09canal PDF

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA)
Technical Guideline for Design of

Irrigation Canal and Related Structures
May, 2014
The Project for Capacity Building in Irrigation Development (CBID)

Foreword
Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA) is established on June,

2013, as a responsible body for all irrigation development activities in the
Region, according to Oromia National Regional Government proclamation
No. 180/2005. The major purposes of the establishment are to accelerate
irrigation development in the Region, utilize limited resources efficiently,
coordinate all irrigation development activities under one institution with
more efficiency and effectiveness.
To improve irrigation development activities in the Region, the previous

Oromia Water Mineral and Energy Bureau entered into an agreement with
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for “The Project for Capacity
Building in Irrigation Development (CBID)” since June, 2009 until May,
2014. CBID put much effort to capacitate Irrigation experts in Oromia
Region through several activities and finally made fruitful results for
irrigation development. Accordingly, irrigation projects are constructed and
rehabilitated based on that several Guidelines & Manuals and texts
produced which can result in a radical change when implemented properly.
Herewith this massage, I emphasize that from Now on, OIDA to make efforts
to utilize all outputs of the project for all irrigation activities as a minimum
standard, especially for the enhancement of irrigation technical capacity.
I believe that all OIDA irrigation experts work very hard with their respective
disciplines using CBID outputs to improve the life standard of all people. In
addition, I encourage that all other Ethiopian regions to benefit from the
outputs.
Finally, I would like to thank the Japanese Government, JICA Ethiopia

Office, and all Japanese and Ethiopian experts who made great effort to
produce these outputs.
Feyisa Asefa Adugna

General Manager
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Oromia Irrigation Development
May, 2014
Authority
Introductory Remarks
“Growth and Transformation Plan” (GTP) from 2011 to 2015 intensifies use of
the country’s water and other natural resources to promote multiple cropping,
better adaptation to climate variability and ensure food security. Expansion of
small scale irrigation schemes is given a priority, while attention is also given
to medium and large scale irrigation.
In Oromia Region, it is estimated that there exists more than 1.7 million ha of
land suitable for irrigation development. However, only 800,000 ha is under
irrigation through Traditional and Modern irrigation technology. To accelerate
speed of Irrigation Development, the Oromia National Regional State requested
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for support on capacity
building of Irrigation Experts under Irrigation Sector.
In response to the requests, JICA had conducted "Study on Meki Irrigation and
Rural Development" (from September 2000 to January 2002) and Project for
Irrigation Farming Improvement (IFI project) (from September 2005 to August
2008). After implementation of them there are needs to improve situation on
irrigation sector in Oromia Region.
JICA and the Government of Ethiopia agreed to implement a new project,
named “The project for Capacity Building in Irrigation Development” (CBID).
The period of CBID is five years since June, 2009 to May, 2014 and main
purpose is to enhance capacity of Irrigation Experts in Oromia Region focusing
on the following three areas, 1) Water resources planning, 2)
Study/Design/Construction management, 3) Scheme management through
Training, On the Job Training at site level, Workshops, Field Visit and so on
and to produce standard guidelines and manuals for Irrigaiton Development.
These guidelines and manuals (Total: fourteen (14) guidelines and manuals)
are one of the most important outputs of CBID. They are produced as
standards of Irrigation Development in Oromia Region through collecting
different experiences and implementation of activities by CBID together with
Oromia Irrigation Experts and Japanese Experts.
These guidelines and manuals are very useful to improve the Capacity of OIDA
Experts to work more effectively and efficiently and also can accelerate
Irrigation Development specially in Oromia Region and generally in the country.
Finally, I strongly demand all Irrigaiton Experts in the region to follow the
guidelines and manuals for all steps of Irrigation Development for sustainable
development of irrigation.
Adugna Jabessa Shuba

D/General Manager & Head, Study,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Design, Contract Administration &
May, 2014 Construction Supervision
Oromia Irrigation Development
Authority
Table of Contents
1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.............................................................................. 1
1.1 Aim of the Manual .................................................................................. 1
1.2 Scope of the Manual ............................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Classification of Canals and Application............................................. 1
1.2.2 Fluid.................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Classification of Canals .......................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Classification by Purpose.................................................................... 2
(1) Irrigation canal ................................................................................. 2
(2) Drainage canal ................................................................................. 2
(3) Dual-purpose canal (for irrigation and drainage) ............................. 2
1.3.2 Classification by System ..................................................................... 3
1.3.3 Classification by Type ......................................................................... 3
(1) Open channel type ........................................................................... 3
(2) Pipe line type .................................................................................... 4
1.4 Canal System ......................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Water Conveying Facilities ............................................................... 4
1.4.2 Diversion Facility, Water Measuring Facility and Canal Junction
Facility.............................................................................................. 4
1.4.3 Regulating Facilities ......................................................................... 5
1.4.4 Protection Facilities .......................................................................... 5
1.4.5 Safety Facilities................................................................................. 5
1.4.6 Operation and Maintenance Facilities.............................................. 5
1.4.7 Appurtenant Facilities ...................................................................... 5
1.4.8 Other related Facilities for Water Utilization..................................... 5
1.5 Basic Considerations in Canal Design ................................................... 6
1.5.1 Basic Considerations in Design .......................................................... 6
(1) Information necessary for design ..................................................... 6
(2) Basic considerations in design of canals .......................................... 7
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1.5.2 Consideration of Rules related to Canal Design ................................. 7
1.6 Basic Considerations in Canal Construction ......................................... 7
1.6.1 Basic Consideration in Canal Construction ....................................... 7
1.6.2 Construction ....................................................................................... 8
2. BASIC DESIGN INPUT DATA (INVESTIGATION) ................................................... 9

2.1 Basic Consideration in Investigation ........................................................ 9
2.1.1 Plan of Investigations .......................................................................... 9
(1) General items ................................................................................... 9
(2) Steps of investigation........................................................................ 10
2.1.2 Items for Investigation......................................................................... 11
(1) Investigation items for overall plan ................................................... 11
(2) Investigation items for design and construction............................... 11
(3) Investigation items for operation and maintenance ......................... 12
(4) Other investigation items ................................................................. 12
2.2 Investigations ............................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 Topographical Investigations and Surveys ......................................... 12
(1) Data collection .................................................................................. 13
(2) Aerial photographic survey............................................................... 13
(3) Route survey..................................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Soil and Geological Investigations....................................................... 16
(1) Items and methods of investigations ................................................ 16
(2) Investigation for overall plan............................................................. 22
(3) Pre-feasibility study .......................................................................... 22
(4) Feasibility study ............................................................................... 25
2.2.3 Meteorological and Hydrological Investigations .................................. 29
(1) General ............................................................................................. 29
(2) Meteorology ...................................................................................... 29
(3) Hydrology ......................................................................................... 30
(4) Others............................................................................................... 31
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2.2.4 Investigations of Site Conditions......................................................... 32
(1) General ............................................................................................. 32
(2) Investigation on social conditions..................................................... 32
(3) Investigation of construction conditions........................................... 33
(4) Environmental investigation............................................................. 34
2.2.5 Investigation on Water Management and
Operation and Maintenance of the Canal System ................ 34
3. DESIGN CONCEPTS .................................................................................... 35

3.1 General ..................................................................................................... 35
3.1.1 General Concepts.............................................................................. 35
(1) Overall design of irrigation canal ...................................................... 35
(2) Overall design of drainage canal....................................................... 35
(3) Main items to be considered in overall design.................................. 36
(4) Canal or structure design................................................................. 37
3.1.2 Procedure of Design .......................................................................... 37
3.1.3 Design Discharge and Designed Level .............................................. 41
(1) Design discharge .............................................................................. 41
(2) Designed level ................................................................................... 42
3.1.4 Selection of Canal Type..................................................................... 43
(1) Open channel type ........................................................................... 44
(2) Pipeline type ..................................................................................... 44
(3) Compound type of open channels and pipelines ............................. 45
3.1.5 Canal Route Selection....................................................................... 46
(1) General conception for the canal route selection ............................. 46
(2) General condition for the canal route selection ................................ 46
(3) Procedure for canal route selection .................................................. 48
3.1.6 Selection of Canal Structures for Open Channel Type ..................... 49
(1) Open channel ................................................................................... 49
(2) Tunnel .............................................................................................. 50
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(3) Culvert .............................................................................................. 51
(4) Siphon/aqueduct ............................................................................. 52
(5) Drop/chute ...................................................................................... 53
3.1.7 Particulars to be considered in Selection of
Canal Route and Structures .................... 54
(1) Minimum radius of curve ................................................................. 54
(2) Limitation of longitudinal slope and curve ....................................... 56
(3) Minimum earth cover ....................................................................... 57
3.2 Hydraulic Design........................................................................................ 58
3.2.1 General ............................................................................................. 58
(1) Hydraulic design of canals ............................................................... 58
(2) Establishment of the hydraulic consistency in the canal design ..... 59
3.2.2 Allowable Flow Velocity ..................................................................... 59
(1) Determination of the design velocity ................................................ 59
(2) Minimum allowable velocity ............................................................. 59
(3) Maximum allowable velocity............................................................. 60
(4) Considerations for determination of design velocity ......................... 61
3.2.3 Calculation of Mean Velocity ........................................................... 62
(1) Discharge of canal ............................................................................ 62
(2) Mean velocity formula of open channel type canal........................... 62
(3) Coefficient of roughness ................................................................... 62
(4) Determination of cross-section area of a uniform flow canal ........... 68
(5) Mean Velocity Formula of a Pipeline Type Canal ............................. 68
3.2.4 Non–uniform Flow ............................................................................ 69
(1) Basic equation of non-uniform flow (reference) ................................ 69
(2) Critical depth .................................................................................... 70
(3) Head losses and change of water level ............................................. 72
(4) Various head losses.......................................................................... 73
(5) Head loss and change of water level due to change of canal
Section .............................................................................................. 74
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3.3 Structural Design ....................................................................................... 80
3.3.1 General ............................................................................................. 80
3.3.2 Load .................................................................................................. 80
(1) Dead weight .................................................................................... 80
(2) Water pressure ................................................................................. 81
(3) Buoyancy and up-lift ........................................................................ 81
(4) Earth pressure ................................................................................. 82
(5) Vehicle load and impact load............................................................ 82
(6) Crowd loads...................................................................................... 88
(7) Track loads ....................................................................................... 89
(8) Earthquake load (reference) ............................................................. 89
(9) Wind pressure load .......................................................................... 90
(10) Construction load ........................................................................... 90
(11) Temperature stresses ..................................................................... 90
(12) Drying shrinkage and creep of concrete ......................................... 90
(13) Frost heave pressure ...................................................................... 91
3.3.3 Reaction of Foundations ................................................................... 91
(1) When a uniform load acts on normal (compressive) ground............ 91
(2) In the case of an eccentric load ........................................................ 91
3.3.4 Loads Acting on Open Channels ...................................................... 93
(1) Load combination............................................................................. 93
(2) Soil constant..................................................................................... 94
(3) Load applied to vertical walls............................................................ 95
3.3.5 Stability Analysis .............................................................................. 108
(1) Reviews for overturning .................................................................... 108
(2) Reviews for sliding ............................................................................ 109
(3) Reviews for foundation ground bearing capacity ............................. 109
3.3.6 Plain and Reinforced Concrete ......................................................... 110
(1) Types of reinforcing bars .................................................................. 110
(2) Allowable stresses............................................................................. 111
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(3) Design of reinforced concrete ........................................................... 115
(4) Minimum thickness of members...................................................... 121
(5) Joints................................................................................................ 121
(6) Cut-off walls ..................................................................................... 123
(7) Haunches ......................................................................................... 123
3.4 Detail Designs for Canals and Related Structures ..................................... 125
3.4.1 Basics of Design................................................................................ 125
(1) Cross-sectional forms of open channels (Hydraulically favorable
cross-sections)................................................................................. 125
(2) Freeboard ......................................................................................... 126
(3) Treatment for the foundation ground............................................... 134
(4) Earth works...................................................................................... 135
3.4.2 Masonry Canal.................................................................................. 138
(1) Outline for applications .................................................................... 138
(2) Types of canal ................................................................................... 138
(3) Structural designs ............................................................................ 138
3.4.3 Concrete Lining Canals .................................................................... 139
(1) Outline for applications .................................................................... 139
(2) Types of concrete lining canal .......................................................... 139
(3) Basement of linings .......................................................................... 140
(4) Cross-sections of canals ................................................................... 140
(5) Gradient of slope .............................................................................. 141
(6) Thickness of linings .......................................................................... 141
(7) Weep holes and underdrains ........................................................... 141
3.4.4 Unlined Canals ................................................................................. 142
(1) Outline of applications ..................................................................... 142
(2) Design of unlined canals .................................................................. 142
3.4.5 Drops ................................................................................................ 145
(1) General description .......................................................................... 145
(2) The type of drop works ..................................................................... 145
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(3) Design............................................................................................... 146
3.4.6 Division Boxes .................................................................................. 153
(1) General description .......................................................................... 153
(2) Consideration points for designing division boxes ........................... 153
(3) Design............................................................................................... 154
4. CHECK LIST FOR CANAL.............................................................................. 157
5. EXAMPLE OF DESIGN FOR CANAL AND RELATED STRUCTURES ........... 161

5.1 Design of Canal......................................................................................... 161
5.1.1 Basic Data for Design of Canal ........................................................... 161
(1) Data from surveyor........................................................................... 161
(2) Data from hydrologist....................................................................... 161
(3)Data from Agronomist ....................................................................... 161
(4) Data from geologist........................................................................... 161
5.1.2 Canal Condition .................................................................................. 162
5.1.3 Canal Shape ....................................................................................... 163
(1) Hydraulic design............................................................................... 163
(2) Cross-section form ........................................................................... 163
(3) Canal freeboard ................................................................................ 164
(4) Calculation on canal shape .............................................................. 164
(5) Stability analysis of retaining wall canal .......................................... 168
5.2 Design of Related Structures .................................................................... 199
5.2.1 Design of Inner Space Width and Opening Height of Gate ................. 199
5.2.2 Design of Drops .................................................................................. 201
(1) Basic data for design
(in case of construction of drop into retaining wall canal)............... 201
(2) Upstream canal ................................................................................ 201
(3) Critical Depth and others ................................................................. 201
(4) Shape of water vein .......................................................................... 201
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(5) Flow velocity of downward water vein in the water cushion............. 202
(6) Length of the water cushion ............................................................. 202
(7) Confirmation calculation .................................................................. 202
(8) Height of drop ................................................................................... 202
(9) Rising height of outfall ...................................................................... 203
(10) Confirmation of the water level whether complete drop
or incomplete drop ........................................................................ 203
5.3 How to use “Goal seek” ............................................................................. 206
References .......................................................................................................... 208

List of Authors/Experts/Editors/Coordinators ................................................. 209
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Technical Guideline for Design of Irrigation Canal and Related Structures
1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
1.1 Aim of the Manual
This manual discusses general terms to be considered in the design and

construction or rehabilitatiom of canals in irrigation projects.
The manual defines the general and basic technicals terms related to the
standards design and construction of canals. Therefore, design and
construction of each canals in different conditions, technical and economic
criteria must be considered according to the principles set out in this
manual, depending on the canal function, network, system, scale and other
field conditions such as topography, etc.
1.2 Scope of the Manual
This manual is applied to the design and construction of canals with main
purpose of irrigation and drainage of agricultural land particilarly for canals
which are designed and constructed in the standard scale and conditions.
1.2.1 Classification of Canals and Application
A canal is a series of structures (including facilities for water distribution,

water measurement, confluence, etc) to convey a required amount of water
from one place to another with a certain purpose. Canals are broadly divided
into canals for conveying water (such as main canals and lateral canals) and
canals for distributing or collecting water (such as farm ditches and farm
drains), according to their functions and hydraulic characteristics. This
manual mainly deals with canal system to flow irrigation water and drained
water of agricultural land.
However, of the above canals, special canals such as water warming canals,
muddy water canals, water way-roads, village water supply and village
sewage canals are excluded from this manual due to the scope in principle.
1
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) & Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA)
1.2.2 Fluid
The fluid considered in this manual is ordinary fresh water that is usable as
irrigation water, and water of ordinary quality such as rainwater,
groundwater, etc. in agriclutural lands. Special measures are required to
select materials for canals and to determine canal stsructures, if warm
water, liquid chemical, liquid fertilizer, waste water from livestock and
domestic activities, etc, are contained.
1.3 Classification of Canals
In this manual, canals are classified by their purpose of use, system and
type as follows:
-Classification by purpose: Irrigation canal, drainage canal,
dual-purpose canal,
-Classification by system : Main canal, lateral canal,
-Classification by type : Open canal, pipeline,
1.3.1 Classification by Purpose
(1) Irrigation canal

Irrigation canal is a canal to convey agricultural water mainly irrigation
water. It is divided into the exclusive irrigation canal for conveying irrigation
water only and the multipurpose canal for convying city water, industrial
water or power generation water together with irrigation water.
(2) Drainage canal

Drainage canal is a canal to drain mainly surface water and groundwater
from agricultural land and village sewage. It includes the canal to drain
excess water from agricultural land in order to secure the growth of crops
and to mechanize farming works, and the canal for agricultural land
conservation by protecting agricultural land from water erosion, etc.
(3) Dual-purpose canal (for irrigation and drainage)

In principle, irrigation canals and drainage canals must be separated from
each other. However, in upland fields on sloping land, the following canals
are used as dual-purpose canals: 1) canals which are used for irrigation
during the irrigation season and for drainage during the flood season, 2)
2
canals which are used as drainage canals for upland fields in higher area
and as irrigation canals for those in lower area. These canals are generally
designed so as to have an adequate capacity for drainage discharges. In the
case of 1), the irrigation water level must be periodically checked during the
irrigation season, and special attention must be paid to the canal
management for drainage.
1.3.2 Classification by System
The irrigation canal is classified into the main canal that conveys irrigation
water from the intake point to the irrigation areas, and into the lateral canal,
which is branched off from the main canal to distribute water into individual
irrigation blocks. The drainage canal is also classified into the main canal
and lateral canal from the drainage outlet to the upstream. The main
irrigation canals, canals which convey irrigation water from the intake
points to the regulating reservoirs, major division works, etc. are often called
head races. Lateral canals are also divided into secondary and tertiary
canals. In addition to the classification of canal systems by function
mentioned above, there are also catch drains that are drainage canals
constructed along a contour line at the boundaries between the foot of a
mountain and pumped drainage areas or gravity drainage areas to intercept
drainage water from high lands. Catch drains mitigates flood damages in the
low lands and outlet channel, which are used to discharge all or part of the
flood water to rivers, lakes, or sea for flood control, removal of sand and
maintenance of canals.
1.3.3 Classification by Type
In this manual, canals are classified into open channel and pipeline
according to the hydraulic and structural characteristics of canals.
(1) Open channel type

Open channel type is a canal having a free water surface without hydraulic
pressure. It includes open channels, tunnels, culverts, siphons, etc. Even if
a canal system partially includes closed conduits under hydraulic pressure
such as siphons, etc., it is still called an open channel type as a whole.
3
(2) Pipe line type

Pipe line type is mainly composed of pipelines receiving internal hydraulic
pressure without a free water surface. Structurally, it is divided into the
closed type of which all lines are composed of closed conduits and the open
type which comprises stands having a free water surface on the way of the
line at the end.
1.4 Canal System
The canal system consists of water conveying facilities, diversion facilities,

water measuring facilities, canal junction facilities, regulating facilities,
protection and safety facilities, operation and maintenance facilities, and
appurtenant facilities. A canal is composed of various facilities which are
systematically connected with each other to organize the canal system and
fulfill the functions of the canal as a whole. Classification of facilities and
their functions are as follows:
1.4.1 Water Conveying Facilities

This is the main facility of the canal system for conveying water. It is divided
into open channel and pipeline depending on the topography of the canal
route, land use, hazards and other field conditions. Further, the open
channel type consists of open channel, tunnel, culvert, aqueduct, siphon,
drop, chute, etc.
1.4.2 Diversion Facility, Water Measuring Facility and Canal Junction

Facility
The division facilities are for regulating and distributing irrigation water
from the main irrigation canal to lateral canals, or from lateral canals to
farm ditches depending on the required amount of irrigation water. The
measuring facility is provided to measure and record the discharge for
effective use of irrigation water. It is generally combined with the division
boxes to check the divided discharge and to distribute water rationally. The
canal junction facility is constructed mainly in the drainage canals to lead
the drained water from the lateral canal to the main canal or from farm
drains to the lateral canal. It consists of junction works, drop works, etc.
4
1.4.3 Regulating Facilities

For securing the function and safety of the canal, there are regulating
facilities for the water level and discharge, spillways, wasteways, pressure
regulating facilities, drainage gates, etc., which are used to regulate the
water level, pressure, velocity and discharge in the canal. There are also
regulating the discharge or timely variation of the water level in the
irrigation and drainage system in order to use water effectively, to maintain
the drainage function, to give flexibility to the canal functions and to
rationalize the canal facilities.
1.4.4 Protection Facilities

In order to protect the canal facilities functionnaly and structurally, there
are cross-drainages, drainage inlets, drainage ditches, sedimentation tanks,
slope protection works, etc. Spillways and wasteways equallyclassified as
protection facilities, but they are classified as regulating facilities in this
manual.
1.4.5 Safety Facilities

These are facilities for ensuring the safety of supervisors of the canal system
and others that include guardrails, fences, handrails, life ropes, ladders,
signs, etc.
1.4.6 Operation and Maintenance Facilities

These are facilities for water management and operation and maintenance of
canal facilities, which include observation facilities, control facilities,
communication facilities, control offices, operation and maintenance roads
and dust removal facilities, etc.
1.4.7 Appurtenant Facilities

These are compulsory facilities necessary for maintaining the functions of
existing facilities owing to construction or rehabilitation of canals. Bridges
and crossing structures are included in this category.
1.4.8 Other Related Facilities for Water Utilization

The canal is a comprehensive irrigation and drainage system to fulfill its
function for water utilization, which includes the other related facilities for
water utilization such as dams, headworks, pumping stations, etc., and
rivers, lakes and sea as water resources or drainage outlets. Therefore, in
5
designing canals and in planning water management, these related facilities

mentioned above must be considered as the components of series of
comprehensive irrigation and drainage system.
1.5 Basic Considerations in Canal Design
In designing canals, the following matters must be considered basically. The

canal system must keep the necessary functions for water utilizations as a
series of irrigation and drinage facilities. It must be designed as an
economical system in additions to be a safe and rational system for water
management. At the same time, the design must comply with relevant rules
and regulations.
1.5.1 Basic Considerations in Design
The design of canals must be done so as to fulfill their functions for

irrigation and drainage efficiently for a safe and rational management of
water use and facilities. It helps also to minimize construction costs as well
as operation and maintenance costs.
(1) Information necessary for design

