations are not possible (except through the optional
Symbolic Toolbox, a clever interface to maple). All results are not only numerical
but inexact, thanks to the rounding errors inherent in computer arithmetic. The
limitation to numerical computation can be seen as a drawback, but it’s a source
of strength too: MATLAB is much preferred to Maple, Mathematical, and the like
when it comes to numerics.

On the other hand, compared to other numerically oriented languages like

C++ and FORTRAN,

MATLAB is much easier to use and comes with a huge standard library.1 the
unfavorable comparison here is a gap in execution speed. This gap is not always as
dramatic as popular lore has it, and it can often be narrowed or closed with good
MATLAB programming (see section 6). Moreover, one can link other codes into
MATLAB, or vice versa, and MATLAB now optionally supports parallel computing.
Still, MATLAB is usually not the tool of choice for maximum-performance

Computing.

The MATLAB niche is numerical computation on workstations for non-experts in

computation.
 This is a huge niche—one way to tell is to look at the number of MATLAB-
related books on mathworks.com. Even for supercomputer users, MATLAB can be
a valuable environment in which to explore and fine-tune algorithms before more
laborious coding in another language.

Most successful computing languages and environments acquire a distinctive

character or culture.

In MATLAB, that culture contains several elements: an experimental and graphical

bias, resulting from the interactive environment and compression of the write-
compile-link-execute analyze cycle; an emphasis on syntax that is compact and
friendly to the interactive mode, rather than tightly constrained and verbose; a
kitchen-sink mentality for providing functionality; and a high degree of openness
and transparency (though not to the extent of being open source software).

The fifty-cent tour

When you start MATLAB, you get a multipaneled desktop. The layout and
behavior of the desktop and its components are highly customizable (and may in
fact already be customized for your site).

The component that is the heart of MATLAB is called the Command

Window, located on the 1Here and elsewhere I am thinking of the “old
FORTRAN,” FORTRAN 77. This is not a commentary on the usefulness of FORTRAN
90 but on my ignorance of it.

INTRODUCTION

Right by default. Here you can give MATLAB commands typed at the
prompt, >>. Unlike FORTRAN and other compiled computer languages, MATLAB is
an interpreted environment—you give a command, and MATLAB tries to execute
it right away before asking for another.

At the top left you can see the Current Directory. In general MATLAB is
aware only of files in the current directory (folder) and on its path, which can be
customized. Commands for working with the directory and path include cd, what,
addpath, and editpath (or you can choose “File/Set path. . . ” from the menus).
You can add files to a directory on the path and thereby add commands to
MATLAB; we will return to this subject in section 3.

Next to the Current Directory tab is the Workspace tab. The workspace shows you
what variable names are currently defined and some information about their
contents. (At start-up it is, naturally, empty.) This represents another break from
compiled environments: variables created in the workspace persist for you to
examine and modify, even after code execution stops. Below the
CommandWindow/Workspace window is the Command History window. As you
enter commands, they are recorded here. This record persists across different
MATLAB sessions, and commands or blocks of commands can be copied from here
or saved to files.

As you explore MATLAB, you will soon encounter some toolboxes. These
are individually packaged sets of capabilities that provide in-depth expertise on
particular subject areas. There is no need to load them explicitly—once installed,
they are always available transparently. You may also encounter Simulink, which is
a semi-independent graphical control-engineering package not covered in this
document.

Graphical versus command-line usage

MATLAB was originally entirely a command-line environment, and it retains

that orientation. But it is now possible to access a great deal of the functionality
from graphical interfaces—menus, buttons, and so on. These interfaces are
especially useful to beginners, because they lay out the available choices clearly.2
As a rule, graphical interfaces can be more natural for certain types of interactive
work, such as annotating a graph or debugging a program, whereas typed
commands remain better for complex, precise, repeated, or reproducible tasks.
One does not always need to make a choice, though; for instance, it is possible to
save a figure’s styles as a template that can be used with different data by pointing
and clicking. Moreover, you can package code you want to distribute with your
own graphical interface, one that itself may be designed with a combination of
graphical and command-oriented tools. In the end, an advanced MATLAB user
should be able to exploit both modes of work to be productive.