In designing canals accurate information must be collected on the followings
points:
1) Purpose of canal system
The purpose of canal system according to the use of canal, such as for
upland field irrigation, flood drainage and normal drainage.
2) Irrigation and drainage water requirements, water level, etc.
The reasons for requirements, period and place of requirements of irrigation
and drainage, required water level, etc,
3) Present conditions of commanded area by canals
The range of commanded areas, topography, geology, climate, hydrology,
land use, farm management, irrigation and drainage networks, customs, etc,
4) Water resources and drainage outlets
The type, scale, location, discharge, water level and river condition of water
sources or drainage outlets such as dams, head works, pumping stations,
rivers, lakes, seas, etc,
5) Present conditions of canal routes
The topography, geology, land use and other rights along the canal routes,
6
6) Operation and maintenance

The organization, method, costs, etc. of operation and maintenance after
completion of canal facilities.
(2) Basic considerations in design of canals

The design of canals must be done so as to provide an economic canal
system with special attention to fulfill their functions for conveying and
distributing water efficiently. It is as a comprehensive irrigation and
drainage system in combination with other related facilities for water use,
and to make possible safe and rational management of water use and
facilities. In this respect, it is basically considered in design to keep 1) water
conveyance capacity, 2) water distributing, confluence and regulating
functions, 3) safety of the canal, 4) rational management of water use and
facilities, 5) economic cost for construction and operation and maintenance,
and 6) harmony with the surrounding environments.
1.5.2 Consideration of Rules Related to Canal Design
Canals are long-term structures that connect to rivers and lakes and are
provided over a vast area. In design of canals related rules and regulations
must be considered.
1.6 Basic Considerations in Canal Construction
The canal must be constructed according to the plan prepared for

undertaking the work rationally, economically and safely, as well as to
satisfy design details, in consideration of the field conditions. At the same
time, the canal construction must comply with the relevant rules and
regulations.
1.6.1 Basic Consideration in Canal Construction
The construction must be executed economically and safely within the

proposed period according to the design. Therefore, planning the
construction must be prepared taking into account the intention of design
and field conditions and the progress of the works must always be checked.
If any field conditions different from design conditions are encountered, then
the design must be restudied and modified.
7
1.6.2 Construction
Construction must be executed rationally, economically and safely in

accordance with an appropriate construction planning and under
construction management in consideration to field conditions.
8
2. BASIC DESIGN INPUT DATA (INVESTIGATION)
2.1 Basic Consideration in Investigation
Investigation must be executed according to well-conceived plan, by an

appropriate methods and using standard procedures to obtain fundamental
data that are necessary for route selection, design, construction, operation
and maintenance of canals. Investigations are required to collect the
necessary basic data for determination of canal routes, selection of canal
types and facility designs, planning of construction methods and future
management of canal system, after proper recognition of the purpose and
site conditions for the canals. Investigation must, therefore, be executed and
controlled systematically from the start by an experienced engineer with
knowledge in planning of canals including design, construction, operation
and maintenance, etc.
2.1.1 Plan of Investigation
In order to collect the data required for each stage in canal construction,
investigations must be made according to a carefully established plan for
their scope, methods, precision and other conditions.
(1) General items

Canal construction generally proceeds through planning, investigation,
design and construction. As a general rule, the outline of investigation is
determined at first and then the details are studied. Investigation of canal
works varies in the terms, range, principle, method and precision depending
on the stage reached in canal construction. Therefore, the investigation
must proceed with careful planning. Investigation for canal works may
include ① those necessary for planning, ② those necessary for design, ③
those necessary for construction, ④ those necessary for operation and
maintenance, and ⑤ others. Methods of investigation may include ① data
collection, ② reconnaissance survey, ③ field investigations, surveys, field
tests, field observations, ④ laboratory tests, ⑤ trial construction,
observation after construction, and ⑥ supplementary tests, etc.
Investigation for the route selection, designing and construction of canals do
not merely involved technical problems, but touch on socio-economics and
environmental issues in the broadest sense. Such investigation may take a
long time from the start to completion, and various corrections may be
9
required in the process due to the interaction of the results. Hence, it is

difficult to divide such investigation into definite steps. In general, they may
be divided into ① Identification, ② Pre-feasibility study, ③ Feasibility study
and ④ supplementary investigations complementary to execution of the
construction.
(2) Steps of investigation

1) Identification
The objective of identification is to evaluate broadly the existing data on
weather, hydrology, topography, geology, and site conditions. It is also to
reconnoiter the site and make other necessary studies with a view to
establishing the basic plan of the canal route. Usually, several alternative
routes are compared, and two or three routes are proposed in plans area set
up.
2) Pre-feasibility study
Pre-feasibility study is made to provide data for the basic designs that
include the selection of the final canal route, basic design of facilities, basic
planning of construction and broad estimate of cost. Pre-feasibility consists
of data collection, topography survey and soil tests. Usually in this step, the
final plan for canal construction is determined. Although the details may be
revised later as the result of further field investigations, sufficient
investigations are necessary to ensure that the basic plan will not be
drastically changed later.
3) Feasibility study
Feasibility study is made to collect data necessary for detailed designs such
as the detail design of facilities, detailed cost estimate and construction
planning on the basis of the basic design. These investigations are required
to supplement previous investigations in both quality and quantity of
detailed design. It will usually be based on the results of previous
investigations for the identification and pre-feasibility.
4) Supplementary investigation
These investigations are to obtain supplementary data during the
construction stage if found to be necessary. Ideally, the design and
construction plan will be fully determined as the result of detailed
preliminary investigations, but if actual site conditions prove to be
significantly different from those assumed in the design or if any accident
would occur or if changes in construction or sitting are otherwise required
10
for any material or social reason, suitable supplementary investigation will

be required.
2.1.2 Items for Investigation
Items for investigation necessary for the design, construction and

maintenance of canals must be determined in each case according to the
purpose of the canals, site conditions and other factors, so that
investigations may be carried out rationally and efficiently. Items for
investigation necessary for canal construction should be decided at first,
and investgated according to procedures and methods appropriate to each
case. Typical items relating to each matter are listed below. The items
necessary for construction of a specific canal are selected from this list and
are investigated rationally and efficiently.
(1) Investigation items for overall plan

These are the items necessary to prepare the project planning, which is the
basis of the design. They are mainly taking into account the internal and
external situation of the project area, relationship with other projects and
any local plans, and also to confirm the information obtained from the
existing data.
1) Project area,
2) Existing irrigation and drainage systems,
3) Existing irrigation and drainage facilities,
4) Customs of irrigation and drainage,
5) Long –range prospect of water demand,
6) Possibilities for rationalization of agricultural water use,
7) Present land use and capability,
8) General social, economic and agricultural factors to be considered
(Including institutional factors),
9) River conditions,
10) Relation with other projects,
11) Local development plan.
(2) Investigation items for design and construction

There are items for obtaining the nescessary fundamental data for practical
determination of the design and construction plan. The items are mainly
intended to ensure complete understanding of the natural and site condition.
11
1) Topography,
2) Soil conditions (especially engineering soil properties and permeability ),
geology,
3) Meteorology, hydrology (temperature, rainfall, water level, discharge, river
conditions, groundwater level, etc.),
4) Site condition (social condition, construction condition, environmental
condition).
(3) Investigation items for operation and maintenance

These are the items necessary for determining the method of operation and
maintenance and its maintenance facilities after the canal construction, and
are intented to investigate the circumstances in similar local areas, control
and other devices, mainly relating to the operation and maintenance system
in the future.
1) Meteorology, hydrology,
2) River conditions,
3) Basic data on observation, control, communications, and registration
facilities,
4) Water control system and control data of existing canals,
5) Operation and maintenance system and its level after completion of canal,
6) Road condition, traffic volume, etc.
(4) Other investigation items

These items may include investigations relating to land acquisition for the
canal construction, its compensation, and harmony with natural
environments and living environments.
1) Compensation investigations
2) Environmental investigations
2.2 Investigations
2.2.1 Topographical Investigations and Surveys
Topographical investigations and surveys include the collections of

topographical data in the whole project area, preparation of topographical
maps and topographical surveys along the proposed canal routes.
Topographic surveys should be started from the collection of existing data,
and promoted from rough to fine surveys.
12
(1) Data collection

The following maps published by government are used:
1) Topographic maps (scale 1/25,000 or 1/50,000)
2) National topographic series (scale 1/2,500 or 1/5,000)
3) Land use maps (Land Classification Maps)
4) Detail Maps (scale 1/1,000-1/10,000)
(2) Aerial photographic survey

The topographical maps used for desk study can be modified as project area
maps from various published topographical maps. If published maps are
inadequate, then topographical maps (scale 1/2,500 to 1/5,000) should be
compiled with reconnaisance and verification survey. Recently they are
mainly compiled by aerial photography. The scale of aerial maps must be
determined according to the purpose of use and land situation, and the
density and distribution of datum points will be determined acording to the
required and proposed uses for the maps. In this regards, the features of
aerial photographic survey are as follows:
1) Precision of all sations is uniform,
2) All stations are surveyed nearly simultaneously,
3) The land can be surveyed without field work,
4) Not suited to large scale such 1/100 to 1/400,
5) The cost is relatively high for a small area.
(3) Route survey

Routes are selected approximately on the drawing board based on available
maps and aerial photographs, and ground survey is effeted with respect to
the selected routes. This ground survey is the actural survey in the field to
obtain data for basic design and the detailed design. (Refer Table 2.1)
1) Central line survey
Central line survey is the survey to locate the center line of the canal on the
ground. Center stakes are driven from the starting point as specified
intervals and precision, and are numbered sequentially from the starting
point. Additional stakes are placed where necesary.
2) Longitudinal survey
Longitudinal survey is to measure the stake levels of survey points and
additional points set on the center line in order to plot a longitudinal section
along the center line. The longitudinal section is filled in with proposed
water levels and canal bed. It is an important survey drawing used in canal
13
system design and facility designs. Bench marks (B.M.) used for reference
are placed at specified intervals along the route.
3) Cross section survey
Cross sections are plotted for a center stake positions. These sections are
filled in with the sections of excavation and embankment, and are used in
canal system designs and facility design.
4) Plane-table survey (Toporaphic Survey)
The plane-table survey is usded to measure and plot the land topography
and boundaries. The chart made by this survey is completed with the names
of places and structures to provide a map along the canal route. This map is
used in the design of facilities and planning of construction. At proposed
important structures the necessary extent and scale must be determined
individually.
5) Land survey
In land surveying, stakes are placed along the center line to make the limits
of land ownership. This map is used in land compensation.
14
Table 2.1 Standard of drawing of survey maps
Contour Survey Description
Survey Method of survey Scope of survey Scale interval station
maps interval
Topograph Aerial All the related 1/5,000 For convenience, profile
-ic map photograph Region ~1/2,500 2.0~1.0m map/
Horizontal length
Plane map Route survey 1/1,000 Irrigation should be
Center line One side of ~1/200 canal plotted on the
Profile , survey route 1.0m Approx. topographic
map longitudinal Approx. 1/500 Drainage 50~100m (plane) map with the
and cross 30~100m ~1/100 canal same scale.
section survey 0.5m
plan survey For drainage canal,
Section 1/200 contour lines of at least
map ~1/100 0.5m are needed in
15
Plain survery for 1/200 Irrigation order to obtain data
Structure structures ~1/50 canal about depth, volume
plane map 1.0m and area of pending.
Drainage
canal
0.5m
Land Land survey
survey
map

2.2.2 Soil and Geological Investigations
Soil and geological investigations including the collection of geological data

reconnaissance, auger holes, trail pits or borings are made along the
proposed canal routes to understand the geological structure, the physical
properties of the soil, the groundwater table and other conditions.
(1) Items and methods of investigations

Soil and geological investigations are important studies for considering the
basic design and construction such as canal route, type of canal or
structure, and method of construction. The investigaitaon should be made
rationally with respect to the items required depending on the purpose of
determination of route, selection of type, etc., from the results of paper
study and field reconnnaissance, at each step of ① Identification, ② Pre-
feasibility study, ③ feasibility study and ④ supplementary investigations.
The content of these investigations may include the items listed below. The
method of investigation should be selected with reference to the following
matters depending on the scale of the canal, degree of importance, and the
quality of soil.
1) Geophysical exploration
This is suited to geological investigation of relatively shallow areas and it is
divided into surface exploration method and inter-hole exploration methods.
Earthquake exploration is often used among surface exploration methods
and sometimes electrical exploration (velocity exploration and PS
exploration) among inter-hole exploration methods. When we use these
methods, we should understand their adaptabilities and limits, and consider
the results after putting together each informations.
2) Sounding
This is the method of exploring the properties of the soil bed from the
resistance of penetration, rotation, and withdrawal of an inserted resistance.
Not only the geological structure, but also the properties of the soil may be
indirectly estimated from the test values. These investigations are often
conducted simultaneously with other explorations (drilling). The standard
penetration test is a common method, but the cone or Swedish sounding
method is economical in soft ground, and it is suited to a wide range of
investigation.
16
3) Drilling by auger, shell, or rotary method

This is a method of sampling soil or rocks from the underground.It is also
used for other field tests or inserting instruments by using the drilled hole.
While the geophysical exploration or sounding are indirect methods of
investigating soil conditions, drilling is the common method of obtaining
representative samples and undisturbed samples directly and continuously,
and this is very important because the data obtained can be used directly
in the design or construction planning.
4) Test pitting
By digging test pits or trenches manually or mechanically, soil quality may
be observed directly, and disturbed or undisturbed samples may be
obtained. This is the most reliable method of subsurface investigation, but it
is not economical for investigation of deep layers. Test pits may be excavated
either vertically or horizontally, and attention must be paid to the safety
condition during and after digging, by supporting timbering or fence,
depending on the size of pits.
5) Groundwater investigation
These are mainly intended to measure groundwater level and test
permeability of the sub grade. For measuring groundwater levels, the bore
holes or well observation may be used the field water permeability test is
intended to determine the permeability of the ground, and various methods
are available as shown below. Water injection may be used to obtain the
coefficient of permeability by injecting water into a bore hole, auger hole, etc
where the ground water level is low. Pumping out of a well or bore hole may
be applied where the groundwater level is high, to find the permeability
coefficient of the water bearing layer by observing the recovery of water level
after lowering by pumping. The component of this method is the
combination of a pumped well and observation well(s). Future tracer’s
methods may be used to investigate the actual flow of underground water or
of water leaking by injecting a dye or electrolytic substance into a bore hole
or vertical hole, and detecting it in other bore hole, shaft, adit or at the
surface water outlet.
6) Investigations of bearing capacity or deformation of ground
For these investigations, it is preferable to obtain dynamic constants relating
to bearing capacity and deformation directed by a loading test. In certain
cases however, the necessary data may be estimated from other test results
(such as standard penetration tests, shearing tests, etc.) Loading test
methods include the plate loading test to apply load in the vertical direction
17
by using a plate, and horizontal direction ground loading test to apply load
to the side wall of bore holes or test pits.
7) Soil test
Roughly soil tests can be classified as physical properties tests, mechanical
tests, and chemical properties tests. In the investigation, the target soil is
classified by physical properties tests according to the Unified Soil
Classification System (details are mentioned later). Physical properties tests
are used to estimate the soil classification made by former data and soil
properties and to calculate fundamental properties of soil (void ratio, degree
of saturation, density, etc.). Mechanical tests may also be depending on the
objective of the investigation. Since undisturbed samples are used in the
tests of bearing capacity and physical properties, while disturbed samples
are necessary for construction materials. It is necessary to consider the
sampling method in the plannig of boring or test pit investigation. Chemical
properties tests and rock tests may also be required. The principal items of
soil testing and use of their results are shown in the Table 2.5.
18
Table 2.2 Sounding suitable for Soil and strength of Ground

(Soil survey method, arranged by Soil Engineering Institute)
Ground Suitable sounding Remarks
(1) Unknown Standard penetration test Data of soil quality and strength
ground are obtainable at the same time.
It has a large exploration
capability and is most suitable as
initial surveying means.
(2) Ground mainly 1. Standard penetration test Single tube sounding without
comprising sand 2. Large-scale dynamic combining with boring may be
and pebbles penetration test degraded in performance due to
(regardless of 1. 10 t Dutch cone skin friction
value ) 2. Swedish sounding
(3) Ground with 1. Standard penetration test, (1) is suitable for deep
alternating sand large-scale dynamic penetration exploration, and (2) for shallow
and silt layers of test. one.
medium or more 2. Borro dynamic Penetration test
strength and
clay 4<N<30 1. 10 t Dutch cone.
2. Swedish sounding, 2t Dutch
cone
(4) Ground with silt 1. Borro dynamic Penetratioin test (1) is suitable for deep
and clay of 1. 2 t Dutch cone, Swedish exploration, and (2) for shallow
medium or less sounding one. Single tube souding may
strength 2<N<4 2. Portable cone (double tube), cause skin friction.
"pane" (in hole)
(5) Ground with 1. Portable cone (single tube, Static test machine should be
clay, silt and double tube ) small size-needs adjustment of
peat of extreme 2. "Pane ", Isky meter" and also it is necessary to adjust
weakness N<2 dead weight of rod as well as local
friction.
19
Table 2.3 Classification of Boring Surveying Objective and Sampling

Method-Type of Boring as Surveying method
(Soil surveying method, arranged by Engineering Institute)
Name of Objective Sampling tool Quality and use of Applied boring
method sample method
Auger Examine structure Soil auger Considerably Hand auger boring.
boring of unconsolidated disturbed sample. For Machine auger
ground, classification and boring.
approximate water arranging specimen of
content of soil and soil .
ground water.
Drivie Examime structure, Driving/thrusting Representative sample Machine auger
sample thickness, depth sampler for “drive though disturbed. boring, rotary
boring and layers of soil, sample” drive barrel Classification water boring, wash
foundation (spit spoon)(standard content measurement boring,
condition and penetration test tool) and arranging displacement
charactreristics as and others. specimen of soil. boring and pile
borrow material boring.
except for hard rock
pebbles.
“Undistur Collect cohesive soil Sampling tool for Little disturbed Machine auger
bed” which indicates (in collecing sample similar to boring, rotary
sample tests) properties “undisturbed” original soil. For boring, foil
boring similar soil in the samples by thin-wall classification., water sampling
original condition. tube and others. content
Also to carry out measurement. Shear
survey of dynamic test, consolidation
properties of test, and arranging
cohesive soil. specimen of soil.
Core Collect continuous Coring bit with core Undisturbed or Rotary (core) boring
boring rock core samples. tube barel, diamond little disturbed rock
or alloy core. For compression
test, tensil test,
hardness test, and
arrenging specimen of
soil.
Trial Collect most Manual block Sample, least Test pit, trench
excavation undisturbed sampling, box disturbed sample. For caisson method,
survey samples and also sampling, preceeding classification, water Large diameter
make direct trimming sampling content auger boring, Large
observation of shovel. measurement, shear diameter core
original ground. It is test, consolidation boring.
a special survey for test, fill material test,
serious cases of soil and arranging
stability and specimen of soil.
permeability, and
for large quantities
of test samples.
20
Table 2.4 Method of Permeability Test

Method of permeability Characteristics pumping in method
test
Pumping in Pond/canal It is suitable for shallow and uniform ground, and easy
method Method to carry out
Shaft method It is suitable for shallow and uniform ground , and easy
to carry out
Hole bottom method It is suitable for which bored hole has difficulty to stand
Pucker method It is suitable for hard rock or ground
Pumping out Equilibrium method It is suitable for compressed or free ground water zone,
method with relative high permeability
Non-equilibrium The method is classified into Theis method, Jacob
method method, recovery method, etc; depending upon the
result arrangement will be arranged.
Table 2.5 Principle of Soil Test
Test name Values determined from test Use of test result

results
Physical Specific Specific gravity of soil Gradation analysis of soil by means of
properties gravity of soil gravimeter, calculation of values of
test particle fundamental properties of soil
Volume of Ratio of water content Calculation of values of fundamental
water content properties of soil, rough judgment of soil
properties (in case of natural water
content)
Liquid limit, Liquid limit, plastic limit Gradation analysis of soil by means of
plastic limit Index of plasticity , index of gravimeter , assessment of soil as
consistency material, judgment of cohesion stability
in natural condition
Grading of Gradation analysis curve, Specification of soil as material,
particle effective diameter, coefficient classification of soil
of uniform, coefficient of
curvature
Wet density Wet density, dry density Calculation of values of fundamental
properties of soil, degrees of soil
compaction
Dynamic Compaction Ratio of water content- dry Understanding of compaction
test density curve characteristics, determination of
Maximum dry density, construction conditions and design of
optimum water content embankment, calculation of compaction
Searing Shear strength constant (C,) Stability analysis and calculation of earth
C:cohesion pressure in relation to land sliding
: angle of internal friction
Consolidation Ratio of porosity –Load curve, Calculation of volume of settling and
pre consolidation load settling velocity of cohesive soil
coefficient of consolidation,
coefficient of permeability, etc.
Permeability Coefficient of permeability Judgment of acceptability as material,
analysis of penetrating flow
Rock test Specific Specific gravity in saturated Judgment of lithology, calculation of
gravity and surface dry condition, Specific value of fundamental properties
percentage of gravity of absolute dry
water condition, percentage of
absorption for water absorption.
fine/ coarse
aggregates
Unconfined Unconfined compression Judgement of lithology
compression strength
21
(2) Investigation for overall plan

1) Documents study
This is to collect available documents and comprehensively understand the
condition of the whole project area. In order to promote subsequent
investigation efficiently, the following documents should be collected as
needed.
(a) Geological maps (1/50,000, 1/75,000, 1/200,000, etc.),
(b) Geological foundation maps (1/25,000, etc.),
(c) Soil maps (1/20,000, etc.),
(d) Soil investigation records,
(e) Construction work records and construction control records,
(f) Records relating to wells, ground water,
(g) Records relating to disasters.
2) Identification
This is the investigation to grasp the condition of the field of the intended
area based on the obtained investagation data, and if necessary, sampling
and sounding is made. This is the most important investigation for selecting
the method of subsequent investigation. In large scale canal palnning, it is
preferable to investigate such condition in cooperation with specialist in
respective field, and it is particularly advisable for geologists to make broad
and macroscope observations. In field reconnaissance, the following items
should be investigated in particular.
(a) Outline of topography and geology,
(b) Geology and soil quality of outcrop,
(c) Unstable topography and disaster-striken districts,
(d) Sediments on surface layer,
(e) Slope situation,
(f) Land use, type and growth of plants,
(g) Situation of existing facilities,
(h) Location of spring water, water level of wells,
(i) Flammable gas,
(j) Testimonies of local elder citizens.
(3) Pre-feasibility study

1) Items of investigations
At this step of the investigations, the geology and soil properties of the
proposed route are comprehensiverly clarified on the basis of the data
obtained by documents study and identification. The investigation method is
22
selected from the following items depending on the scale and importance of
the canal.
(a) Sounding (penetration tests, etc.),
(b) Sampling by auger drilling,
(c) Sampling by machine drilling, and standard penetration test,
(d) Geo-physical underground exploration (seismic exploration echo-
sounding, electric detection, geo-physical layer prospecting, etc.),
(e) Observation and sampling by test pits, trench, cutting, etc,
(f) Field water permeability test (pumping tests, injection tests),
(g) Observation and sampling by tunnel adits,
(h) Physical properties and mechanical tests of soil
2) Selection of investigation points
The investigation points are selected on the basis of the scale of canal,
importance, presence of problems, topography and its items of investigation.
The basic items are as follows:
(a) The standard interval of investigation along the canal route should be as
suggested in Table 2.6.However, many points should be investigated where
sounding or auger drilling is applicable,
(b) Investigations should be stressed at planned locations of important
structures, such as pump stations, siphons, tunnel entrances and exits,
supports of aqueducts, bridge foundation, wasteways, spillways, and gates,
or in soft ground, permeable ground, expansive clayey ground, and fault
areas.
Table 2.6 Standard interval for survey points
Works Type of topography. Standard Remarks
Scale of works profile interval
(m)
Open canal Wide alluvial plain 300 ~ 600 Note
(including Narrow alluvial plain 200 ~ 400 1) Survey interval should
covered Alluvia plain in valley 100 ~ 200 be longer if the ground
drainage ) Flat alluvial upland 300 ~ 600 condition is uniform.
Undulating alluvial 150 ~ 300 2) Survey interval should
upland be shorter if the ground
Siphon Long siphon 150 ~ 300 represents changing
Short siphon 100 ~ 200 topography.
Tunnel Short tunnel 200 ~ 700 3) Standard depth will be
Long tunnel 100 ~ 200 decided referring to Fig.
Structure Decided as 2.1.
Necessary 4) Survey in traversing
direction will be carried
out as necessary.
23
(c) Since the results of this investigation are used not only as data for the
design and construction, but also for the macroscopic understanding of the
ground, it is preferable to undertake the investigation as deep as possible.
For example, in reaching a solid layer considered to be the support layer of
the soft ground, it is advisable to investigate deeper in order to confirm the
thickness of this layer.
24
(4) Feasibility study

1) Items of investigation
After the determination of the canal route and the selection of the type of
canal and facilities during the detailed design step, minute investigations
are required for study of each object. The results are then used to
determine the type and arrangement, and assess the design and
construction of foundation treatments and construction cost. Although the
contents of the investigation vary with the purpose, the investigation items,
range, method and precision are determined depending on the kind and
scale of each structure and ground condition. The standard investigation
items and soil tests necessary for various parts of the canal structure are as
shown in Table 2.7. The depth of investigation, which may vary depending
on the type of structure, condition to be considered in relation to the design,
and ground conditions, is generally as shown in Fig. 2.1 in a standard case.
2) Summarizing the investigation results
After the geological and soil investigations and tests, geological log chart or
geological longitudinal section charts are plotted based on these results and
geological and soil conditions of the final route are confirmed, while the
findings are summarized as the fundamental data for the detailed design of
the canal.
(a) Soil classification
A soil has its own physical properties, which are combined together to
present complicated engineering properties. In the work dealing with soil
materials, the design and construction are promoted on the basis of these
engineering characteristics. Therefore, the classification of soil by
engineering properties is technically of an immense value. The soil
classification is applied in the following cases.
a) When predicting data on soil materials,
b) When determining the range of necessary field investigation for Pre-
feasibility studies and Feasibility study,
c) When planning economic field investigation, test or indoor tests,
d) When performing supplementary investigations,
When the soil is classified, the suitability to the design is assessed with
reference to the results of permeability, compaction, and shearing test, by
referring to Table 2.8.
25
Table 2.7 Principal items of survey methods for foundation and soil material
Object Principal items Method of survey Soil test Remarks
of survey
a. Foundation Geological Collection, analysis Investigation and
ground Structure, of existing materials; tests for item a-c
bearing boring and sounding should be
carried out in
b. Backfill Classification of Collection analysis Volume of principle.
material soil, quantity of and investigation of water content, Foundation
available soil, existing materials; specific gravity ground means
conditions of boring, collection of of soil particle the ground
collection samples liquid/ plastic which will
limit, gradation become the
foundation of
c. Tunnel Geological Collection analysis Unconfined canal, siphon
ground structure, and investigation of compression and other
geology (rock, existing materials; Specific gravity structures.
rocky material) physical investigation volume of water
ground water boring absorption and
others
d. Backfill Characteristics Ground water survey, Compaction, Survey and

material of compaction, in-situ permeability, triaxial tests for item d-g
shear strength, trial pit survey compression or will be carried
permeability, unconfined out as necessary
erosion Trial pit survey, shear,
resistance, boring permeability
available and others
quantity
e. Excavated Condition of Ground water survey, Density, shear,
ground of ground water, in-situ permeability, physical
canal shear strength, collection of samples properties test
destiny, of soil and
permeability others
f. Ground of Ground water Ground water survey, Same as above
canal condition in-situ permeability,
consolidation collection of samples
/settlement,
shear strength,
settlement,
permeability
g. Foundation Groundwater Ground water survey, Same as above
for condition, in-situ permeability,
important bearing, collection of samples.
structure, settlement,
pump consolidation/se
station, ttlement, shear
bridge, etc. strength
h. Foundation Ground water Ground water survey,

for Siphon condition, in-situ Permeability,
bearing for plate bearing test
execution, shear foundation in-situ
strength plate test
26
Fig. 2.1 Standard of test pit depth
27
Table 2.8 Engineering Characteristics of Soil
classification Permeability Characteristics Compaction characteristics Shearing Characteristics Erosion resistance Expansion/Contraction Frost action
Symbol Order Permeability Coefficient Necessity of Order Workabil Dry density Suitable machines Order Shearing Cohesion Internal Order Resistance Order Description Order Description
(while permeability lining ity (tf/m3) strength friction
compacted) (cm/s) angle
GW 14 Extremely >10-2 Necessary 15 Very 2.0-2.1 Pneumatic tire roller, 1 Extremely Small Extremely 2 Extremely 14 Close to none 15 None - Extremely
large good Vibration roller Large Large Large small
GP 16 Extremely >10-2 Necessary 8 Good 1.8-2.0 Pneumatic tire roller, 3 Large Small Large 3 Extremely 16 Close to noe 17 None -Extremely
large Vibration roller Large small
GM 12 Medium 10-3 - 10-6 Necessary 12 Good 1.9-2.1 Pneumatic tire roller, 7 Large Average Large 5 Large 12 Extremely 10 Small -Average
-Small - Not Tamping roller, small
necessary Vibration roller
GC 6 Small 10-6 - 10-8 Not 11 Good 1.8-2.1 Pneumatic tire roller, 9 Large Averate Average 4 Large 10 Small 11 Small -Average
necessary Tamping roller
GW-GC 8 Small 10-5 - 10-7 Not 16 Good 1.8-2.1 Pneumatic tire roller, 4 Large Average Large 1 Extremely 11 Small 12 Small -Average
necessary Tamping roller Large
-3
SW 13 Large >10 Necessary 13 Very 1.8-2.1 Vibration roller 2 Extremely Small Extremely 8 Average 13 Close to none 14 None -Extremely
good Large Large small
SP 15 Extremely >10-3 Necessary 7 Normal 1.6-1.9 Vibration roller 6 Large Small Large 9 Average 15 Close to none 16 None -Extremely
Large small
SM 11 Medium 10-3 - 10 -6 Necessary 10 Normal 1.8-2.0 Pneumatic tire roller, 8 Large Small Large 10 Small 9 Extremely 7 Small -Large
-Small - Not Tamping roller, small -
necessary Vibration roller Average
SC 5 Small 10-6 - 10-8 Not 9 Normal 1.7-2.0 Pneumatic tire roller, 10 Avarage Average Average 7 Average 7 Small - 8 Small - Large
28
necessary Tamping roller Average
-5 -8
SW-SC 7 Small 10 - 10 Not 14 Good 1.7-2.1 Pneumatic tire roller, 5 Large Average Large 6 Large 8 Small - 9 Small -Large
necessary Tamping roller Average
ML 10 10-3 - 10-6 Necessary 5 Normal 1.5-1.9 Pneumatic tire roller, 12 Average Small Average - Extremely 6 Small - 1 Average -
Medium
- Not Tamping roller Large Average Extremely Large
-Small
necessary
CL 3 Small 10-5 - 10-8 Not 6 Normal 1.5-1.9 Pneumatic tire roller, 11 Average Large Small 11 Small 5 Average 3 Average - Large
necessary Tamping roller
OL 4 Medium 10-4 - 10-6 Not 3 No good 1.3-1.6 Pneumatic tire roller, 15 Small Unknown Unknown - Extremely 4 Average - 4 Average - Large
-Small necessary Tamping roller small Large
MH 9 Medium 10-4 - 10-6 Not 2 No good 1.1-1.5 Tamping roller 14 Average - Large Small - Extremely 3 Large 2 Average -
-Small necessary small small Extremely Large
CH 1 Small 10-6 - 10-8 Not 4 No good 1.2-1.7 Tamping roller 13 Average - Large Small 12 Samll 2 Large 5 Average
necessary small

-6 -8
OH 2 Small 10 - 10 Not 1 No good 1.0-1.6 Tamping roller 16 Small Unknown Unknown - Extremely 1 Large 6 Average
necessary small
Pt - - - - - - - Small - - - Extremely - Extremely 13 Small
small Large
Notes: 1. GM: Among GF, the one which fine-grained fraction is mainly silt. GC: Among GF, the one which fine-grained fraction is mainly clay. SM: Among SF, the one
which fine-grained fraction is mainly silt. SC: Among SF, the one which fine-grained fraction is mainly clay.
2. Rank order is a conceptual order in each property.
(b) Geological log chart and longitudinal sectional charts

The results of field investigations such as of drilling and sounding are
summarized and geological longitudinal sectional charts are plotted.
2.2.3 Meteorological and Hydrological Investigations
Meteorological and hydrological investigation may be carried out including

the collection of data and observations on the precipitation, river water
levels, discharges, the condition of river courses and other conditions in the
project area.
(1) General
Items to be investigated in meteorology and hydrology are air temperature,
rainfall, evaporation, water level and discharge of rivers, ground water level,
and characteristics of the river basin. These data are used for designing,
construction and maintenance of canals such as the determination of the
design discharge and scale of canal, design of related structures and
establishment of constructions planning. Generally, these investigations are
carried out continuously from the Identification stage to the Pre-feasibility
study stage. The findings are used for the determination of basic conditions
for making the Pre-feasibility study and the Feasibility study. In the stage of
the investigation for feasibility, these findings are checked again for the
review of the hydraulic design of facilities and structural design and for the
preparation of the construction plan and the operation and maintenance
plan. It is also necessary to collect the latest information on every
investigation item because a considerable period is consumed from planning
to construction. Particulars relating to the drainage plan, the runoff ratio
and other factors must be sufficiently investigated because they are subject
to change due to topographic and ground surface conditions. Therefore,
from the planning stage, measuring instruments for rainfall, river discharge
and other data should be installed at necessary places in order to obtain
continuous measurements. Observation should be continued at such places
in the operation and maintenance stage to provide a basis for management
decision.
(2) Meteorology
Since open channels are usually located on plains, the data of existing
observation station in adjacent areas can often be effectively used. Generally,
29
in a large–scale project planning the study area extends over a very vast
range. The meteorological data of all stations in and around the area should
be collected for over 10 years if possible to grasp the meteorological
conditions of the area and to put it to good use for planning and designing.
The rainfall observation station should be not being located in a place
exposed to wind or flooding. The instrument may be either an automatic or
an ordinary rain gauge. If an ordinary rain gauge is used, measurement
must be made at a specific time every day. The following observed results
need to be summarised in fixed forms.
1) Hydrological data relating to irrigation canal planning
Mean rainfall for rainy and dry seasons, mean annual rainfall, mean
monthly temperature, mean monthly rain days, maximum successive
no-rain days, most frequent wind direction, maximum wind velocity, etc.
2) Meteorological data relating to drainage canal planning
In addition to the items in 1), maximum daily rainfall, maximum hourly
rainfall, etc.
(3) Hydrology
1) Water levels and discharge of river
The water levels and discharges of rivers necessary for planning, design,
construction and operation and maintenance of canal are explained herein.
For the irrigation canal planning, it is preferable to observe water levels and
discharges over an irrigation period at the intake site. For drainage canal
planning, since the high water level of the main drain and its duration are
important, it is necessary to collect data for a longer period. In particular, if
the main drain is a natural river, the water level and discharge may be
affected by the river improvements condition, changes in river bed, soil and
water conservation measures of upstream and other changes in ground
surface. Therefore, it is desirable to install new instrument and to observe
the water level and discharge when necessary. Principal items for
observation are as follows;
(a) Flood level, discharge
(b) 95-day water level, discharge (if possible)
(c) Mean annual water level, discharge (if possible)
(d) Ordinary water level, discharge (probable water level and discharge
occurring more than 185 days in a year) (if possible)
(e) Low water level, discharge (probable water level and discharge occurring
more than 275 days in a year) (if possible)
30
(f) Base flow water level, discharge (probable water level and discharge
occurring more than 355 days in a year)
2) River condition
Investigation of river condition is made to understand the circumstances of
river to which canals are connected in order to maintain the functions of the
canals. Investigations are done mainly about the river bed shape (plain,
longitudinal section), river bed fluctuation and river bed materials. In
determining the sills of intake and drainage outlets and in designing the
head race and wasteway, river bed fluctuations must be investigated. If past
data are not available, fluctuations in the river bed must be investigated by
interviews or other means.
3) Ground water level, etc.
Since ground water, spring water and leakage water from facilities are
influential in determining the canal structure design and construction
method, they must be carefully investigated from the planning stage. Aside
from the findings obtained through review of existing data and field
reconnaissance, detailed investigations should be made at the time of
drilling and other geological investigations, in order to clarify the ground
water level (final stabilized water level), locations and volume of spring water
and leakage water in and around the study area.
(4) Others
1) Water quality
The function of a canal may be restricted and its useful life may be
shortened by deposits of suspended load and sand on the canal walls and
bed. To avoid such trouble, the water quality of river and drainage water
must be investigated. That is, sediment load, suspended solid, pH and salt
concentration of water must be analysed.
2) Drift
Drift causes stagnant flow, head loss, closing of conveyance capacity of
canal and other troubles relating to the safety and maintenance of canals. It
is hence important to investigate sufficiently the volume and kind of drift
likely to be inducted into the canal.
3) Others
Disaster records, various data on ground surface, water temperature and
other conditions need to be investigated as required.
31
2.2.4 Investigations of Site Conditions
In the investigation of site conditions, social conditions of canal system,

construction condition, environmental condition and other conditions
relating to land acquisition and real rights must be known through data
collection and reconnaissance.
(1) General
For the construction of canals, since social conditions and environmental
conditions other than natural conditions are very important, these
conditions are investigated as required in parallel with or ahead of other
investigations.
(2) Investigation on social conditions

Social conditions are investigated to collect data for land use, improvement
of farm management, and protection and coordination of the existing
facilities and rights.
1) Land use and regional development program
Canal layout is an important factor to define the future land use and living
environmental conditions of the surrounding area by providing irrigation or
a drainage canal. Therefore, present land use housing condition, farm
management status and regional development program must be sufficiently
investigated in order to consider the land use in the local society in harmony
with the living environment.
2) Irrigation and drainage systems
Understanding of existing irrigation and drainage systems is important in
determining the route and scale of canals. Sufficient surveys of existing
systems must be made from the planning stage, where consideration is
being given to the maintenance and improvement of functions of existing
facilities.
3) River structures and water balance
The position of river structures in associated irrigation and drainage
systems, their relation to water conservation and water use, existing
irrigation site must be investigated. Since these items are intricately related
to each other, investigations must be made from the viewpoint of the entire
associated irrigation and drainage systems.
4) Others
32
For the canal route selection, existing structures mining rights and other
rights in the area must be investigated. Land slide and erosion control,
various regional designations, buried cultural properties and other relevant
items must be investigated at the same time. It must be noted also that
there may be limitation imposed by by-laws and regulations. Since the
routes of canals are not always determined by the technical and economical
conditions, social factors must be considered from all angles.
(3) Investigation of construction conditions

In investigation and design of canals, the location and scale of construction
facilities, procurement and handling of construction materials, availability of
power and other conditions must be investigated.
1) Facilities for construction
Temporary facilities for the construction of such items as access roads,
borrow-pits, and spoil-banks are the basic and essential requirements in
canal construction. Therefore, preliminary investigations must be done
when planning the canal routes so that significant changes may not be
required in the construction stage. In the case of a long tunnel, in particular,
since the route is closely related to the construction plan for adits, inclined
adits, and shafts for use in construction, the most economical overall
construction method must be considered. Access roads must be investigated
in relation to location, trafficability and other field conditions. It is important
to plan the road in consideration of other social conditions, not merely for
economy of construction work, as the road may be related to existing or
future public roads or roads for operation and management.
2) Construction equipment and materials
Since the canal and related structures are constructed in successive steps,
the balance of supply and demand for construction materials and
equipment must be checked to ensure if they can be produced according to
the progress of the construction work. If special materials or equipment are
required, then their availability must be confirmed in advance.
3) Others
The construction of canal depends considerably on the labor force. The
investigation into availability of labor may be sometimes necessary. The
supply of electric power must be confirmed if a large structure is to be
constructed in the canal system. In other investigation, to select the best
construction method, the ground water level and foundation condition must
33
be studied and the method of disposing materials wasted in the field must
be also studied.
(4) Environmental investigation

Appropriate consideration must be given to the preservation of living and
natural environments in relation to the construction of canals. Therefore,
suitable investigation must be made with due regard to the laws and
regulations concerned.
1) Investigation on living environments
In the selection of the canal route, the location of community and public
infrastructures will be suitably investigated in order to protect the living
environments and also to make use of the disaster preventive functions of
canals. It is necessary to find the most appropriate design and construction
method with due consideration to vibration, noise, traffic disturbance and
other nuisances of the construction work. Special attention must be paid to
the selection of the construction method and safety measures in the
construction work particularly near urban area.
2) Investigation on natural environments
If there are any risks of water pollution, interference with ground water or of
land subsidence, foundation conditions, ground water level and the
condition of underground streams will be investigated and proper
countermeasures will be taken to prevent such phenomena.
2.2.5 Investigation on Water Management and Operation and

Maintenance of the Canal System
The particulars required for the study of water management and operation
and maintenance of the canal system must be decided through data
collection and inquiry in the project area. The canal system, water
management system and operation and maintenance (O&M) facilities must
be planned in parallel with study of the O&M organization to be established
after the completion of the facilities. Therefore, in the investigation relating
to O&M, the system and organization of O&M on the existing similar
projects are firstly studied to obtain information related to the methods and
systems used for the water management and O&M organization. By
reference to these data, the water management method and level are
determined. In case of assignment of the management, the scope of the
assigned works, allocation of assignment expenses and method of operation
and maintenance will be studied.
34
3. DESIGN CONCEPTS
3.1 General
3.1.1 General Concepts
Canals must be designed for their required function, economy and safety,
proper water management. To fulfill these functions various appurtenant
facilities of the canal system must be designed effectively to complement
each other.
A canal system is a combination of various appurtenant facilities to enable it
to fulfill its functions. For this purpose, it is necessary to realize an
appropriate design of the canal system. In this manual, the design of a canal
system is called “overall design”, and that of individual facility is called
“canal or structure design”.
(1) Overall design of irrigation canal

The designed level at a starting point of an irrigation canal is determined by
taking into consideration common requirements as well as the location and
type of the intake structure. Although that of benefited area is determined
by taking into consideration of the elevation and location of farm land at the
tail-end, irrigation method and the designed level to the terminal canal.
Consequently, the plan of water requirement, designed level and abutment
of a canal is determined. The water surface line and its gradient in the
irrigation canal can be estimated by connecting the designed level at the
beginning point with that of expected lateral canals. In the overall design,
the alignment of the canal route and location of appurtenant structures are
determine, taking into consideration of the stability and safety of a canal,
running cost and environmental conditions.
(2) Overall design of drainage canal

The discharge and designed level at the end of a drainage canal are first
determined in the overall design of the drainage canal, considering areas
that would benefit from the drainage development. The present drainage
system and present land use under two drainage conditions i.e. flood and
normal condition. The drainage method (gravity, pumping or combined),
location of the junction of drainage canals with river/sea and the designed
level at the junction are determined by taking into consideration the design
and water level of the river/sea at the junction. It is important that the
35
overall design of the drainage canal, the location of drainage facilities and
alignment of drainage should be determined under these two drainages.
(3) Main items to be considered in overall design

1) Conveyance capacity
(a) The conveyance capacity of canals is mainly controlled by the structure;
an appropriate capacity for each structure is required to provide the
conveyance capacity of a canal system. In the overall design, various
discharges of the canal should be examined for each facility.
(b) In irrigation canals, water use conditions of main canals and terminal
canals are not similar according to the cropping patterns. The terminal
canals supply water hourly to the field. While in main canals, the designed
water use is usually given continuously by daily unit. Conveyance capacity
of main and terminal canals must be designed by taking into account the
required design conditions and hydraulic conditions.
(c) Some canal systems are compounded by pipeline structure with quick
response of discharge change. Open channels with slow response of
discharge change and pumps. In the viewpoints of continuous water
conveyance facilities having buffer effects i.e. regulating reservoir, are often
required at the functions. When an open channel is employed as a
conveyance canal, it is desirable to introduce a regulating reservoir for
adjusting time lags and effective water use. In the case that pumping
stations are provided on the open channel, it is sometimes required to
provide a regulating reservoir to enable to continuous pump operation. For
drainage purpose, it is also required to provide retarding basin (reservoir
which stores flood temporarily) for continuous operation of plural pumps.
2) Functions of regulation and distribution of the irrigation canal
In the irrigation canal, discharge is not fixed throughout the year. The
design discharge of irrigation facilities is generally determined by the
maximum seasonal requirement., However, It is necessary to check that the
facilities can maintain the designed level at turnouts and regulating function
even when the discharge in the canal is less than the design discharge.
3) Functions of regulation and stability of the drainage canal
It is possible that the discharge in excess of the designed one occurs in the
cases of the drainage canal, functions of stability and regulation of the
drainage canal must be checked in such cases.
4) Water management and maintenance facilities
36
It is required to provide complete water management and maintenance of

facilities proportionally as the scale of a canal system becomes larger.
Therefore, it is necessary to study the layout and structure of management
facilities in order to carry out water management and maintenance works
economically and smoothly.
5) Safety of facilities
(a) In irrigation canal, such occurrences like breakage of facilities or sudden
mechanicals stoppage of gates and pumps due to floods, landslide and
others problems may happen. In order to prevent damage due to such
breakage or stoppage, it is required to provide adequate wasteways, spillway
and regulating reservoir in the irrigation system.
(b) When the function of an irrigation canal system is not well balanced, the
irrigation canal system is controlled by the facility with the lowest capacity.
Therefore, the capacity and durability period of individual facilities must be
determined by taking into consideration the entire function and capacity of
such facilities.
6) Harmony with environment
Canal routes, and type and scale of facilities must be determined mainly to
meet the objective of the canal system. In addition, harmony with the
environment and local conditions must be considered in the concept of the
project. At the same time, the overall design should be well marched with
the related regional development projects.
(4) Canal or structure design