That said, the focus of this document is on typed commands. In many

(most?) cases these have graphical interface equivalents, even if I don’t explicitly
point them out.

In particular, feel free to right-click (on Control-click on a Mac) on various objects

to see what you might be able to

do to them.

WHAT IS SIMULINK

Simulink (Simulation and Link) is an extension of MATLAB by Math works

Inc. It works with MATLAB to offer modeling, simulating, and analyzing of
dynamical systems under a graphical user interface (GUI) environment. The
construction of a model is simplified with click-and-drag mouse operations.
Simulink includes a comprehensive block library of toolboxes for both linear and
nonlinear analyses. Models are hierarchical, which allow using both top-down and
bottom-up approaches. As Simulink is an integral part of MATLAB, it is easy to
switch back and forth during the analysis process and thus, the user may take full
advantage of features offered in both environments. This tutorial presents the
basic features of Simulink and is focused on control systems as it has been written
for students in my control systems .
Getting Started

To start a Simulink session, you'd need to bring up Matlab program first. From
Matlab command window, enter:

>> simulink

Alternately, you may click on the Simulink icon located on the toolbar as shown
To see the content of the blockset, click on the "+" sign at the beginning of each
toolbox.

To start a model click on the NEW FILE ICON as shown in the screenshot
above.

Alternately, you may use keystrokes CTRL+N.

A new window will appear on the screen. You will be constructing your model in
this window. Also in this window the constructed model is simulated. A
screenshot of a typical working (model) window that looks like one shown below:
To become familiarized with the structure and the environment of Simulink, you
are encouraged to explore the toolboxes and scan their contents.

You may not know what they are all about but perhaps you could catch on
the organization of these toolboxes according to the category. For instant, you
may see Control System Toolbox to consist of the Linear Time Invariant (LTI)
system library and the MATLAB functions can be found under Function and Tables
of the Simulink main toolbox. A good way to learn Simulink (or any computer
program in general) is to practice and explore. Making mistakes is a part of the
learning curve. So, fear not, you should be.

A simple model is used here to introduce some basic features of Simulink.

Please follow the steps below to construct a simple model.

STEP 1: CREATING BLOCKS.

From BLOCK SET CATEGORIES section of the SIMULINK LIBRARY BROWSER

window, click on the "+" sign next to the Simulink group to expand the tree and
select (click on) Sources.
 A set of blocks will appear in the BLOCKSET group. Click on the Sine Wave
blockand drag it to the workspace window (also known as model window)
 A set of blocks will appear in the BLOCKSET group. Click on the Sine Wave
blockand drag it to the workspace window (also known as model window)
 I am going to save this model under the filename: "simexample1". To save a
model, you may click on the floppy diskette icon. Or from FILE menu, select Save
or CTRL+S. All Simulink model file will have an extension ".mdl". Simulink
recognizes file with .mdl extension as a simulation model (similar to how MATLAB
recognizes files with the extension .m as an MFile).

Continue to build your model by adding more components (or blocks) to

your model window. We'll continue to add a Scope from Sinks library, an
Integrator block from Continuous library, and a Mux block from Signal Routing
library.

NOTE: If you wish to locate a block knowing its name, you may enter the name in
the SEARCH WINDOW (at Find prompt) and Simulink will bring up the specified
block.

To move the blocks around, simply click on it and drag it to a desired

location.

Once all the blocks are dragged over to the work space should consist of the
following components:
 You may remove (delete) a block by simply clicking on it once to turn on the
"select mode" (with four corner boxes) and use the DEL key or keys combination
CTRL-X.
STEP 2: MAKING CONNECTIONS

To establish connections between the blocks, move the cursor to the output port
represented by ">" sign on the block. Once placed at a port, the cursor will turn
into a cross "+" enabling you to make connection between blocks.

To make a connection: left-click while holding down the control key (on your
keyboard) and drag from source port to a destination port.