The canal or structure design must be conceived to provide the required
function and safety to hydraulic and structural conditions as well as
required functions at the stage of the overall design.
3.1.2 Procedure of Design
The design of canal must be made based on a well-established working plan

and through adequate procedures, according to a comprehensive judgment
on the planning conditions of irrigation and drainage, natural and socio-
economic conditions and other complex problems related to the project
areas. The design of the canal should be based on a well-established
working plan and through adequate procedures, after effective studies on
complicatedly related conditions such as economical, safety and working
conditions as well as natural and socio –economic conditions. The
37
procedures of the overall design are shown in Fig. 3.1. And the procedures
of the canal and structure design are shown in Fig. 3.2. These figures
indicate the related studies for the overall design and canal/structure
design respectively as flow charts, but some studies may be omitted
according to the scale of the system or facility. Therefore, the design works
require a well coordinated plan for the related contents of each study. The
overall design includes confirming the design discharge and designed level,
studying canal types, canal routes, types of facilities, head allotment and so
on. Since these studies are related with other studies, each study should be
well adjusted for the adequateness of the whole system of canal, and in this
respect, it is important to repeat studies for satisfactory results.
38
Fig. 3.1 Procedure of the overall design
39
Fig. 3.2 Procedure of the canal and structure design
40
The canal and structure design require efficient works under the procedures
of working plans to determine the facilities which satisfies the proposed
functions, safety, economical and technical conditions for the project
execution, also based on the conditions given to the canal system. Therefore,
efficient studies are required to make design well adjusted by using
examples, data and records, monographs and standardized designs. Since
these design data are very effective to other similar projects at the planning,
execution and management stage, it is important to file and preserve these
data.
3.1.3 Design Discharge and Designed Level
Prior to the canal design, the proper design discharge and designed level of
each facility must be determined by confirming their basic requirements,
such as planned canal discharge of irrigation and drainage, planned design
level and layout planning of irrigation and drainage systems.
(1) Design discharge

In this manual, the design discharge is the planned maximum discharge of
the irrigation plan of seasonal and irrigation blocks, and the planned
maximum discharge of the drainage plan. And the minimum discharge is
the discharge of the planned minimum discharge and the most-frequent
design discharge is the discharge which most frequently occurs in the plan.
Although the capacity of canal and structures is generally controlled by the
maximum discharge, it must be checked against the discharge of less than
the maximum discharge for the determination of the canal section and
structures.
1) Irrigation canal
The design discharge of an irrigation canal is the planned maximum
seasonal discharge or maximum discharge at each irrigation block of the
canal. When such cases are supposed that planned water is not diverted at
the upstream portion of the canal or flood discharge cannot be avoided to
flow into the canal, these conditions must be also considered to determine
the design discharge. Generally, the design discharge is determined by
taking consideration related diversion facilities, wasteway, spillways, in the
block of a canal system. Therefore, the design discharge is determined after
alternative studies of total construction costs of each block of the canal
41
including construction costs of wasteway, spillways and related river

improvement are examined.
2) Drainage canal
In general, the design discharge of drainage canals is the maximum
drainage discharge of the drainage planning. In the irrigation planning, the
discharge that is over the designed discharge is not supposed to flow in the
canal, but in the drainage planning, it can be supposed that the discharge,
which is over the planned discharge make trouble in drainage canals. The
drainage area of a drainage project rarely changes but the drainage
discharge may change due to changes in the hydrological condition, land
use and environmental conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the
project by checking and taking necessary counter-measures regarding these
conditions at each of the planning, design and construction stage.
(2) Designed level

In this manual, the designed level is the water level, which can flow the
planned seasonal maximum discharge at each irrigation block in the
irrigation planning, and the planned maximum discharge in the drainage
planning.
The designed level is an important value to determine the scale, section and
function of facilities. It must be checked and determined whether such
facilities can function safely and satisfactorily.
1) Irrigation Canal
The highest designed level is, as mentioned above the seasonal highest
water level or the highest water level at each irrigation block of the canal.
However, when such a case is supposed that planned water is not diverted
at the upper stream portion of a canal, the designed level is determined by
taking into consideration the addition of the discharge corresponding to the
volume above mentioned. The water level at the minimum discharge is
called the lowest design water level and the water level, which occurs most
frequently, is called the most-frequent design water level. The lowest design
water level and the most-frequent design water level are used to check if
turnouts, drops, and measuring and regulating facilities function smoothly.
The highest design water level at an arbitrary point of the irrigation canal
can be estimated by interpolating two water levels at the beginning and end,
in case the canal system is simple. In case the canal system is complicated,
such water level cannot be easily estimated due to the topographic condition
and provision of various kinds of facilities. In the overall design, such water
42
level must be determined, taking into consideration the scale and type of
facilities and canal routes.
2) Drainage canal
The highest drainage water level is the highest water level, which is used in
drainage planning. The water level at the minimum discharge of a drainage
canal is called the lowest drainage water level. The water level in the
drainage canal must be determined so as not to exceed the elevation of the
outlet of under drains for draining groundwater. The designed level in the
unlined drainage canal is required to be determined not to exceed the
ground elevation, if damage due to seepage from the canal is anticipated.
The designed level, canal section and scale of the drainage facilities must be
determined so that the drainage canal can drain the designed drainage
discharge safely, taking into consideration ground elevations at each section
of the drainage canal. The water surface in the canal is determined by
hydraulic backwater calculation on the ordinary discharge and for river
revetment planning. Based on the results, drainage facilities such as
covered drains and river revetment must be designed. Although the drainage
method (gravity or pumping) has been usually determined in the drainage
plan, it may change due to changes of land use and social environmental
conditions after the determination of these factors. It is, therefore, necessary
to promote the project by checking these conditions at each of the planning,
design and construction stage.
3.1.4 Selection of Canal Type
The canal type must be determined on the basis of the designed discharge
and designed level in consideration of the natural and social environments
of the route, economy, water use, water requirement, operation and
maintenance and other conditions, so that the purpose and function of the
entire canal system may be fully achieved. The selection of the canal type
greatly affects the function of the entire canal system, and significantly
affects the construction costs of canals. It is, therefore, necessary to
consider the conditions of the costs and future water management and
maintenance system in the selection of the canal type, aiming at the entire
fulfillment of its purpose and function. Types of canal are open channel type
including mainly open channel, tunnel and siphon, and pipeline type,
mainly consisting of pipelines, and compound type of open channels and
pipelines. The advantage and disadvantage of these types are as follows:
43
(1) Open channel type

1) Since the construction cost of an open channel type is generally lower
than that of a pipeline, the open channel type is widely employed. When
due to topographic conditions, complicated series of structures such as
open channels, tunnels, siphons, etc. are required or an open channel has
to be larger than a pipeline, the construction costs of an open channel type
may be higher than that of a pipeline type.
2) When the discharge of an open channel type is regulated by gate
operation, the transmission speed of the discharge change varies with such
factors as reflection by structures, variation of cross section of canals and
others. The transmission speed in the open channel type is slower than that
of pipeline type. Consequently, it takes a considerable time to change the
flow into a stable condition in an open channel type.
3) Since an open channel type generally more flexibility in capacity than the
pipeline type has, an open channel type can be used for drainage as well as
for supply as a dual-purpose canal.
4) Floating materials in an open channel type, which may limit its
conveyance capacity, can be easily removed. Nevertheless, west materials
such as trash and garbage are often throw into canals. Countermeasures
against such acts are required.
5) Safety facilities to protect the general public and operation and
maintenance personnel are required for open channels. Countermeasures
against these problems were specially required.
(2) Pipeline type

1) The alignment of a pipeline can be designed regardless of topographic
conditions providing the pipeline is always set below its energy line.
2) When the discharge in a pipeline type is regulated by operating gates or
valves, the discharge change is transmitted as a water hammer wave and
the transmission speed is relatively higher. This speed of closed type
pipelines is higher than that of open type pipelines. It is, therefore, possible
to change the discharge quickly as required. But careful operations are
required not to grow an excessive water hammer pressure.
3) Since the losses of water in a pipeline type are less than in an open
channel type, an effective use of water resources can be attained.
4) Irrigation water contains floating materials such as dust, silt and fine
sand. Deposits of such materials in a pipeline cause reduction of its
conveyance capacity. Since it is difficult to remove such materials from a
44
pipeline by maintenance works, it is necessary to provide settling basin

trash-removing facilities at the inlet to the pipeline in order to prevent the
intrusion of floating materials. In general, the pipeline type canal is not
suitable for drainage purposes since as inlet to the pipeline could be choked
by such materials.
5) A pipeline type is a facility to convey discharge using the difference of
energy at two points. Since the pipeline type has less flexibility in capacity
than an open channel, it is not used as drainage canal or dual-purpose
canal.
6) Since the pipeline type is buried in the ground, more effective use of land
resources is possible.
7) Although a pipeline is generally costlier than an open channel in
construction, the pipeline type is widely employed for small-scale irrigation
facilities mainly due to easier operation.
The selection of the canal type must be made taking into consideration its
advantages and disadvantages as described above. In recent years, the
economic advantage of an open channel type has gradually declined due to
the increase in construction costs of related facilities resulting from
topographic limitations. The pipeline type has been widely adopted even in
large-scale irrigation schemes.
(3) Compound type of open channels and pipelines

1) Due to difficulty of land acquisition for open channels in urbanized area,
preservation of water quality and labor saving of water management pipeline
type is planned. Such cases have prevailed in that of the upstream portion
of a canal is an open channel type and the downstream portion a pipeline
type or vice versa and in a compound type of an open channel type and
pipeline type.
2) In compounded type canal, satisfying the continuity of the water flow at
the junction point of two types is required taking into consideration the
characteristics of the two types and in the determination of regulating
capacities of facilities or alignment of spillways, etc. In an open channel type
canal, check gates can control the water level of the upstream portion;
therefore, in water management having an upstream priority, this can be
attained by operating diversion gates. And a certain time is required to
induce a change of the discharge. While in a pipeline type canal, a change of
the discharge at the inlet a pipeline can be made by opening a valve at the
45
end point of canal. Moreover, an extreme short time is required to change

the flow condition in a pipeline type canal compared with an open type canal.
3) A compounded type canal, possessing the merits and demerits of an open
channel type and a pipeline type canal, requires satisfactory overall design
by taking into consideration its operation for water management after
construction.
3.1.5 Canal Route Selection
The canal route must be selected based on the design discharge and
designed level by considering the entire canal alignment, the purpose of
canal, safety and economy of the structures in addition to the natural and
social conditions existing along the route.
(1) General conception for the canal route selection

The canal route must be selected so that the canal can maintain the
required design discharge and designed level, taking into consideration the
type, scale and location of the canal and its structures. Problems related to
land acquisition and the change of conventional water rights may occur in
the selection of the canal route. Therefore, the most effective canal route
must be selected carefully on a map through alternative studies before pegs
are actually driven in the field.
(2) General condition for the canal route selection

1) Canal system
(a) The canal route must be selected so that the canal can irrigate by gravity
as far as possible within the range of the available water head. If the project
area includes some elevated land, then the canal route must be selected, by
considering the use of pumped irrigation to such areas, and by comparing
the construction costs and future water management and operation costs
between these two irrigation methods.
(b) A drainage canal is generally aligned at the lowest point in the project
area to facilitate drainage by gravity. If gravity drainage cannot be applied to
the entire project area for topographic reasons, then the introduction of the
pumped drainage should be alternatively studied at the stage of the canal
route selection. The final canal route must be selected by a comparative
study. If pumped drainage is applied to the whole project area, then
46
provision of plural pumping stations at appropriate places must be

considered to minimize running costs of pumps.
(c) Locations of spillways, wasteways and turnouts must be determined from
map studies of field conditions of benefited area and from surveys of target
rivers in relation to the project area.
(d) If the irrigation canal is long and its purpose is to irrigate upland field
mainly, then the necessary and possibility of establishing regulating
reservoirs must be considered at the stage of the canal route selection.
There are, in general, several advantages by providing regulating reservoirs
such as decrease in construction costs due to the reduction of required
canal section, simplification of canal structure, etc.
(e) An irrigation canal is closely related to environmental conditions and may
have other roles in the social conditions of the region. This relationship
must be considered in the design of rehabilitation, improvement works for
existing irrigation facilities, Regional development plans or projects must be
studied thoroughly, and the results must be considered in the canal route
selections.
2) Others
(a) The canal route of a pipeline must be straight and short as much as
possible. The route of an open channel must be selected to avoid high-
banking or deep-cut section, taking into consideration the available water
head and allowable velocity.
(b) Soil conditions and interference with houses and public traffic due to the
construction of canals must also be considered.
(c) It is advisable for the safety of the canal as well as for public safety to
avoid as much as possible the setting of the canal route on banking.
(d) In some project area where considerable water head is available from the
intake structure to the benefited area, this head can effectively be used for
hydroelectric power generation to decrease operation and maintenance costs
of the facilities. Such possibility for the effective use of resources can
considered at the stage of the canal route selection if possible.
(e) If the irrigation canal is shared by non-irrigation projects, then social and
economic damages may be occurred by the suspension of non-irrigation
water supply during maintenance of the non-irrigation facilities. It is,
therefore, necessary to consider the use of a parallel canal or double-section
canal.
47
(3) Procedure for canal route selection

Survey and investigation necessary for the canal route selection are
described in Chapter 2.2. Here is described the procedure for the canal
route selection based on surveys and investigations. It involves two steps i.e.
the canal route finalization to be made at the investigation and planning
stage, and then the canal route finalization to be made at the detailed design
and construction stage. The canal route proposed is to select the most
appropriate route on available topographic maps after a comparative field
study of several canal routes with regard to purposes and functions of the
canal, costs and safety of the facilities. The canal route finalization is to
finalize the canal route and to realize drawings of the plan based on the
proposed route and results of the detailed investigations in the field and to
drive pegs at the centerline of the route in the field details of each step are
as follows:
1) Planning of proposed route
(a) The proposed route is generally made on a topographic map at a scale of
1/2,500 - 1/5,000 covering the entire project area. The scale of the
proposed route may be made directly by the field surveys.
(b) Basic designs of several canal routes must be made and compared, and
the most appropriate design adopted considering the alignment of structures,
head allotment, effectiveness for planning, costs, etc. Field survey works
must be carried out to collect all the data necessary for the comparative
study such as data for design, construction and operation of the facilities,
social condition in addition to topographic and geological data.
2) Canal route finalization
(a) Strip topographic maps at a scale of 1/500-1/1,000 must be prepared to
show the most appropriate canal route and topography of both side areas of
the route in a width of 30-100m. These maps must be highly accurate since
the maps will be used for the canal route finalization, design and
construction.
(b) The most appropriate canal route as shown on the strip topographic
maps must be finalized, taking into consideration types, scales, water level
and sections of canals and structures.
(c) The finalized canal route must be checked in the field, and additional soil
mechanical and geological investigations must be made as necessary. Then
pegs must be driven at the centerline of the route in the field. If unsettled
problems remain, then such problems should be settled before driving pegs
since they might induce a change in the finalized route.
48
3.1.6 Selection of Canal Structures for Open Channel Type
The water conveying facilities in the open channel type, such as open
channel, tunnels, culverts and siphons must be selected to ensure the
purpose and function of the entire canal system in consideration of safety
and economy of the structures, the topography along the route, natural and
social conditions such as the land use conditions along the route.
A canal system consists of water conveying facilities such as open channel,
tunnels, culverts, aqueducts, siphons, drops, chutes, and other facilities
such as turnouts, water-measuring devices, regulating facilities, safety
duties, operation and maintenance facilities, appurtenant facilities. The
selection of the most appropriate water conveying facilities must take into
account the canal type and route, to maintain all functions of the entire
canal. Since water conveying facilities occupy the main portion of a canal
system and could affect to a large measure the function and costs of the
whole canal system, adequate studies must be made on the adequateness in
the selection of the stability and costs of the structures. Turnout works,
water measuring devices and regulating facilities, etc. are closely related to
water conveyance facilities in their function. Therefore, the selection of the
water conveying facilities must be made, taking into consideration the
location, type and scale of these structures. Since the pipeline is a
monolithic water conveying facility, the selection of the water conveying
facilities is not required. The type and arrangement of the appurtenant
facilities must be, however, considered.
(1) Open channel

1) An open channel may be classified into three types i.e. retaining wall type,
lined and unlined. The type of the open channel must be selected by
comparative study with regard to the objective, stability, social, conditions,
construction costs, and operation and maintenance of the canals.
2) In general, an open channel is hydraulically advantageous compared with
a pipeline type canal. It may be economical when cutting and banking are
well-balanced in earth work volumes.
3) Excessive cutting and banking must be avoided as far as possible for
stability as well as to minimize costs of the canal. In case that such cutting
and banking are made in an open channel when they are in short length
and preferable to siphons of culverts. Foundation conditions and stability
must be fully considered in the design of such canals.
49
4) The unlined canal is generally adopted as drainage canal, which does not
require protective measures against water leakage, erosion and source at
curve and confluence. When erosion and source are anticipated due to steep
topographic conditions, provision of drops or chutes in a gentle slope of an
unlined canal may be preferable. At confluences and curves where erosion
and scour may be anticipated, lining or revetment may be required.
5) A lined canal is a canal where stable condition of a canal are secured by
gentle slope of the banking material itself, and the slope surface is covered
by relatively thin material to prevent water leakage and to render its surface
smooth. A retaining wall type canal is one in which side walls support
internal and external water pressures and external earth pressure. Both
lined canal and retaining wall type canal are used to prevent water leakage
and to reduce the cross-section area of the canal. When there are no
restrictions in respect of land acquisition and other topographic
requirements, the lined canal is more advantageous in terms of cost than
the retaining wall type canal. This advantage becomes greater as the scale of
the canal system becomes larger. The followings are conditions for the
adoption of the retaining wall type canal:
(a) Where the cross-section area of the retaining wall type canal is smaller
and its construction costs, including land acquisition cost is lower compared
with the lined type canal.
(b) Where there are no foundation treatment problems for a retaining wall
type canal and its construction cost is lower especially for each works.
(c) Where construction of the lined canal includes considerable amount of
earth and rock work and costs due to topographic and geological conditions
where a canal is aligned on the steep slope side on through a high cutting
saddle-backed condition.
(d) Where an open channel is provided for a short section between a tunnel
and siphon, and where the retaining wall type canal is lower or equal to the
total construction cost of the lined open channel and transitions.
(2) Tunnel
A tunnel is employed where construction of an open channel may be quite
difficult due to topographic conditions where a canal route must be aligned
on the higher portion in mountains or terraces and where the total
construction cost of the tunnel is lower than that of an open channel due to
50
shorter length of the tunnel. The followings are considered in the adoption of
a tunnel:
1) Since the construction costs of a tunnel is two to three times higher than
that of an open channel, and the cost may increase further when geological
condition is difficult, the tunnel must be provided in a sound ground
conditions and it must be as short as possible.
2) The tunnel route must be determined to avoid as much as possible any
fault area, fractured zones and soft foundation area. The existence of toxic
or explosive gas must be investigated. Counter measures against fault areas,
fractured zones and soft foundation area must be taken if the tunnel must
be driven through faults, fractured and soft foundation areas.
3) Counter measures to prevent people from falling into the tunnel and to
prevent siltation and sedimentation are necessary in the design of inlets to
tunnels. Constructions of adits and shafts may be considered, in order to
shorten the construction period and to minimize construction costs.
4) When there are farmland and housing areas where ground water is used
for irrigation and domestic use, existing wells for irrigation and domestic use
may dry up. In such cases sufficient investigation such as the position,
volume, quality of groundwater must be made on conditions before the
commencement of construction, and counter measures against such
problems must be established.
(3) Culvert
A culvert is employed where a slope is so high in the case of an open
channel, an open channel is unstable in the structural condition due to
uplift pressure or uneconomical. A tunnel is difficult to employ due to small
earth cover thickness when a canal crosses a railway, road and levee.
1) A culvert must be as short as possible as far as geological conditions
permit.
2) Since a culvert is generally buried the ground and the stability of the
culvert is not influenced by the rise of the groundwater table, it might be
more economical than an open channel, which required a deep cut.
3) The depth necessary for burying a culvert must be determined, taking
into consideration the water level required from hydraulic study, earth cover
necessary for the purpose of the land use, etc.
4) When a culvert crosses a railway, river or road, the intersection angle
must be right angle as far as possible. The jacking method might be lower in
the total construction cost than the open-cut method. Therefore, a culvert
51
across a trunk road or railroad should be designed through a comparative

study, taking into account the most appropriate construction method
including temporary works.
5) If a culvert crosses urban and suburban areas, the construction cost of
the conduit might be lower than that of an open channel since the culvert
does not require facilities such as to prevent accidents and for disposal of
water materials.
6) If a culvert is deeply buried, then the construction of the culvert may
affect environmental conditions such as fluctuation of the groundwater table.
Therefore, the adequacy of the route and counter measures against such
environmental changes must be studied through environmental
investigation.
(4) Siphon/aqueduct
A siphon and aqueduct may be employed to convey water across rivers,
railroads, roads and valleys where the construction of an open channel
maybe difficult or where the construction cost of the siphon/aqueduct is
lower than that of an open channel due to shorter length of the route. The
selection of either siphon/aqueduct or open channel must be made by
taking into consideration the topography, geology, hydraulic conditions,
stability and construction costs. The following points need to be considered
for the selection of a siphon/aqueduct or an open channel:
1) Since the construction cost of a siphon/aqueduct is three to four times
higher than that of an open channel, the siphon/aqueduct must be as short
as possible.
2) A siphon barrel may be laid on the ground or buried. If part of the siphon
barrel is replaced by an aqueduct or tunnel due to topographic or geological
conditions, the construction cost of such a combined siphon may be lower
than that of a siphon. If conveying water across a deep valley of hard
geological foundation is required, a piped aqueduct above the flood water
level might be more economical than a siphon. If the foundations at the inlet
and outlet of the siphon is of rock formation and the valley is very deep, a
combined use of tunnel and siphon may be more economical that a siphon.
3) When a siphon or aqueduct crosses such important facilities as road,
river and railway, the intersectional angle should be as near as possible a
right angle.
4) In general, the inlet and outlet of a siphon or aqueduct should not be
constructed in a banking section for the sake of stability of the structure
52
and when such cases are required counter measures that are necessary not
to avoid weak point in a canal system.
5) Determination of earth cover for a siphon is according to that of a culvert.
(5) Drop/chute
Where there is extra water head in the canal, drop/chute structures must
be provided in the canal for the stability of the canal. The location and type
of drop/chute structures must be determined through comparative design
with regard to the stability and cost of the entire canal system. The following
points need to be considered in the design:
1) If a canal gradient is steep, then the flow velocity will be high and the
canal might easily be subject to scouring and erosion according to the
conditions of its lining surface material. The design of the drop/chute must
be carried out through a comparative study with regard to the location and
type of the drop/chute taking into consideration lining materials and flow
velocities for scouring and erosion.
2) Where the ground slopes are relatively steep, a canal slope must be
determined through alternative studies taking into consideration canal
structures and allowable velocities of various lining materials, and canal
slope must be amended by the provision of the drop/chutes. When a velocity
approaches the critical velocity, the surface of the flow becomes unstable.
Excessive high velocity must not be occurred particularly in irrigation canals.
If the construction of a regulating reservoir or farm pond is required, then
extra water head might be effective for a canal system. Therefore, the use of
this water head must be considered in the overall design.
3) Where a drainage/irrigation canal system is designed for a mountainous
area, it is possible, due to relatively steep canal slopes, to secure stability of
the entire canal system and to save construction costs by providing
appropriate drops or chutes in the drainage/irrigation canal and to amend
canal slopes. Where a lateral drainage canal joins the main drainage canal,
the confluence might be provided at the dissipater of a drop/chute to reduce
costs as possible.
4) When a drop/chute is provided nearby a housing area, inconveniences to
inhabitants such as vibration, noise and splash from the drop/chute must
be avoided as much as possible.
53
3.1.7 Particulars to be considered in Selection of Canal Route and

Structures
For canal alignment, canal facilities or canal types consisting a canal system
must be determined under the limited requirements such as curvature,
longitudinal slope and earth cover of a canal taking into consideration
topographical or other field condition.
The selection of canal route and structures must be determined so as to
satisfy the following requirements:
① Minimum radius of canal curvature,
② Limits of longitudinal slope and curve of canal,
③ Minimum covering depth of soil
However, these requirements may be disregarded where they are inevitable
due to topographical or other field conditions.
(1) Minimum radius of curve

For hydraulic reasons canal must be as straight as possible. Where a curve
is required in the route, the following radius of curve must be provided:
1) Open channel and box culvert
(a) Radius of curve of the canal canter line should be more than ten times
the water surface width of the canal except in a drainage canal.
(b) If metal forms are to be used in an open channel or box culvert, then the
radius of curve should be more than 30 m.
2) Tunnel (reference)
(a) If a tunnel lining is made by using slide forms, the minimum radius of
curve is calculated according to the following forms:
L2f
R ……………………(F. 3.1)
8d e
54
Fig. 3.3 Minimum radius of curve

Where:
R: Minimum radius of curve of tunnel center line (m)
Lf: Length of slide form (m)
de: Middle ordinate of circular length (m)
usually about 0.05 m
maximum 0.1 m
(b) When a tunnel is excavated using the shield method, the minimum
radius of curve varies with ground conditions, excavated cross section,
length of shield, construction method and shield structures. Generally, the
minimum radius is determined by the length of shield and excavated cross
section as follows:
R = m · D or R = n · L ……………………(F. 3.2)
Where,
R : minimum radius of curve along the center line of a tunnel
m: min. 30 (usually about 50)
n : min. 20 (usually about 100/3)
D : diameter of excavated tunnel section (m)
L : length of shield (m)
(c) In case of a tunnel is excavated by using tunnel drilling machine, the

minimum radius of the curvature is as follows taking into consideration past
construction records:
55
R = m · D……………………(F. 3.3)
Where,
m : about 30 in Robinson Wallmeyer type
D : diameter of excavated tunnel section (m)
3) Siphon
(a) Since internal water pressure acts on the siphon barrel, a siphon must
be designed so as to satisfy the allowable bend-angle in accordance with
joint structures of the barrel. Generally, water tightness is maintained by
using a bent pipe without bending the barrel.
(b) In order to maintain stability and water tightness of the siphon barrel, a
thrust block is often provided on the bending point of the siphon with a
large deflection angle to observe eccentric load.
(c) If a siphon is to be constructed by using in-site concrete, then radius of
curve of a box culvert is applied to the siphon. If the water pressure is very
high, then particular consideration must be given to the joint structure of
the siphon.
(2) Limitation of longitudinal slope and curve

The slope of a water conveyance facility is generally determined, taking into
consideration the topographic slope and required water level. If an allowable
maximum slope is provided to the facility, then the cross-section area of the
facility is small and its costs are low. However, when the velocity increases
excessively, scour and turbulent flow may be caused. Appropriate hydraulic
and structural limitations are, therefore, necessary for the slope and velocity.
The allowable velocity must be determined so that scour and erosion may be
prevented in accordance with lining materials. If velocity varies and is over
the limitation with the fluctuation of discharge in such case of drainage
canals, the canal must be designed as to be stable against scour and erosion
by taking into account past similar designs. An irrigation canal of an open
channel type must be designed so as to be hydraulically stable and to be
adequate for diversion works. Excessively low velocity is not appropriate for
an irrigation and drainage canal since sand sedimentation or growths of
aquatic plants may occur. This limitation must be also considered in the
determination of the canal route and in the allotment of the water head. If
the velocity is lower than the allowable minimum velocity, then counter
56
measures must be established against it such as construction of special

facilities to prevent sand from intruding into the canal.
(3) Minimum earth cover

Appropriate earth covering shall be secured for those facilities such as
culverts, siphons, pipes, etc., buried underground according to purposes
including protection of structures (reduction of the load, frost heaving, etc.),
prevention of floatation due to the groundwater, utilization of the ground
surface, etc. Generally, the following are standard values for the minimum
earth covering thickness for water conveying facilities using pipes such as
pipelines.
1) Crop lands:
0.6 m or greater + the depth of cultivated soil (Conditions of cultivation and
laying conditions of culverts and siphons shall be considered.)
However, the minimum buried depth for the pipeline within farm fields
which diameter is 300 mm or less can be 0.3 m or greater.
2) Under public roads:
1.2 m or greater. However, it shall be determined based on consultations
with the road administrator.
3) It shall be 1.0 m or greater under farm roads and private roads in
consideration of installation of appurtenant works, etc.
4) Under rivers: 2.0 m or greater.
5) Under forest: 0.6 m or greater.
6) In cold districts, the depth shall be set to prevent freezing,
7) These standard values shall be applied to box form culverts and siphons.
In case of reduction or elimination of the minimum earth covering thickness
described above, sufficient consideration shall be provided to prevent the
safety of structures from being compromised even under concentrated loads
such as vehicle wheels. Also, it is necessary to determine with careful
consideration for the water management aspects as well.
57
3.2 Hydraulic Design
3.2.1 General
The hydraulic design of canal must be made for the design discharge.
Reviews must be also made of possible circumstances in which other design
discharges are related to meet the requirements of other facilities in the
canal system. Further, the hydraulic consistency in a series of structures of
the canal system is maintained in the hydraulic design.
(1) Hydraulic design of canals

The hydraulic design of canals must be made for the design discharge and
to secure hydraulically purposed designed level, and the design of respective
facilities in the canal system must be made for not only the design discharge
but also other discharges so that their purposes and functions can fully be
fulfilled. Discharges other than the design discharge are the most-frequent
discharge and the minimum discharge for an irrigation canal, and in a
drainage canal, discharge to study low water revetment, and discharges that
may make troubles to important canal facilities.
1) Irrigation canal
(a) Most-frequent discharge
This discharge is used to confirm the flow condition in examining the
minimum allowable velocity in the canal facilities.
(b) Minimum discharge
This discharge is used to examine the functions of diversion works and
related facilities for water level regulation when the discharge decreases.
2) Drainage canal
(a) Discharge to study low water revetment etc.
Probable discharge with a return period of one year or two is usually applied
for the revetment planning of drainage canals. The water level related with
this discharge is used for the structural design of the drainage canal such
as the determination of the revetment height, etc. This discharge is also
used to check the function of a drop. In addition, the minimum allowable
velocity in the drainage canal is usually examined by use of the probable
discharge with a return period of one year or two.
(b) Discharges that may make troubles to important canal facilities
When corresponding damages are expected from the scale of facilities,
discharges, which flow the full section of a canal, should be studies to
58
examine flow conditions and capacity of a canal and be used to study

structural conditions, alignment of facilities and countermeasures for
expected troubles.
(2) Establishment of the hydraulic consistency in the canal design

The establishment of the hydraulic consistency in the canal design is one of
the basic concepts of this manual. However, such consistency does not
mean simple and uniform standardization but comprehensive technical
judgment from the viewpoints to secure function, safety and economy in the
canal system.
3.2.2 Allowable Flow Velocity
The design velocity of canal must be determined within the limits of two
factors: the minimum allowable velocity which produces neither deposit of
sand and earth nor growth of water weeds, and the maximum allowable
velocity which produces neither erosion if canal component materials by the
flow not hydraulically unsafe conditions of flow in the canal.
(1) Determination of the design velocity

Determination of the design velocity is one of the important factors for the
design of canals and the cross sections of canal structures. The design
velocity is determined between the minimum and maximum allowable
velocity taking into consideration the functions and structure of a canal.
(2) Minimum allowable velocity

It is not easy to determine a proper value of the minimum allowable velocity
because there are under finable factors, which place restrictions on the
minimum allowable velocity. It is obtained so as not to produce sand
deposits and hinder the flow capacity of the canal by the presence of
waterweed. In general, it is recognized that sand deposits are not produced
at a mean velocity of 0.45-0.9m/sec in a canal where the particle size of
suspended sediment is not larger than silt, and that waterweeds hindering
the flow capacity of the canal will not grow when the mean velocity is more
than 0.7m/sec. Therefore, it is approvable that velocity for the most–
frequent discharge and the discharge to study low water revetment should
not be lower than the above values when applying them to irrigation and
drainage canals. The velocity in tunnels, culverts and siphons must be
59
larger than those in the open channels because when sand deposits are
produced in these facilities, their flow capacities become constructed and it
is difficult to remove such deposits.
The following velocity rations in tunnel, culvert and siphon are generally
applicable:
Tunnel, Culvert – more than 1.3 times the velocity in open channel
Siphon – more than 1.5 times the velocity in open channel
(3) Maximum allowable velocity

Since the maximum allowable velocity varies remarkably with materials
used for canals and is unclear, experiences and other examples must be
considered. Limited velocities found to be applicable to different types of
materials used for canals are given in Table 3.1. The maximum allowable
velocity is required to be under 1.5 times of the value mentioned above for
wasteway, spillway in an irrigation canal and for structures used temporary.
In the case of a drainage canal, the above value is applied to discharges to
study low water revetment.
Table 3.1 Maximum Allowable Velocity
Type of material Velocity (m/s) Classification Velocity (m/s)

Sandy soil 0.45 Thick concrete (approximately 18 cm) 3.00
Sandy loam 0.60 Thin concrete (approximately 10 cm) 1.50
Loam 0.70 Asphalt 1.00
Block cavity wall (buttress pier less than 30 cm) 1.50
Clayey loam 0.90
Block cavity wall (buttress pier 30 cm or larger) 2.00
Clay 1.00
Block mortar masonry 2.50
Sandy clay 1.20 Reinforced concrete pipe 3.00
Soft rock 2.00 Steel pipe, ductile cast iron pipe 5.00
Semi-hard rock 2.50 Petrochemical products group (polyvinyl chloride pipe, reinforced 5.00
Hard rock 3.00 plastic composite tube)
Reinforced concrete secondary product canal (excluding fence
culvert) 3.00
Notes: 1. The maximum allowable velocity is a value determined mainly by structural

durability of the material of the canal structure against scour and wear.
Specifically when a velocity close to the maximum allowable velocity value is
used, it is necessary to study the hydraulic stability (especially regarding waves,
water level rise at the cross section transition point, air entrapment in pipes,
etc.).
2. Maximum allowable velocities for structures such as wasteways/spillways that are
part of the canal and convey temporary flows shall be equal to or less than 1.5
times of values listed in the table above.
3. In cases of drainage canals, the value equal to or less than 1.5 times of values in
this table shall be applied to discharges (1-year or 2-year probability discharge) to
60
study the low water revetment. However, such value shall not also exceed values
in this table at the time of 185-day water discharge or firm drainage discharge
during irrigation season. Additionally, this table is not applicable to cases where
appropriate erosion protections such as bed protection, etc., are provided for the
subject facility in areas such as chutes, steep slope drainage canals, etc., or
where structural members are reinforced by means such as increasing concrete
thickness or reinforcing bars, or where the drainage canal is as large as a river.
In such cases, the maximum allowable flow velocities shall be determined by
referring to the structure and topography/geology of the subject canal as well as
similar case examples.
4. The maximum allowable flow velocities for cast-in-place concrete structures whose
member thickness is 13 cm or larger shall be 3.0 m/s or less. Also, values of thick
concrete or thin concrete in the above table may be applied to the maximum
allowable flow velocities for plain concrete structures and for thickness between
10 cm and 18 cm, the value may be determined by proportional distribution.
(4) Considerations for determination of design velocity

Hydraulic conditions in a canal must be carefully examined in determining
the design velocity of an irrigation canal. Under the nearly critical flow
conditions, the water surface in the canal tends to become unstable,
producing waves which do not vanish quickly. These cause a lowering in the
efficiency of the canal function. It is generally recognized that the stability of
flow in the canal is controlled by the velocity, though it can vary owing to
many factors such as discharge, velocity, change of cross-section area,
bends, etc. A velocity of less than two-thirds of the critical velocity (Froude
number: 0.54) may be expected to stabilize the water surface in the canal.
Accordingly, the above velocity must be applied to conditions under sub-
critical flow in the irrigation canal. If a velocity larger than the above has to
be adopted for any reason, necessary measures must be taken to heighten
the canal wall and to provide special designs for division works, drops, etc.
taking into consideration the water surface fluctuation, eccentric water
surface at bend points of a canal. In addition, for facilities under super-
critical flow conditions such as chutes, etc., the table is not applied and
special attention must be given to the internal friction in the canal and
hydraulic effects due to the changes in the cross-section of the canal such
as enlargement, contraction and others.
61
3.2.3 Calculation of Mean Velocity
Dimensions of the cross section of a canal are determined, in principle, from

the design discharge calculated by mean of velocity formula. The calculation
of the uniform flow velocity must in principle be made according to the
Manning’s mean velocity formula for an open channel type canal and Hazen
William’s formula for a pipe line type canal.
(1) Discharge of canal

The discharge of the canal is calculated using the following formula:
Q = A · V ................................. (F. 3.4)

Where, Q: Discharge (m3/s)
A: Cross-section area (m2)
V: Mean velocity (m/s)
(2) Mean velocity formula of open channel type canal

The mean velocity of an open channel type canal in the above formula is
calculated according to the Manning formula as a rule.
1
V   R 2 3  I 1 2 ................................. (F. 3.5)
n
Where, V: Mean velocity (m/s)

n: Coefficient of roughness
R: Hydraulic radius (m) (R=Cross-section area (A)/Wetted perimeter (P))
P: Wetted perimeter (m)
I: Hydraulic gradient (canal bed slope)
In this manual, this formula is applied to mainly open channels or culverts
and siphons partially included in an open channel type canal. For non-
uniform flow condition, the energy gradient is substituted for the canal bed
slope in this formula.
(3) Coefficient of roughness

1) Selection of coefficient of roughness
Selection of the coefficient of roughness is very important in use of the
Manning formula, and therefore careful consideration is required in
determining the coefficient on various influencing factors such as surface
62
roughness, vegetation, bends, cross-section area and shape, velocity,

hydraulic radius, sediment, scour, suspended materials, canal conditions of
operation and maintenance stage, etc. In canals constructed with the same
materials, the coefficient of roughness tends to become larger in the case of
extremely slow velocity or small hydraulic radius. Standard values in the
table are generally applied to design. It must also be considered that the
smoothness of the internal section of the canal decreases gradually due to
friction and scour, etc. are produced by the flow in the canal, and the
growth of aquatic plants.
63
Table 3.2 Values for coefficient of roughness n

① Lining, retaining walls, tunnels, culverts, siphons, and aqueducts
Coefficient of roughness
Materials and conditions of canals Minimum value Standard value Maximum value
Concrete (cast-in place flume, culvert, etc.) 0.012 0.015 0.016
Concrete (shotcrete) 0.016 0.019 0.023
Concrete (with precast flume, pipe, etc.) 0.012 0.014 0.016
Concrete (reinforced concrete pipe ) 0.011 0.013 0.014
Concrete block masonry 0.014 0.016 0.017
Cement (mortar) 0.011 0.013 0.015
Asbestos cement pipe 0.011 0.013 0.014
Steel (locked bar or welded) 0.010 0.012 0.014
Steel (rivet) 0.013 0.016 0.017
Smooth steel surface ( not painted) 0.011 0.012 0.014
Smooth steel surface and pipe (painted) 0.012 0.013 0.017
Corrugated surface (steel sheet ) 0.021 0.025 0.030
Cast iron (not painted) 0.011 0.014 0.016
Cast iron sheet and pipe (painted) 0.010 0.013 0.014
Chloride vinyl pipe 0.012
Reinforced plastic 0.012
Ceramic pipe 0.011 0.014 0.017
Earth lining 0.025
Asphalt (smooth surface ) 0.014
Asphalt (rough stone ) 0.017
Masonry (rough stone wet masonry) 0.017 0.025 0.030
Masonry (rough stone dry masonry) 0.023 0.032 0.035
Wood (wooden gutter ) 0.010 0.012 0.014
Wood (lined in thin layer, treated with 0.015 0.017 0.020
creosote )
Rock tunnel with no lining on overall cross- 0.030 0.035 0.040
section area
Rock tunnel with no lining except concrete 0.020 0.025 0.030
placed on the bottom
Vegetation coverage (sodding) 0.030 0.040 0.050
64
② Canals constructed by excavation or dredging

Earthen canals, uniform and straight
1) No weeds (immediately after 0.016 0.018 0.020
completion of the canal )
2) No weeds (after the canal has been 0.018 0.022 0.025
exposed to weather )
3) Gravel (no weeds) 0.022 0.025 0.030
4) Few weeds with short grasses 0.022 0.027 0.033
Earthen canals, curved and non-uniform
1) No vegetation coverage 0.023 0.025 0.030
2) Some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3) Dense growth of weeds or water 0.030 0.035 0.040
weeds
4) The bottom is earth and the side walls 0.028 0.030 0.035
are covered by rubble stones
5) The bottom is covered by stones, and 0.025 0.035 0.040
the side walls are covered by weeds
6) The bottom is covered by cobble 0.030 0.040 0.050
stones, and the side walls have no
weed
Drag line excavation and dredging
1) No vegetation coverage 0.025 0.028 0.033
2) Some shrubs on shore 0.030 0.050 0.060
Rock excavation
1) Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2) Irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
65
③ Natural flow canals

Small canals on flat land
1) No weed and straight. No fracture or 0.025 0.030 0.033
deep water spot when the high-water
level is reached
2) Same as above, but a lot of stones and 0.030 0.035 0.040
weeds
3) No weed, but meandering. Some 0.033 0.040 0.045
shoals and deep water spots
4) Same as above, but some stones and 0.035 0.045 0.050
weeds
5) Same as above, but low-water level 0.040 0.048 0.055
and few changes in slopes and cross
sections
6) Same as the line item 4) above, but 0.045 0.050 0.060
more stones
7) Weeds and deep spots in mild flow 0.050 0.070 0.080
sections
8) Section with thick vegetation of weed. 0.075 0.100 0.115
Many deep water spots and trees
Canal in mountainous land, no plant in the
canal. River banks are steep. Trees and
shrubs along river banks are immersed in
the water when the high-water level is
reached
1) River bed is covered by cobble stones 0.030 0.040 0.050
and gravels
2) River bed is covered by large cobble 0.040 0.050 0.070
stones
Large canals
1) Regular cross section without large 0.025 0.060
cobble stones or shrubs
2) Irregular and rough cross section 0.035 0.100
66
2) Effects of bends, sedimentation and vegetation on coefficient of roughness

The following factors have an effect on the coefficient of roughness.
(a) Canal bends: The coefficient of roughness (n) increases when a canal
meanders because such meandering produce losses and sand deposits in
the canal. In the case of low velocity, increases of n may be neglected. In
general, n increases about 0,002 as an allowance for canal bend losses
when the canal has curves, and n in a natural meandering channel
increases by 30%.
(b) Sedimentation: n is affected by sand deposits in a canal and increases
significantly in the case of non-uniform sediments such as sandbars and
sand ripples.
3) Coefficient of compound roughness

If the Manning formula is applied to the cross-section of the canal having
different coefficients of roughness for some parts of wetted perimeter (P), the
velocity must be calculated using a compound roughness coefficient for the
whole wetted perimeter. (Fig 3.4, Table 3.3)
The compound roughness coefficient is estimated by the following formula:
23
 
 1  32 32 3 2 
ni   P n  P n  .......... .  P  n
5 5 
 ................................. (F. 3.6)
  Pi 
1 1 2 2

It is not advisable to calculate the discharge using the coefficient of

compound roughness if the water depth at high water is small in drainage
canals, rivers, etc. In this case, it is usual to make calculation for the
subdivision of the cross-section area as shown in Fig. 3.5. The interface of
the subdivision is not regarded as wetted perimeter.
Table 3.3 Compound roughness coefficient

Zone Coefficient of Length of wet
roughness perimeter
AB n1 P1
BC n2 P2
CD n3 P3
DE n4 P4
EF n5 P5
Total ni Pi
Fig. 3.4 Wetted Perimeter
67
Fig. 3.5 Subdivisions of Cross-Sectional area
(4) Determination of cross-section area of a uniform flow canal