The connected model is shown below.

A sine signal is generated by the Sine Wave block (a source) and is displayed
by the scope. The integrated sine signal is sent to scope for display along with the
original signal from the source via the Mux, whose function is to multiplex signals
in form of scalar, vector, or matrix into a bus.
STEP 3: RUNNING SIMULATION

You now can run the simulation of the simple system above by clicking on
the play button (alternatively, you may use key sequence CTRL+T, or choose Start
submenu under Simulation menu).

Double click on the Scope block to display of the scope.

INTRODUCTION

SimPowerSystems and other products of the Physical Modeling product

family work together with Simulink® to model electrical, mechanical, and control
systems.
 SimPowerSystems operates in the Simulink environment. Therefore, before
starting this user’s guide, you should be familiar with Simulink. For help with
Simulink, see the Simulink documentation. Or, if you apply Simulink to signal
processing and communications tasks (as opposed to control system design tasks),
see the Signal Processing Block set documentation.

The Role of Simulation in Design

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and

electromechanical devices like motors and generators. Engineers working in this
discipline are constantly improving the performance of the systems.

Requirements for drastically increased efficiency have forced power system

designers to use power electronic devices and sophisticated control system
concepts that tax traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating
the analyst’s role is the fact that the system is often so nonlinear that the only way
to understand it is through simulation.

Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is

not the only use of power systems. A common attribute of these systems is their
use of power electronics and control systems to achieve their performance
objectives.
What Is SimPowerSystems

SimPowerSystems is a modern design tool that allows scientists and

engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power systems.

SimPowerSystems uses the Simulink environment, allowing you to build a model

using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can you draw the circuit topology
rapidly, but your analysis of the circuit can include its interactions with
mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible because all the
electrical parts of the simulation interact with the extensive Simulink modeling
library. Since Simulink uses MATLAB® as its computational engine, designers can
also use MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink block sets. SimPowerSystems and Sim
Mechanics share a special

Physical Modeling block and connection line interface.

SimPowerSystems Libraries

You can rapidly put SimPowerSystems to work. The libraries contain models
of typical power equipment such as transformers, lines, machines, and power
electronics. These models are proven ones coming from textbooks, and their
validity is based on the experience of the Power Systems Testing and Simulation
Laboratory of Hydro-Québec, a large North American utility located in Canada,
and also on the experience of École de Technologie Supérieure and Université
Laval.
 The capabilities of SimPowerSystems for modeling a typical electrical
system are illustrated in demonstration files. And for users who want to refresh
their knowledge of power system theory, there are also self-learning case studies.

The SimPowerSystems main library, power lib, organizes its blocks into
libraries according to their behavior. The power lib library window displays the
block library icons and names. Double-click a library icon to open the library and
access the blocks. The main SimPowerSystems power lib library window also
contains the Powergui block that opens a graphical user interface for the steady-
state analysis of electrical circuits.

Nonlinear Simulink Blocks for SimPowerSystems Models

The nonlinear Simulink blocks of the power lib library are stored in a
special\block library named powerlib_models. These masked Simulink models are
used by SimPowerSystems to build the equivalent Simulink model of your circuit.
See Chapter 3, “Improving Simulation Performance” for a description of the
powerlib_models library

You must have the following products installed to use SimPowerSystems:

• MATLAB

• Simulink
CONCLUSION:

The paper presents the comparative study of three control strategies used for the
control of DSTATCOM, with their relative merits and demerits. The control
schemes are described with the help of simulation results, under linear and
nonlinear loads. Simulation results show the
suitability of AC/DC bus voltage regulation for harmonic suppression and reactive
power compensation. A comparison of the three control strategies is shown in
Table 1. It can also be
concluded that though conceptually similar to a STATCOM at the transmission leve
l, a DSTATCOM’s control scheme should be such that in addition to complete
reactive power compensation, power factor correction and voltage regulation of
the harmonics are also checked, in order to achieve improved power quality levels
at the distribution end
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