The water depth of a uniform flow canal can be obtained by trial
calculations using the Manning formula. Alternatively, other various
calculation methods may be suggested for convenience’ sake such as A · R2/3
= n · QI, obtained by Manning’s mean velocity formula (F. 3.5) and a
formula (F. 3.4). The graphic solution method is also useful for obtaining
answers easily for a complicated cross-section area. The most appropriate
method must be selected after taking into consideration factors, which
affects the determination of the cross-section area of the canal. For a canal
with a relatively gentle slope from the topographic point of view, the
maximum possible canal slope may be an important factor for determination
of the cross-section area of the canal. Whereas when topographic slope
becomes steep and velocity high speed, it is necessary to modify the canal
slope by providing drops for the prevention of high velocity in the canal.
(5) Mean Velocity Formula of a Pipeline Type Canal

The mean velocity must, in principle, be calculated by Hazen William’s
formula for a pipeline type canals.
V= 0.355 C · D0.63 · I0.54 .................................. (F. 3.7)
Where V : Mean velocity (m/s)
C : Coefficient of velocity
D : Diameter of pipe (m)
I : Hydraulic gradient
I in the formula (F. 3.7), is hydraulic gradient, and can be obtained by the
next formula.
68
I = hf / L ........................................(F. 3.8)
Where hf : Loss head for friction (m)
L : Length of pipeline (m)
Values in Table 3.4 are applied to design as coefficient of velocity.
Table 3.4 Coefficient of velocity
Coefficient of velocity
Pipe (Inside condition ) Maximum Minimum Standard
value value value
Cast iron pipe (not painted ) 150 80 100
Steel pipe (not painted ) 150 90 100
Coal-tar painted pipe (Cast iron ) 145 80 100
Tar epoxy painted pipe (Steel )
Ø 800 ~ — — 130
Ø 700 ~ 600 — — 120
Ø 500 ~ 350 — — 110
Ø 300 ~ — — 100
Mortar lining pipe (Steel, Cast iron ) 150 120 130
Reinforced concrete pipe 140 120 130
Pre-stressed concrete pipe 140 120 130
Chloride vinyl pipe 160 140 150
Polyethylene pipe 170 130 150
Reinforced plastic pipe 160 — 150
Note: C = 140, is taken for the pipes having diameters less than 150mm in principle.
3.2.4 Non–uniform Flow
Flow conditions in the canal reaches where the canal section of flow is not
uniform due to changes in the canal section or backwater above and down a
weir are analyzed by using the non-uniform flow calculation method.
(1) Basic equation of non-uniform flow (reference)

Non-uniform flow occurs when the water level and velocity are constant in
time scale but changes at some position in an open channel. Such flow is
generally found at place where canal section change such as connecting
canals, division works, drops, etc. or at places affected by backwater due to
changes of canal slopes and provision of weirs.
The formula for non-uniform flow is expressed as follows:
dh Q 2 d  1  n 2V 2
i     0 ................................. (F. 3.9)
dx 2 g dx  A 2  R 4 3
69
Where i : Canal bed slope

h: Water depth (m)
X: Length toward the downstream along the canal bed (m)
Q: Discharge (m3/ s)
A: Cross-section area (m2)
g: Acceleration due to gravity (m/ s2)
: Coefficient of energy correction (  = 1.1, is used in general but
 = 1.0 may be used for simple calculation)
n: Coefficient of roughness
V: Mean velocity (m/s)
R: Hydraulic radius (m)
The water surface of a non-uniform flow is traced by the solution of the

above mentioned basic equation of non-uniform flow, or step calculation
method and graphic solution method. The calculation starts from the point,
where hydraulic conditions are decided, to upstream in the case of
subcritical flow condition and to downstream in the case of supercritical
flow condition respectively. It must be examined that the control sections,
where conditions in a canal change flow, may occur, and when the central
section is expected, calculation should be start from this section. The water
depth of the control section, this is the critical depth, is obtained by
calculation mentioned below:
(2) Critical depth

“Critical depth “ is produced at places where there are sudden changes in
canal slope such as at drops, chutes, etc., and is the boundary between
subcritical and supercritical flow. The critical depth, water depth of
boundary of subcritical and supercritical flow, may be suggested by various
methods, but is defined by the following equations: (F. 3.10) – (F. 3.12).
(Q2/ (g A3)) · (dA/ dh ) = 1 ...............................(F. 3.10)

or Q2/ g = A3/ T or Q/ g = AD .............................(F. 3.11)
or V2 / 2g = D/2 .............................(F. 3.12)
Where T: Width of water surface (m)

D: Hydraulic depth D = A/T (m)
Q: Discharge (m3/ s)
g: Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
70
h: Water depth (m)

A: Sectional area of flow (m2)
A cross section producing the critical depth is called the control section and
influences upstream with subcritical flow and downstream with supercritical
flow. The critical depth is obtained by three methods. In this guideline
shows Algebraic method:
[Algebraic method]
If a canal has a simple geometric cross section, the critical depth (hc) can be
obtained by the algebraic method using the above formula (F. 3.10) or (F.
3.11).
In a rectangular section, T = b, A = b·h
Therefore,
Q 2 b  hc
3 3
  b 2  hc3
g b
hc  3 Q 2 gb 2  3 q 2 g  0.467q 2 3 ................................. (F. 3.13)
Where hc: Critical depth (m)

q : Discharge per unit width (m3/s/m)
Q
q
b
b : Width of canal (m)
T : Width of water surface (m)
Q : Discharge (m3/s)
g : Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The following relation can also be found for the critical depth in a
rectangular section.
3
hc   H c ................................. (F. 3.14)
2
Vc  ghc ................................. (F. 3.15)
Where Hc: Specific energy in the control section (m)
71
Vc : Critical velocity (m/s)

(3) Head losses and change of water level

1) Head losses (which should be) considered in hydraulic design
The following head loss must be considered in principle in the canal design.
① Head loss due to friction ,
② Head loss due to inflow or outflow,
③ Head loss due to change of canal section,
④ Head loss due to trash rack, and
⑤ Head loss due to pier.
The head loss due to canal curve is generally neglected. The change of the
water level is expressed using the Bernoullis’ formula as follows:
 V2 2 V12 
h  Z 2  Z1   hi     ................................. (F. 3.16)

 2 g 2 g 
Where  hi : Total head loss (m)

V1 : Velocity in the upstream section (m/s)
V2 : Velocity in the downstream section (m/s)
Z1 : Water level in the upstream section (m)
Z2 : Water level in the downstream section (m)
h : Difference in water level between the upstream and downstream
sections (m)
If the canal section are nearly uniform or change gently and continuously in
a certain distance, then the head loss may be considered to be from friction.
In this case, the fall in the water surface due to friction will be equal to the
canal bed slope. If the head loss due to inflow, outflow, sudden enlargement
or contraction of the canal section is partially produced, the head loss due
to the above factors represents the difference of water at the point where it
occurs, although it is actually produced over a short distance and not at the
point of occurrences. In addition, if the canal section changes continuously
over some distance such as in transitional sections, the total head loss in
this section is obtained by adding the head loss due to friction to the one
due to change of section. In general, the water surface becomes low due to
head losses, but in rare cases of enlargement of the downstream section, the
72
water surface becomes higher. In irrigation and drainage canals, various

head losses are produced by change of flow or turbulent flow due to many
factors as mentioned above.
(4) Various head losses

1) Head loss due to friction
The calculation of head loss due to friction is made by using the Manning
formula as shown below:
Q 2  l  n1
2
n
2
 1  n 2 V 2 n 2 V 2 
hf    4 3 2  4 32 2     1 4 31  2 4 32   l ....................... (F. 3.17)
2  R1  A1 R2  A2  2  R1 R2 
Where Q: Discharge (m3/s)
hf: Head loss due to friction (m)
R: Hydraulic radius (m)
V: Mean Velocity (m/s)
A: Cross section area of flow (m2)
l: Distance calculated (m)
n: Coefficient roughness
Number attached to R, A, n, V denote the Section I and II respectively.
2) Head loss due to inflow or outflow and change of water level

(a) Inflow
The head loss and change of water level due to inflow is calculated by the
following formula in case of hydrostatic surface in which the velocity of
inflow can be neglected.
V2
hen  f e  ................................. (F. 3.18)
2g
V2
hen  hen  ................................. (F. 3.19)
2g
Where hen : Head loss due to inflow (m)

 hen : Change of water level (m)
V : Mean velocity after inflow (m/s)
73
fe : Coefficient of head loss due to inflow which is determined by slope of

inlet as shown in Fig. 3.6.
If the velocity of inflow cannot be neglected, the head loss and change of
water level due to such inflow is calculated by the formula, which is used in
change of the canal section shown later 3.2.4 (5).
Fig. 3.6 Type of inlet transition and inlet head loss coefficient
(b) Outflow
Head loss and change of water levels due to outflow are calculated as
follows:
V2
hou  f o  ................................. (F. 3.20)
2g
V2
hou  hou  ................................. (F. 3.21)
2g
Where hou : Head loss due to outflow (m)
hou : Change of water level (m)
V : Mean velocity before outflow (m/s)
f0 : Coefficient of head loss due to outflow which is generally taken to be
1.0 considering that all velocity energies in the canal are lost.
(5) Head loss and change of water level due to change of canal section
Head loss and change of water level due to change of the canal section are
calculated as follows:
1) Gradual contraction
2 2
V V
hgc  hc  h f  f gc ( 2  1 )  I m  L ................................. (F. 3.22)
2g 2g
74
2 2
V V
hgc  hgc  ( 2  1 ) ................................. (F. 3.23)
2g 2g
Where hgc : Head loss due to gradual contraction (m)
hc : Head loss due to gradual contraction of transition (m)
hf : Head loss due to friction in transition (m)
hgc : Change of water level (m)
V1 : Mean velocity before gradual contraction (m/s)
V2 : Mean velocity after gradual contraction (m/s)
Im : Mean hydraulic gradient in length of transition L
I I
Im  1 2
2
I1 : Hydraulic gradient before transition
I2 : Hydraulic gradient after transition
L : Length of transition (m)
fgc : Coefficient of head loss due to gradual contraction
fgc varies with the shape of transition (See Fig. 3.8), and Table 3.5 indicating
fgc of the inlet and outlet transition to siphon, culvert and tunnel.
Bb
L  cot  ................................. (F. 3.24)
2
Where L : Length of an open transition (m)
B : Water surface of an open channel (m)
b : Water surface of a closed transition, culvert or flume (m)
 : Angle of construction (°) (generally less than 10°)
Fig. 3.7 Explanation for open transition
75
The values shown in Table 3.5 are some experimental values where the
cross-section access of the flow of siphon, tunnel and conduit were relatively
small compared with those of connecting open channels upstream and
downstream. In the above experiment, the length of the transition was taken
so that the angle of the side wall and center line of the canal was 12°30’.
The head loss due to gradual contraction increases sharply as the angle of
transition increases more than 12°30’.
Table 3.5 Head Loss Coefficient at Transition (Siphon, Culvert, Tunnel)

Coefficient Coefficient
due to gradual due to gradual Number in
Condition of open transition formation change contraction expansion Fig. 3.8
fgc fge
Straight line formation A rectangular cross section is narrowed in transition to be
connected with the rectangular opening at its opposite end. 0.10 0.20 (1)
Straight line formation A rectangular cross section is narrowed in transition to be
connected with the closed transition installed at its
opposite end, or a fillet is installed on the open transition 0.20 0.30 (2)
to make smooth connection with a circular opening.
Trapezoidal straight line A trapezoidal cross section is transformed into a
formation rectangular cross section by twisted wall surfaces in
transition to be connected with a rectangular opening at its 0.20 0.30 (3)
opposite end.
Trapezoidal straight line A trapezoidal cross section is transformed into a
formation rectangular cross section by twisted wall surfaces in
transition to be connected with a closed transition installed
at its opposite end, or a fillet is installed on the open 0.30 0.40 (4)
transition to make smooth connection with a circular
opening.
Trapezoidal bent A trapezoidal cross section is transformed into a
formation rectangular cross section by bent wall surfaces to be 0.30 0.50 (5)
connected with a rectangular opening at its opposite end.
Trapezoidal bent A trapezoidal cross section is transformed into a
formation rectangular cross section by bent wall surfaces to be 0.40 0.70 (6)
connected with a circular opening at its opposite end.
76
Fig. 3.8 Shapes of open transitions
2) Sudden contraction
2
V
hsc  f sc  2 ................................. (F. 3.25)
2g
2 2
V V
hsc  hsc  ( 2  1 ) ................................. (F. 3.26)
2g 2g
77
Where hsc : Head loss due to sudden contraction (m)

hsc : Change of water level (m)
V1 : Mean velocity before sudden contraction (m/s)
V2 : Mean velocity after sudden contraction (m/s)
fsc : Coefficient of head loss due sudden contraction
(Refer to Table 3.6)
Table 3.6 Head loss coefficient for sudden contraction

A2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 (1.0)
A1
Fsc 0.50 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.36 0.29 0.21 0.13 0.07 0.01 (0)
Note: A1: Cross-sectional area before sudden contraction (m2), A2: Cross-sectional area after
sudden contraction (m2)
3) Gradual enlargement
2 2
V V
hge  he  h f  f ge ( 1  2 )  I m  L ................................. (F. 3.27)
2g 2g
2
V2 V
hge  hge  ( 1  2 ) ................................. (F. 3.28)
2g 2g
Where hge : Head loss due to gradual enlargement (m)

he : Head loss due to gradual enlargement in transition (m)
hf : Head loss due to friction in length of transition L (m)
hge : Change of water level due to gradual enlargement (m)
V1 : Mean velocity before gradual enlargement (m/s)
V2 : Mean velocity after gradual enlargement (m/s)
Im : Mean hydraulic gradient in transition
I1  I 2
Im 
2
I1, I2 : Hydraulic gradient before and after transition
78
fge : Coefficient of head loss due to gradual enlargement

(Refer to Fig. 3.8). Table 3.5 indicates fge of the inlet and outlet transition
to siphon, culvert and tunnel.
4) Sudden enlargement
2
V1
hse  f se  ................................. (F. 3.29)
2g
2 2
hse  hse    ................................. (F. 3.30)
V2 V1

2g 2g
Where hse : Head loss due to sudden enlargement (m)

hse : Change of water level (m)
V1 : Mean velocity before sudden enlargement (m/s)
V2 : Mean velocity after sudden enlargement (m/s)
fse : Coefficient of head loss due to sudden enlargement
fse = (1 – A1/A2)2 (refer to Table 3.7)
A1 : Cross-section area before sudden enlargement (m2)
A2 : Cross-section area after sudden enlargement (m2)
Table 3.7 Head loss coefficient for sudden enlargement

A1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 (1.0)
A2
fse 1.0 0.81 0.64 0.49 0.36 0.25 0.16 0.09 0.04 0.01 (0)
79
3.3 Structural Design
3.3.1 General
In the structural design of a canal, the type of the structures, design

condition, and the details of the structures are determined in consideration
of the site conditions and the economic in compliance with the load applied
to the structures, mechanical properties of the soil and meteorological
conditions.
3.3.2 Load
The loads to be taken into consideration when designing a civil engineering

structure are dead loads, water pressures, buoyancy or uplift pressures,
earth pressures, vehicle loads, impact loads, crowd loads, track loads,
seismic loads, wind loads, construction loads, temperature change, drying
shrinkage and creep of concrete, frost heave pressures, and other loads. All
of which must be examined in accordance with the importance of structure,
type of structure, materials to be used, construction place, construction
method, natural conditions, and other factors.
(1) Dead weight

In the calculation of dead weight, the standard unit weight of materials
shown in Table 3.9 can be used; however, the actual unit weight obtained
from experimentation or specified unit weight should be applied when
available.
Table 3.9 Standard unit weight table
Unit weight Unit weight

Material Material
(kN/m3) 3
(kN/m )
Steel, cast steel 77.0 Pre-stressed concrete 24.5
Cast iron 71.0 Granite 27.0
Aluminum alloy plate 27.5 Sandstone 26.0
Reinforced concrete 24.5 Soil (dry) 16.0
Plain concrete 23.0 Soil (wet) 18.0
Mortar 21.0 Soil (saturated) 20.0
Asphalt (for waterproofing application) 11.0 Soil (submerged) 10.0
Asphalt concrete pavement 22.5 Water 9.8
Wet masonry concrete block 22.5
Dry masonry concrete block 19.5
80
(Note)
Unit weight of material shall differentiate depending on each case; therefore,
it is desirable that the actual unit weight should be clear in advance.
However, much effort is required to carry out the investigation and
experimentation to find the actual unit weight. It requires great technical
experience and judgment to decide the optimum design figures from the
result of such investigation and experimentation. In design, the figures
shown in Table 3.9 can be applied in normal cases. When materials are not
uniform in quality because of mixing and proportion, the Table shows the
standard range. It is recommended to decide the design figures by taking
into consider each of the design conditions.
Regarding the unit weight of concrete, when the actual weight of concrete
used in large-scale facilities or sites such as dams are known the actual
weight shall be used.
(2) Water pressure

The hydrostatic pressure acting perpendicular to the working face shall be
obtained by using the equation (F. 3.31) (Fig. 3.9).
P =  w · h ……………………… (F. 3.31)
Where p: Hydrostatic pressure (KN/m2)

 w: Unit weight of water (KN/m3)
h: Height from water surface to acting point (m)
h: Vertical distance from water surface to point of action (m)
h1: Vertical distance from water surface to canal bed (m)
Fig. 3.9 Hydrostatic pressure at working face
(3) Buoyancy and up-lift

Buoyancy or uplift pressure which is assumed to act upward in vertical
direction shall be taken into account in studying floating, overturning,
sliding, etc., during a stability analysis of the structure, and shall not be
81
taken into account in studying load bearing capacity of the ground. When
the buoyancy or uplift pressure is considered as a load, the friction angle
between the wall surface of structure and the soil may be taken into account.
(4) Earth pressure

Earth pressure is broadly divided into horizontal and vertical earth
pressures. Horizontal earth pressure acting on the canal wall shall be
obtained in accordance with the Rankin’s and Coulomb’s earth pressure
formulas, or the Trial Wedge Method (refer to Table 3.20). The vertical earth
pressure acting on a buried structure shall be obtained in accordance with
the Vertical Earth pressure formula, or Marston’s formula. In addition, the
horizontal earth pressure acting on a buried structure shall be obtained in
accordance with the Earth pressure at Rest formula, or the Rankin’s and
Coulomb’s earth pressure formulas and Spangler’s formula, etc.
(5) Vehicle load and impact load

1) Vehicle load
The magnitude, position, and dimension of vehicle load shall be in
accordance with Fig. 3.10 and Table 3.10.
Fig. 3.10 Vehicle load (location and dimensions of wheel)
Table 3.10 Magnitude and dimension of vehicle load
Front wheel Rear wheel

Total weight Front wheel load Rear wheel load Wheel tread width
Load width width Remarks
W (kN) 0.1 W (kN) 0.4 W (kN) a (cm)
b1 (cm) b2 (cm)
Standard
T-25 245 22.5 100 12.5 50 20 Specifications for
Highway Bridges
T-14 137 13.5 55 12.5 50 20
T-10 98 10 39 12.5 50 20
82
2) Applicable categories of vehicle load

The guideline for applicable categories based on the carriageway width is
generally provided in accordance with Table 3.11.
Table 3.11 Applicable categories of vehicle load

Carriageway width (2 lanes) Vehicle load (T) Remarks
Less than 5.5 14 or less Design vehicle load with carriageway width (2 lanes)
5.5 or larger 25 of 5.5 m or less may be set to 25 tons depending on
the situation.
3) Impact load
Dynamic loads including vehicle load and track load would produce impact
loads. However, the impact loads shall not be considered for crowd load.
Table 3.12 shall be used as the standard for impact coefficients when
impact load is considered.
Table 3.12 Standard values of impact coefficient ‘ i ’ (truck load) and

Dynamic loads
Earth covering Impact coefficient Earth covering Dynamic load Impact coefficient
Loading condition
(m) i (m) (kN/m2) i
T-25 Less than 4.0 0.3 4.0 or greater 10 0
In the case of T-25 with earth covering of 4 m or greater, and in the case of
T-14 or smaller with earth covering of 3.5 m or greater, the dynamic load
values provided in Table 3.12 shall be uniformly distributed over the top
slab surface.
4) Vertical load distribution and load strength

In principle, the vertical load shall be the uniformly distributed load
spreading at an angle of 45°downward over the box culvert and pipe body
only in vehicle’s traveling direction. In addition, the vertical load shall be
uniformly applied over effective width of the vehicle in its lateral direction.
83
Figure 3.11 Figure 3.12

Load distribution in span Load distribution in longitudinal
direction direction (road transverse
direction)
Selection of the vehicle load acting on box culvert shall be performed with
due consideration so that the stress resultant generated in the box culvert
section shall be calculated appropriately based on the directions of vehicle’s
travel and box culvert and on the physical relationship between the box
culvert and the vehicle.
(a) Vehicle load acting on box culvert
The vehicle load acting on the top slab of box culvert shall be calculated
under assumption that the front and rear wheel loads with tread width of
0.2 m are uniformly distributed spreading only in span direction at an angle
of 45° downward. Also, a vehicle shall be loaded in the longitudinal direction
(road transverse direction) without limitation.
a) Vehicle load in box culvert longitudinal direction (per unit meter)
….. …………………………. (F. 3.32)
Where Pw: Wheel load per width occupied by vehicle (2.75 m) (kN/m)
i: Impact coefficient according to Table 3.12
Wheel load shall be according to Table 3.10
b) Load strength acting on box culvert top slab
………………………….. (F. 3.33)
84
Where q1: Load strength due to wheel load (kN/m2)

Pw: Wheel load per width occupied by vehicle (kN/m)
β: Reduction coefficient of stress resultant (Table 3.13)
W: Distribution width of rear wheel load (m)
h: Earth covering (m)
Table 3.13 Reduction coefficient of stress resultant

Loading condition Reduction coefficient ; β
1.0 0.9
T-25 Earth covering h is less than 1 m, and (Other than noted in the left)
inside cavity width is 4 m or larger.
T-14 or smaller 1.0
c) Consideration of front wheels effect

When the rear wheel load P1 is loaded on the span center, the distributed
load due to the front wheel load P2 shall be loaded (Fig. 3.13). However,
when the earth covering is 4 m or larger (or 3.5 m or larger in the case of T-
14 or smaller), it shall not be considered in the same manner as the rear
wheels.
………………………….. (F. 3.34)
The vertical load q2 (kN/m2) due to the front wheels shall be obtained in a
manner similar to q1.
………………………….. (F. 3.35)
Where P2: Front wheel load (kN)

W2 + W3 = 2 h + 0.2
The distribution widths W2 and W3 shall be blocks as shown in Fig. 3.13,

and the effect due to W3 shall be considered as horizontal load (Ph = q2 •
Ko).
Ko: Coefficient of earth pressure at rest (Ko = 0.5)
85
Rear wheels Front wheels
Fig. 3.13 Load distribution due to effect of front wheels
d) Box culvert top part used as road

When the longitudinal direction of box culvert and the vehicle traveling
direction are the same, the rear wheel load with tread width of 0.2 m is
considered a distributed load spreading downward at an angle of 45° in the
longitudinal direction of box culvert (see Fig. 3.15). And for the span
direction, different application shall be chosen for the following cases
depending on the field conditions (see Fig. 3.14).
Case A: Full carriageway width (B2) ≥ Full width of box culvert (B1)
Wheel load shall be loaded over the full width of box culvert.
Case B: Full carriageway width (B2) < Full width of box culvert (B1) or,
Administrative use road etc. (B3) < Full width of box culvert (B1)
Loading width shall be the loading width of wheel load and B2, or
one suitable for the actual conditions.
86
Fig. 3.14 Fig. 3.15

Load distribution in span direction Load distribution in
longitudinal direction (road
transverse direction)
Load strength per unit meter in longitudinal direction (kN/m)
………………………….. (F. 3.36)
However, Fig. 3.14 describes the Case B.
……………..(F. 3.37)
Where Pw: Load strength due to wheel load (kN/m)
P1: Rear wheel load (kN)
i: Impact coefficient (Table 3.12)
W1: Load distribution width in longitudinal direction (m)
= 0.2 + 2 h
However, the load distribution width W1 shall be 1.0 m when the earth covering h
is less than 0.4 m.
q1: Load strength due to wheel load (kN/m2)
β: Reduction coefficient of stress resultant (Table 3.13)
e) Loading position
The basic concept of loading position of vehicle wheel loads shall follow the
principle that the position at which the maximum stress is generated in
design analysis of each member shall be loaded. In the case of box culvert,
87
design of section is designed under condition of the maximum member

stress based on consideration of various load combinations described in
Table 3.14.
Table 3.14 Loading position of single-line box culvert

(In the case of road crossing over box culvert)
Case Loading condition Loading diagram
• The real wheels are loaded on the span center.
When the effect of front wheels needs to be
considered (e.g. long span or deep earth
covering), the front wheels shall be loaded as
well.
1 • The bending moment of top slab grows larger.
• The horizontal earth pressure due to the wheel

load (10 kN/m2) shall be considered without
loading the wheel load on the top slab. (In the
2 case of T-25) Also, 7 kN/m2 shall be used in
the case of T-14.
• The bending moment of sidewall grows larger.
• When the wheel load is concentrated to some

degree, or when the front wheels are loaded as
well, the rear wheels shall be loaded on the
edge of the top slab to study the shearing force
3 in the top slab.
• The shearing force in the top slab grows larger.
(6) Crowd loads

The crowd load is considered for sidewalks, etc., and the magnitude of
vertical load shall be according to the following description. For the farm
road where no large-sized motor vehicle would travel, and for the sidewalk of
public road (including road surfaces where large-sized motor vehicles may
travel), the vertical load shall be 3 kN/m2 and 5 kN/m2, respectively.
However, the vehicle load and the sidewalk dynamic load shall not be
applied at the same time.
88
(7) Track loads

The vertical load due to track load consists of the standard dynamic
load by line category and the overburden loads including rails, railroad
ties, track bed, etc. Since the calculation of overburden loads is generally
subjected to discussion with parties involved, it is necessary to consult with
the road administrator to determine them.
(8) Earthquake load (reference)

In designing canal structures, earthquake loads must be considered for
large size piers, retaining walls, aqueducts, canals with large banking and
other important structures for earthquake proofing analysis, seismic
coefficient method, modified seismic coefficient method, displacement
method any dynamic analysis method are employed. Generally, the seismic
coefficient method is used for the design of canal structures. However, when
survey that is more detailed should be done, other methods may be
employed depending on purposes. In case of the seismic coefficient method,
the earthquake load is assumed by the dead load applied to the structure
multiplied by the design seismic coefficient.
1) Design horizontal seismic coefficient
The design horizontal seismic coefficient is calculated by using the following
formula (F. 3.38):
Kh = Cs · K0 ·································(F. 3.38)
Where Kh : Design horizontal seismic coefficient
K0 : Standard design horizontal seismic coefficient
(Usually 0.2)
Cs : Correction factor by importance of structure
Note: The design horizontal seismic coefficient should be more than 0.1.
Table 3.15 Correction factor by importance of structure (Cs)
Category Correction factor

Structures of particular 1.0
importance
Structures in general 0.7 - 0.8
Gigantic rigid structures
Earth structure 0.5 - 0.7
89
2) Design vertical seismic coefficient

In principle, design vertical seismic coefficient is not considered for the
earthquake load analysis. However, in the case of designing of support or
bearing design vertical seismic coefficient may be required as value of 0.1.
(9) Wind pressure load

The wind pressure load must be considered for large scale piers, aqueducts
and other facilities which are affected by wind. The wind pressure load is
determined according to the design specification for road bridges from
consideration of scale of structure, material of members and types, etc.
(10) Construction load

During the construction period, construction loads must be considered for
the dead weight of structure and construction equipments.
(11) Temperature stresses

Temperature stresses must be considered for designing of statically
indeterminate structures.
1) Scope of application of temperature in plain concrete structures may be
determined with consideration of annual temperature data uniform 15° C is
applied for design. In the case of structure whose height is less than 70 cm,
10° C is used instead of 15°C.
2) Liner expansion coefficient used for the design is as follows:
- The liner expansion coefficient of 12  10-6/° C is taken for the
design of steel structures.
- In the case of concrete structures, 10  10-6 /° C is taken as the
liner expansion coefficient.
(12) Drying shrinkage and creep of concrete

In designing important structures, drying shrinkage and creep of concrete
considering for statically indeterminate structure are as follows:
1) Drying shrinkages used for design analysis of statically indeterminate
structure are show in Table 3.16.
2) In designing of plain concrete structures, generally drying shrinkage of 25
 10-5 is taken in the normal case.
90
Table 3.16 Drying Shrinkage
Type of structure Drying

Shrinkage
Rigid frame 15  10-5
Arch – steel ratio (> 0.5%) 15  10-5

steel ratio (0.1%<. <0.5%) 15  10-5
3) Deformation of creep increases in proportion to elastic deformation.

Creep deformation of 3.0 is taken for indoor and 2.0 is applied for outdoor in
general.
(13) Frost heave pressure

Frost heave pressure must be considered in cold areas. It is difficult to study
on frost heave pressure theoretically; therefore, experimental frost heave
prevention measures must be taken.
3.3.3 Reaction of Foundations
Reactions of base foundations shall be analyzed on the assumption that no

deflection is generated in structures.
(1) When a uniform load acts on normal (compressive) ground;

The reaction of the foundation should, strictly speaking, be determined by
analysis of the reaction and settlement (deflection) of beams or slabs placed
on an elastic foundation. However, it has been shown that the calculated
result is not much different from that of a uniformly distributed loading.
This approach is therefore to be preferred.
Fig. 3.16 Foundation reaction (Compressive foundation)
(2) In the case of an eccentric load

When the resultant force of the total load applied to the foundation ground
is eccentric, the ground reaction shall be determined by the following
91
formula on the assumption that there is no effect from the ground

compressibility.
1) When the resultant force is within the “middle third“ of the center.
q1 N  6e 
   1   ……………..(F. 3.39)
q 2 L  L 
Where q1, q2 : Reaction strength at each and (t/m2)
N : Vertical component of force of the resultant force (t/m)
L : Length of foundation
e : Eccentric distance of an acting point N
(Within the middle third) (Outside the middle third)
Fig. 3.17 Ground reaction with eccentric load
2) When an acting point of the resultant force is outside the “middle-third

“ of the center.
4  N 
q   ……………..(F. 3.40)
3  L  2e 
92
3.3.4 Loads Acting on Open Channels
Loads to be considered in structural design of the canal are, in general, dead

weight, water pressure (internal and external), buoyancy/uplift pressure,
earth pressure, vehicle load, impact load, crowd load and ground reaction.
(1) Load combination

Common combinations acting on canals built on common ground are
described in Fig. 3.18 as well as in Table 3.17. Calculations shall be
performed based on an appropriate load combination selected in
consideration of the site conditions of the canal, construction condition, soil
condition, etc.
Fig. 3.18 Load combination applied to the canal
93
Table 3.17 Load combination applied to the canal

Condition
Case Internal load External load Remarks
of wall
Inner water pressure Ground reaction No backfill is provided
① Exposed under water level up to
the wall top
Inner water pressure Ground reaction No action by earth pressure due to
②1) Backfilled under the expected backfill soil
highest water level
Inner water pressure Earth pressure due to backfill soil Action of earth pressure due to
③ Backfilled under the expected up to ground surface + Ground backfill soil is expected.
highest water level reaction
Earth pressure + Ground reaction Groundwater, vehicle load, or
④ Backfilled
crowd load are not expected.
Earth pressure + Embankment load No groundwater is expected.
⑤2) Backfilled + Vehicle load (or Crowd load) +
Ground reaction
Earth pressure + Outer water Neither vehicle load nor crowd
⑥ Backfilled pressure + Buoyancy (or Uplift load is expected.
pressure) + Ground reaction
Earth pressure + Outer water Groundwater and vehicle load (or
pressure + Embankment load + crowd load) are expected.
⑦2) Backfilled Vehicle load (or Crowd load) +
Buoyancy (or Uplift pressure) +
Ground reaction
Notes: 1. Case ② shall be applicable to situations when no acting earth pressure or sufficiently small
acting earth pressure is expected. Examples include situations when freestanding is
possible by the angle of repose or cohesion with a good backfill soil, or when the height of
backfill is small. The embankment load shall be considered depending on circumstances.
2. The vehicle load and the sidewalk dynamic load can be applied, provided that they are not
acting concurrently.
(2) Soil constant

For the earth pressure calculation, the soil constant such as soil unit weight,
internal friction angle, cohesion and others should be necessary. Since these
soil constants show different values according to the conditions of soil
property, drainage, constructional method and others, investigation such as
the soil test shall be carried out to obtain the proper value. However, it
requires much labor and time to carry out these investigation and tests, and
also requires sufficient experience and high technique to decide the proper
soil constant. Therefore, the standard value shown in Table 3.18 can be
used for the normal design, but not for the special cases such as a very
important structure, a large scaled earthwork or soft cohesive soil.
94
Table 3.18 Soil unit weight

(Unit: kN/m3)
Saturated unit Angle of shear
weight Wet unit
Type of soil resistance
weight
(° )
Gravel, coarse sand, etc., that hardly contain
fine-grained soil.
1 20 18 30
(Fine-grained fraction less than 5% such as GP, GW,
SP, SW, etc., as a guideline)
Gravel, sand, etc., that contain fine-grained soil.
2 (Fine-grained fraction 5 ~ 15% such as G-F, S-F, etc., 20 18 25
as a guideline)
Silty fine sand, gravel that contains clay, etc.
3 (Fine-grained fraction 15 ~ 50% such as GF, SF, etc., as 20 18 20
a guideline)
(3) Load applied to vertical walls

1) Water pressure (internal water pressure and external water pressure)
The hydrostatic pressure p at the water depth h acting on internal and
external surfaces of a vertical wall shall be obtained by p = γ w • h, which
acts perpendicular to the wall surface. Note that γ w is the unit weight of
water.
2) Earth pressure
(a) Earth pressure classification and applicable structures
The earth pressure acting on the vertical wall of canal is classified as shown
below, and the equation for each classification is provided in Table 3.20.
Also, when the ground behind of the wall surface has irregular surface, the
earth pressure shall be obtained by using the Trial Wedge Method, etc.
a) Structures in which only deformation is considered. (e.g. flume)

The earth pressure in this case is the value used in the structural
calculation of the wall, and the wall friction shall be considered depending
on circumstances. The active earth pressure acting on the wall surface
varies with the slope condition of the ground surface, loading condition, etc.
Although the angle of wall friction varies depending on the wall surface
inclination, with or without the overhang, the values provided in Table 3.19
shall be used.
Additionally, when the outer water pressure is considered (Case- ⑥ and
Case-⑦ in Table 3.17), the submerged unit weight of soil shall be used for
the unit weight of backfill soil at or below the groundwater level, and the
95
coefficient of earth pressure and the angle of wall friction shall remain
unchanged (see ⑥ of Table 3.20).
b) Structures in which movement and deformation are considered. (e.g.

retaining wall)
The earth pressure in this case is the value used in both the structural
calculation of wall and the stability analysis of structure, and the wall
friction shall be considered. Although the angle of wall friction varies
depending on the concrete placement condition, backfill condition, etc., the
values provided in Table 3.19 shall be used as the standard. The earth
pressure in this case can be obtained by using equations (F. 3.41) through
(F. 3.48).
Table 3.19 Values for angle of wall friction (δ)
1)
(Fig. 3.19)
Fig. 3.19 Method to establish β
96
Table 3.20 Classification of earth pressure acting on canal wall (1/3)
97
98
99
(b) Calculation of earth pressure by using the Trial Wedge Method

In the Trial Wedge Method, which is also called the extreme value method,
the inclination of sliding surface that is generated at the bottom of wall is
varied in various ways as shown in Fig. 3.20. To establish a balance of
forces acting on the wedge shape portion between each sliding surface and
the wall surface, using graphical methods or numerical calculations. From
this result, the local maximum value of earth pressure acting on the wall,
which is then treated as the active earth pressure, is obtained.
Fig. 3.20 Method to determine active sliding surface and active earth pressure
Culumann’s graphical solution based on earth pressure theory of the

Coulomb’s series is one of common methods to obtain the earth pressure by
graphics. Culumann’s graphical solution can be described as follows. (Fig.
3.21)
(i) From the point A, draw a straight line having an angle of φ with the
horizontal plane.
(ii) For arbitrary assumed sliding surfaces (A-1, A-2, and so on), weight of
the block framed by ABCD1, ABCD2, and so on for each sliding surface (W1,
W2, and so on, respectively) is calculated, and plot the results on the A-G
line with appropriate scale.
(iii) From each of the plotted points (W1, W2, and so on), draw a straight line
having an angle of ε with the line A-G. The point of intersection of each line
and corresponding sliding surface
(A-1, A-2, and so on, respectively) is denoted by H, J, and so on, respectively.
Plot a curve line to connect these points of intersection.
(iv) Lastly, draw a tangent on the curve connecting A, H, J, and so on, in a
direction parallel to A-G. When the contact point is denoted by T, the
100
magnitude of resultant of active earth pressure is defined by the line T-W,

and the sliding surface is defined by the line A-T.
Fig. 3.21 Culumann’s graphical method
a) Active earth pressure under normal condition (Fig. 3.23)

The ultimate condition in which soil wedge is about to slide on the sliding
surface along the retaining wall is called the active state, and the earth
pressure PA at this moment is called the active earth pressure. The three
forces of the weight W of wedge shaped clod and the reaction forces of
sliding surface PA and R are balanced, and the relationship of these forces
can be illustrated in a funicular polygon as shown in Fig. 3.23 (b). And the
active earth pressure PA can be obtained in the equation (F. 3.41) by using
the sine formula.
…………………………………..(F. 3.41)
101
(Fig. 3.22)
(Table 3.19)
Fig. 3.22
Fig. 3.23 Illustrative graphics of active earth pressure
Also, when PA is decomposed into horizontal and vertical components, the

equation (F. 3.42) is obtained, and the height of the action point of earth
pressure is obtained by using the equation (F. 3.43).
PAH = PA cos (δ + α) ...................................................................................................(F. 3.42)

PAV = PA sin (δ + α)
hp=1/3*H.................................................................................................................(F. 3.43)
Where PAH: Horizontal component of active earth pressure (kN/m)

PAV: Vertical component of active earth pressure (kN/m)
hp: Vertical distance to the action point of active earth pressure (m)
H: Height of wall (m)
102
Fig. 3.24 Horizontal and vertical components of active earth pressure under
normal condition
Table 3.21 provides formulas for soil wedge weights of typical backfill forms.
Table 3.21 Calculation formulas for soil wedge weight
103
b) Passive earth pressure under normal condition (Fig. 3.25)

The ultimate condition immediately before the backfill behind is ejected
upward is called the passive earth pressure state, and the earth pressure
“PP” at this point is called the passive earth pressure.
Fig. 3.25 Illustrative graphics of passive earth pressure
The passive earth pressure is obtained by using the equation (F. 3.44)
………………………………………… (F. 3.44)
c) Active earth pressure under seismic condition

Under seismic condition, it is assumed that the inertia force (= Kh • W) acts
on the center of gravity as shown in Fig. 3.27 (a). The funicular polygon at
this moment can be illustrated as shown in Fig. 3.27 (b).
Fig. 3.26 Horizontal and vertical components of active earth pressure under
seismic condition
104
(a) Sliding surface (b) Funicular polygon
Fig. 3.27 Concept of active earth pressure under seismic condition
(F. 3.45)
(F. 3.46)
(F. 3.47)
(F. 3.38))
Table 3.19)
d) Passive earth pressure under seismic condition (see Fig. 3.28)
……………………………………(F.3.48)
Where PEP: Passive earth pressure under seismic condition (kN/m)

ωEPA Angle between assumed sliding surface and horizontal plane (°)
:
105
(a) Sliding surface (b) Funicular polygon

Fig. 3.28 Concept of passive earth pressure under seismic condition
[Reference] Earth pressure acting on the retaining wall in cut area

The retaining wall in cut area is a type of retaining wall to which the cut
slope or structures such as existing retaining wall, etc., are located closely,
thus the earth pressure is affected by such cut slope or structures. In the
case of the retaining wall in cut area as shown in Fig. 3.29, since it is
assumed that the sliding surface would be generated either inside of backfill
soil (a to b) or on the plane interfacing with the cut slope surface (a to c), it
is necessary to select the earth pressure of whichever is greater. While the
earth pressure under the assumption of sliding surface generated inside the
backfill soil can be obtained in the same manner as the retaining wall in fill
area, it is necessary to use the angle of shear resistance (φ') of the
interfacing plane when the sliding surface is assumed on the interfacing
plane. While the angle of shear resistance of the interfacing plane varies
depending on factors including the soil property of natural ground,
roughness coefficient of the cut slope, etc. It is expected to be φ' = (1 to 2/3)
φ (φ: angle of shear resistance of backfill soil) under normal condition. φ' =
2/3 φ when the soil is soft rock or better and the surface is relatively
uniform plane, and φ' can be assumed to be equal to φ when the soil is
coarse or bench cut is provided. Since the value of φ' affects the magnitude
of earth pressure, it shall be determined with cautions. Additionally, the
consideration for this earth pressure in cut area is applicable to situations
where the gradient of natural ground is 45° or greater and the horizontal
distance between the retaining wall’s back surface and the bottom of slope is
1 m or less. Otherwise, there is no need to consider.
106
Fig. 3.29 Calculation method of earth pressure in cut area (part 1)
Also, when the retaining wall is apart from the cut slope as shown in Fig.
3.30, it is necessary to calculate the earth pressure based on the
assumption that takes the segmented sliding surface through 3 given
points a, b, c shown in the figure into account in addition to the sliding
surface passing through the inside of backfill soil. The earth pressure in this
case can be obtained as follows. At first, assume a sliding surface passing
through the heel ‘a’, and then find the point b where the assumed sliding
surface intersects with the cut slope. Draw a plumb line from the point b,
and obtain ‘b'’ where the plumb line intersects with the ground surface. If it
is assumed that the backfill soil divided along the line b-b' as shown in the
Fig. 3.30 is equilibrated by internal force E, then the earth pressure
acting on the retaining wall is obtained by using the equation (F. 3.49).
……………………(F.3.49)
Fig. 3.30 Calculation method of earth pressure in cut area (2)
107
3.3.5 Stability Analysis
In designing a masonry canal etc, the load to be applied shall be determined

in accordance with “3.3.4 Load applied to the Canal” to review each part of
the canal structure. The review contents specifically include reviews of ①
overturning, ② sliding, and ③ bearing capacity. Additionally, in the cases of
soft ground area or sloping bearing layer, and in relevant situations, the
stability of the ground as a whole shall be reviewed as necessary.
(1) Reviews for overturning (Fig. 3.31)

Conditions to stabilize structures against overturning shall satisfy the
following values.
1) If L / 2 < e, then the structure overturns.

2) If L / 6 < e ≤ L / 2, then the structure would not overturn, however,
tensile stress is generated in the base surface part of structure. Therefore,
conditions to stabilize structures against overturning shall be according to
the equations (F. 3.50) and (F. 3.51).
Fig. 3.31 Resultant action line
During normal condition e ≤ L / 6 ………………………(F. 3.50)
During earthquake e ≤ L / 6 ………………………(F. 3.51)
e = L / 2 – X0 = L / 2 – (∑Mr – ∑M0) / ∑V
Where e: Distance between the center point of base surface and the point on which
the resultant action line intersects with the base surface (m)
X0: Action point of resultant (m)
∑V: Total vertical load (kN/m)
∑Mr: Total resisting moment at the origin (kN-m)
∑M0: Total overturning moment at the origin (kN-m)
L: Length of base surface (m)
108
(2) Reviews for sliding

The sliding resistance at foundation base surface directly against the total
horizontal loads acting on the foundation base surface shall have the
required safety factor. Consideration for sliding shall be in accordance with
the equation (F. 3.52).
RH / ∑H ≥ Fs ………………………(F. 3.52)
RH = ∑V x f ………………………(F. 3.53)
Where RH: Sliding resistance force (kN/m)

∑H: Total horizontal load (kN/m)
∑V: Total vertical load (kN/m)
When buoyancy exists due to the inside water level of canal, the horizontal
and vertical loads should take this into consideration.
Fs: Safety factor (1.5 for normal condition and 1.2 when earthquake is considered.)
f: Coefficient of friction between base surface and foundation ground (Table 3.22)
Table 3.22 Coefficient of friction between base surface and

foundation ground
Material f
Earth and concrete
(The side of cast-in-place concrete tanØ
surface in which forms are not used)
Earth and concrete
(Surfaces other than described above) Tan(2/3Ø)
Rock and concrete Approximately 0.70

Note: φ denotes angle of shear resistance of the foundation ground soil.
Additionally, when the safety factor for sliding is insufficient, the structure
with increased sliding resistance should be planned by providing
protrusions, etc. in order to secure the required safety factor.
(3) Reviews for foundation ground bearing capacity

While there are various methods proposed to calculate the bearing capacity
of ground for shallow foundations, the values listed in Table 3.23 are used
for the purpose of study in this technical guideline.
109
Table 3.23 Allowable bearing capacity of foundation ground

Allowable bearing unit Remarks
Ground
stress (kN/m2) N-value qu (kN/m2) *
Rock 1,000 100 and more
Sand table 500 50 and more
Hardpan layer 300 30 and more
Compacted 600
Gravel layer
Not compacted 300
Dense 300 30 - 50
Medium 200 20 - 30
Sandy ground 100 10 - 20
Loose 50 5 - 10
Very loose 0 5 or less
Very hard 200 15 - 30 250 and more
Cray Hard 100 8 - 15 100 - 250
Medium 50 4-8 50 - 100
Soft 20 2-4 25 - 50
Very soft 0 0-2 25 or less
Hard 150 5 and more 150 and more
Kanto loam Hardish 100 3-5 100 - 150
Soft 50 3 or less 100 or less
* Unconfined compressive strength
According to “3.3.3 Reaction of Foundations”, consideration for foundation

ground bearing capacity shall be in accordance with the equation (F. 3.54).
q1 N  6e 
  1  < qa ………………..(F. 3.54)
q2 L  L 
Where q1, q2 : Reaction strength at each end (KN/m2)
N : Vertical component of force of the resultant force (KN/m)
L : Length of foundation
e : Eccentric distance of an acting point N
qa : Allowable bearing capacity of foundation ground(KN/m2)
3.3.6 Plain and Reinforced Concrete
(1) Types of reinforcing bars

Deformed reinforcing bars SD 295 A or B, and SD 345 are commonly used
in canals or canal structures. Presently, with the exception of reinforced
concrete secondary products, the use of round bars is on a declining trend.
1) Deformed reinforcing bar has large bond strength compared to round bar,
and has strong resistance to slip against pull-out force. Additionally, it has a
110
function to disperse cracking generated in concrete. Also, splicing and

anchorage of reinforcing bars are simplified with deformed reinforcing bars.
2) When the high-tensile-strength reinforcing bar (SD 345) is used for canal
structures, it is necessary to verify that safety is sufficiently secured for
crack width, deflection, etc. With the exception of particularly large-scale
structures, SD 295 A is frequently used for common type canal structures.
(2) Allowable stresses

The 28-day strength specified for concrete shall be determined case by case
in consideration of the scale of the structure, importance (durability and
water-tightness), construction conditions (Plants and materials available),
economic advantages, and other factors. Allowable stresses for
reinforcement shall be determined based on the types of reinforcing bars
used, strength of the concrete , and other factors, but for siphons and other
structures subject to internal water pressure, the allowable stress of the
reinforcing bars must be reduced to minimize cracking of concrete and
thereby keep high water tightness.
1) Design strengths and allowable stress intensities for concrete

The 28-day design strength and allowable stress of the concrete commonly
used in canal linings and canal structures are as described in Table 3.24
and Table 3.25. In addition, application categories for typical design
strength are described in Table 3.26.
Table 3.24 Allowable stress of plain concrete (Unit: N/mm2)
111
Table 3.25 Allowable stress of reinforced concrete (Unit: N/mm2)
Table 3.26 Application categories of cast-in-place concrete (Unit: N/mm2)
Note; This table provides application categories of typical design strengths, and the mix
proportioning strength can be changed depending on field conditions and
construction conditions. In addition, when enhancement of durability is desired, due
consideration shall be given to items such as reduction of water-cement ratio as well.
2) Allowable tensile unit stress of reinforcing bar

The allowable tensile unit stress of reinforcing bar is provided in Table 3.27.
The allowable stress of reinforcing bar used for irrigation and drainage
canals is determined, as a general rule, based on characteristics of the canal
as described below.
112
Table 3.27 Allowable stress of reinforcing bar (Unit: N/mm2)

Allowable tensile unit stress (σsa)
For members For members
Type of reinforcing bar For members Remarks
For general determined subject to
in contact
members by fatigue direct vehicle
with water
strength loads
During normal
137 137 137 137
SR 235 condition
During earthquake 205 205 205 205
During normal
176 157 157 137
SD 295 A, B condition
During normal
196 176 176 137
SD 345 condition
Note: (i) SD 345 can be used in structures when:
i) It is considered economically advantageous because the structure is particularly
large, and conditions during earthquake are dominant factors,
ii) It is hard to obtain SD 295 A or B reinforcing bars due to market conditions,
iii) Adequate reviews for cracking, etc. would be performed, or
* The allowable tensile unit stress of SD 345 under normal condition shall be identical
with that of SD 295
(ii) A or B when:
i) Reviews for deflection and cracking are not performed.
(a) Irrigation canal

The allowable tensile unit stress under the column “For members in contact
with water” in Table 3.27 shall be applied.
(b) Drainage canal
The allowable tensile unit stress under the column “For general members” in
Table 3.27 shall be applied. The allowable tensile unit stress under the
column “For general members” shall be considered as a standard for
reinforcing bars in irrigation canals or drainage canals when;
a) The cross section size of irrigation canal is small (the maximum
dimension of width or height of the canal is approximately 1 m or less), or
b) They are appurtenant structures such as drops, confluence-diversion
works, sluice/sluice pipe, etc. In addition, the allowable tensile unit stress
under the column “For members in contact with water” in Table 3.27 shall
be considered as a standard for reinforcing bars in drainage canals
when;
(i) The drainage canal is part of a dual-purpose canal,
(ii) It is considered appropriate to do so based on the site condition,
importance, other characteristics of canal, or
(iii) It is determined to do so out of necessity as a result of consultations
with other relevant authorities.
113
3) Unit stress of reinforcing bar for structures subject to inner water

pressure
For structures subject to inner water pressure, it is recommended to reduce
the allowable stress of reinforcing bars in order to secure water tightness by
using Table 3.28 as reference.
[Reference]
In designing reinforced concrete member subject to tension, it is common to
design in a way that allows reinforcing bars alone to bear the load
without taking tensile stress of concrete into consideration. However,
for structures such as siphon in which, in addition to its specific
requirement for water tightness, tensile stress (hoop tension) is generated,
causing commensurate stress in reinforcing bars, cracking occur in the
concrete first because of the different creep ratios between the reinforcing
bar and concrete. In order to limit those cracking in concrete within the
allowable crack width defined by the structure type, durability, water
tightness, covering thickness, etc., it is necessary to design in a way that the
actual stress in reinforcing bar does not exceed a certain limit. In designing
siphons, the allowable stress reduction formula has been established as a
method to adjust the calculated stress values for reinforcing bar depending
on the magnitude of inner water pressure applied and the shape of inner
space.
The thickness of member shall be not less than 1/10 (one tenth) of the inner
width for a box form siphon, and not less than the larger of 1/12 (one
twelfth) of the inner width and 20 cm for a round form siphon. In addition,
not only simply reducing the allowable stress of reinforcing bar, reduction of
the stress applied to concrete by adjusting the concrete member thickness
shall also be considered concurrently.
Table 3.28 Unit stress of reinforcing bar for structures subject to inner water
pressure (Unit: N/mm2)
Allowable stress reduction formula
Type
σ sa = 137* σ sa = 157
Box form 137-3.7H 157-4.0H
Round form 110-0.9H 127-1.0H
Note: Applicable ranges are H ≤10 m for box form type, and H ≤38 m for
round form type. Herein, the notation H indicates the head (m) up to the
center of the box or pipe which includes water hammer pressure.
* σ sa = 137 N/mm2 is applicable when vehicle loads are directly loaded.
114
4) Allowable stress in consideration of effects due to temperature change,

drying shrinkage, earthquake, etc., as well as temporary loads
(a) When effects due to temperature change and drying shrinkage are
considered, the allowable stress specified in “(1) Design strength and
allowable stress of concrete” and “(2) Allowable tensile unit stress of
reinforcing bar” can be increased by a factor of 1.15 at most.
(b) When effects due to earthquake are considered, the allowable stress
specified in “(1) Design strength and allowable stress of concrete” and “(2)
Allowable tensile unit stress of reinforcing bar” can be increased by a factor
of 1.5 at most.
(c) When effects due to temperature change, drying shrinkage, and
earthquake are considered, the allowable stress specified in “(1) Design
strength and allowable stress of concrete” and “(2) Allowable tensile unit
stress of reinforcing bar” can be increased by a factor of 1.65 at most.
(d) When effects due to temporary loads or extremely infrequent loads are
considered, the allowable stress specified in “(1) Design strength and
allowable stress of concrete” and “(2) Allowable tensile unit stress of
reinforcing bar” can be increased. This provided that it does not exceed the
value two times of “(1) Design strength and allowable stress of
concrete,” and the value 1.65 times of “(2) Allowable tensile unit stress
of reinforcing bar.”
(3) Design of reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete structures shall be analyzed by the elastic theory, as a
general rule, it shall be verified that the unit stress of reinforcing bar and
concrete are not greater than the respective allowable stress.
1) Statically indeterminate force or elastic deformation

The radius of gyration of area and Young’s modulus in the calculation of
statically indeterminate force and elastic deformation are considered as
follows.
(a) The calculation of radius of gyration of area shall be performed for the
entire concrete cross section of the member with the effects of reinforcing
bars taken into account. However, the calculation of statically indeterminate
force can be performed for the entire concrete cross section of the member
generally without considering the effects of reinforcing bars.
(b) The Young’s modulus of reinforcing bar is Es = 200 × 103 kN/mm2
115
(c) Values provided in Table 3.29 shall be considered as standards for the
Young’s modulus of concrete Ec.
Table 3.29 Young’s modulus of concrete used in calculations of statically

indeterminate force or elastic deformation
Design strength σ ck (N/mm2) 18 21 24 30 40
2
Young’s modulus of concrete Ec (kN/mm ) 22 23.5 25 28 31
Ratio of Young’s modulus for reinforcing bar and concrete n = Es/Ec 9.1 8.5 8.0 7.1 6.5
2) Cross section determination or unit stress calculation

In cross section determination or unit stress calculation, the tensile stress of
concrete is generally disregarded, and the longitudinal strain is considered
to be proportional to the distance from the neutral axis of cross section.
(a) The Young’s modulus of reinforcing bar is Es = 200 × 103 kN/mm2
(b) The ratio of Young’s modulus for reinforcing bar and concrete in the
allowable stress design method shall be provided by n = E s / Ec = 15, as in
the established practice.
(c) When the reinforcing bar is not intersecting perpendicular to the design
cross section, multiplying the cross sectional area of reinforcing bar by sine
of the angle at which the reinforcing bar intersects with the cross section
gives the value for effective cross section of reinforcing bar.
3) Calculation of cross section and unit stress

(a) Rectangular cross section subject to bending moment only
Calculations of unit stress and resisting moment shall be performed by
using the equations (F. 3.55) to (F. 3.63) for the rectangular cross section
member subject to bending moment only.
a) Explanation of symbols used in calculations (Units of quantity used are N

and mm, or kN and m.
h: Full height of cross section
b: Width of cross section
d1: Covering depth
σca: Allowable compressive unit stress due to bending of concrete
σsa: Allowable tensile unit stress of reinforcing bar
n: The ratio of Young’s modulus for reinforcing bar and concrete E s / Ec = 15
d0: Effective depth of balanced cross section
d: Effective depth ( = h − d1 )
M: Bending moment due to external force
116
S: Shearing force
As: Cross sectional area of reinforcing bar
τ : Shear unit stress of concrete
τo : Bond stress of concrete
U: Total sum of bar perimeters
Mrc: Resisting moment of concrete
Mrs: Resisting moment of reinforcing bar
Fig. 3.22
Illustrative diagram of cross section
b) Calculation formula
(F. 3.55 a)
(F. 3.55 b)
(F. 3.56 a)
(F. 3.56 b)
(F. 3.57)
(F. 3.58)
(F. 3.59)
(F. 3.60)
(F. 3.61)
(F. 3.62)
(F. 3.63)
117
4) Amount of distribution reinforcement and minimum or temperature bar

(a) Role of distribution reinforcement
Distribution reinforcement is the reinforcing bar, which is placed
perpendicular to positive or negative reinforcement in order to distribute the
bending moment and shearing force due to concentrated load or partial
distributed load. The distribution reinforcement is placed perpendicular to
the main reinforcement of slab-form structures (e.g. slab, canal, retaining
wall, box culvert, etc.).
(b) Amount of distribution reinforcement
The amount of distribution reinforcement placed perpendicular to the main
reinforcement in the standing wall or base of retaining wall and canal shall
be one sixth of the main reinforcement or more but not less than 500
mm2/m, in accordance with the standard for one-way slab system.
(c) Amount of minimum or temperature bar
The minimum area of main reinforcement or the area of temperature bar
can be 500 mm2/m.
5) Precaution reinforcement
(a) Role of precaution reinforcement
Precaution reinforcement is the reinforcement placed for precautions against
stress concentration due to loads, and against cracking due to temperature
and drying shrinkage. It is normally placed close to the exposed large
surfaces and around openings of slab-form structures (e.g. slab, canal,
retaining wall, box culvert, etc.), and in areas subject to concentrated load.
It serves to reinforce the areas where the amount of reinforcement cannot be
defined by normal structural calculations, in order to prevent anticipated
harmful cracking from occurring. In retaining walls, it is the reinforcement
placed horizontally in the front side surface exposed to direct sunlight.
(b) Amount of precaution reinforcement
Descriptions in Table 3.30 shall be used as a guideline for the amount of
precaution reinforcement.
Table 3.30 Amount of precaution reinforcement

Structure Amount of precaution reinforcement
Place the reinforcement of 500 mm2 or more per meter in
Concrete surface with large exposed area,
horizontal direction with the center-to-center spacing of 300 mm or
such as retaining wall, etc.
less, close to the exposed side surface of the wall.
Box culvert, etc. Place the reinforcement of approximately 500 mm2 per meter in
Structures with two sides constrained horizontal direction close to the both side surfaces of the wall.
118
6) Reinforcement clearance
While reinforcement clearance varies depending on the type and size of
member, the maximum dimension of aggregate, the size of reinforcing bar,
etc., it shall be defined in consideration of reinforcement placement,
concrete placement, bond strength between reinforcement and concrete, etc.
(a) The horizontal clearance between the reinforcing bars in beam members
shall be not less than 20 mm, 4/3 times or more the maximum dimension of
coarse aggregate, and equal to or greater than the diameter of the
reinforcing bar. In addition, when positive or negative reinforcement is
placed in multiple layers, the vertical clearance shall be generally not less
than 20 mm and equal to or greater than the diameter of the reinforcing bar.
(b) The center-to-center spacing between the slab main reinforcing bars
shall be two times or less the slab thickness and not more than 300 mm
when maximum bending moment is applied on the cross section of the slab.
It is desirable that the spacing is three times or less the slab thickness and
not more than 400 mm on others cross-sections.
(c) The clearance for axial reinforcement in a column shall be not less than
the largest of 40 mm, 4/3 times of the maximum dimension of coarse
aggregate, and 1.5 times of the diameter of reinforcing bar.
(d) To define the reinforcement clearance when deformed reinforcing bars
are placed in bundle, the criteria 1 ~ 3 described above shall be applied to
the hypothetical reinforcing bar which cross sectional area is equivalent to
the sum of the cross sectional areas of bundled bars.
7) Reinforcing bar covering

While the reinforcing bar covering shall be defined in accordance with the
importance of structure, site conditions, etc.
The “covering” means the shortest distance between the reinforcing bar
surface to the concrete surface, unless otherwise specifically prescribed.
(a) While the covering shall be not less than the diameter of reinforcing bar,
it is generally not less than the value provided in Table 3.31.
Table 3.31 Minimum covering of reinforced concrete (Unit: mm2)

Member
Slab Beam Column
Environment condition
General environment 25 30 35
Corrosive environment 40 50 60
Particularly severe corrosive environment 50 60 70
119
(b) Exterior covering of the base slab of structure such as footing, flume,
culvert, siphon, etc., which are directly placed under ground, is required to
be not less than 75 mm.
(c) In the cases other than particularly severe corrosive environment, values
provided in Table 3.32 shall be considered as a standard for the distance
from the center of main reinforcement to the concrete surface except for the
case of column,
However, when the size of main reinforcement is not larger than 13 mm in a
small-scale structure, the distance from the center of main reinforcement to
the concrete surface can be 50 mm.
Table 3.32 Standard values of reinforcement covering (Unit: mm)

Diameter of main reinforcement Not more Not less
than than Remarks
Construction condition
19 mm 22 mm
Concrete surface finished by 60 70 Member thickness T < 300 mm
formwork or screening 70 70 Member thickness T ≥ 300 mm
Bottom surface of base, which is directly Footing, flume, culvert, siphon, etc.
90 100
placed under ground.
50 In the case of the pile top penetrating
Over pile top 50
into the base 50 mm or more
(d) The reinforcement covering of reinforced concrete placed underwater

shall be not less than 100 mm.
(e) The reinforcement covering for parts where there is a potential for wear
due to water flow and others shall be increased accordingly.
(f) To define the reinforcement covering when deformed reinforcing bars are
placed in bundle, the criteria 1 to 5 described above shall be applied by
assuming the bundled bars as a single reinforcing bar.
8) Recommendable dimension of reinforced concrete

The recommendable dimension of reinforced concrete which is constructed
as slab for Foot bridge or Super passage is as follows,
(a) In case of the load on slab which is considered human and livestock
L (m) h (m) d1 (m) Clearance (m) Size of reinforcing bar
～1.5 0.13 0.06 0.25 D12
1.6～2.5 0.2 0.06 0.25 D12
2.6～3.5 0.2 0.06 0.15 D12
3.6～4.5 0.2 0.06 0.15 D16
120
(b) In case of the load on slab which is considered a car (10t truck)
L (m) h (m) d1 (m) Clearance (m) Size of reinforcing bar
～1.5 0.25 0.06 0.15 D12
1.6～2.5 0.25 0.06 0.15 D16
2.6～3.5 0.25 0.06 0.10 D16
3.6～4.5 0.25 0.06 0.10 D20
(4) Minimum thickness of members

The minimum thickness of members used in canal structures shall
generally be determined in consideration of workability and water tightness
requirements. For good workability, vertical walls of 2.0m or taller that use
double reinforcement shall have a minimum thickness of 20cm, and vertical
walls shorter than 2.0m using single reinforcement shall have a minimum
thickness of 13cm. Siphons and other structures subject to water pressure
shall have a minimum thickness of 20cm to ensure good workability and
water tightness.
(5) Joints
Joints shall be provided at suitable positions in suitable intervals in
accordance with the type and size of the structure, the site and the building
conditions.
1) Construction joints
Construction joints will be required where the type of the structure, size, or
other conditions for work hinder continuous placement of concrete. Position
121
and structure of construction joints shall be indicated in the design drawing

in principle.
(a) Positions of construction joints shall be determined according to the type
and size of the structure and other conditions for work. Structurally,
construction joints should be provided at positions subject to the lowest
possible interval stress.
(b) Grooves shall be formed if higher safety against shear force is desired.
Structures subject to internal water pressure (e.g. siphons) water-stops shall
be fitted to the construction joints perpendicular to the direction of water
flow.
2) Contraction joints
Contraction joints shall be provided to prevent cracking of the concrete due
to contraction. Positions and construction of contraction joints shall be
indicated clearly on the design drawing. Generally, contraction joints are
used in siphons, culverts, tunnels and buried structures. Positions of
construction joints shall be determined according to the type of structure,
foundations, and other conditions for work. Contraction joints should be
provided at standard intervals of 3 to 5m in thin concrete linings of 10cm or
less, and in other canal structures at intervals of 9m. Pedestals or dowel
bars shall be provided to prevent movement of the structure due to uneven
settlement or earthquake.
3) Expansion joints
Expansion joints shall be provided to prevent cracking of the concrete due to
expansion. Expansion joints are usually used in structures exposed above
ground.
(a) The position of expansion joints shall be determined according to the
type of structure, foundations and other conditions for work. Expansion
joints shall be provided at points where the construction, section, or form
changes in principle (for example, before and after an open transition where
the construction changes). For a series of structures exposed above ground
such as flumes, expansion joints shall be provided at intervals of 24m.
(b) Expansion plates shall be used instead into void of the joints. Pedestals
or dowel bars shall be provided to prevent movement of the structure due to
uneven settlement or earthquake.
122
(6) Cut-off walls

Cut-off walls shall be provided generally at both ends of an open transition
connected to an open channel to prevent seepage of water along the
periphery of the structure.
1) Structure and standard dimensions are shown in Table 3.33.
2) Vertical reinforcing bars of the same size as the bar used in the open
transition shall be inserted into the center of the wall.
Table 3.33 Standard dimensions for cut-off wall (Unit: mm)

Water depth Depth × Width Thickness
900 or less 600 × 600 150
More than 900 but less than 1,800 750 × 750 200
1,800 or more 900 × 900 200
Small structures 450 × 450 150
Fig. 3.33 Structure of cut-off wall
(7) Haunches
Haunches shall be provided on square or acute-angled corners of the
structure to prevent concentration of stress there and to increase the
strength of the structural members. The values of Table 3.34 shall be used
as the standard according to the size of the box section and the height of the
vertical retaining wall.
Table 3.34 Size of haunch (Unit: mm)
Dimension of box cross section Height of vertical retaining wall Size of haunch
Less than 1,000 Less than 1,000 −
1,000 or more but less than 2,500 1,000 or more but less than 2,500 150 × 150
2,500 or more 2,500 or more 200 × 200
123
Reinforcement
Fig. 3.34 Haunch in rigid-frame and inner side reinforcement along haunch
124
3.4 Detail designs for canals and related structures
3.4.1 Basics of Design
(1) Cross-sectional forms of open channels (Hydraulically favorable

cross-sections)
Before determining cross-sectional forms of open channels, favorable cross-
sectional forms from hydraulic, structural, and constructional aspects shall
be studied, so that the most cost effective cross-sectional forms should be
selected.
When a flow area A is given, a channel cross-section with the shortest length
of wetted perimeter p is capable for the largest quantity of flow. Such a
cross-section is called the most hydraulically effective cross-section, and it
is generally accepted that cross-sections close to the most effective cross-
section are usually most cost effective as well. The most hydraulically
effective cross-sections for trapezoid and rectangular cross-sections are
obtained through Equation (F. 3.64) and Equation (F. 3.65).
b = 2H x tan (θ /2) …………………..(F. 3.64)

H = √( Asinθ / (2-cosθ)) …………………..(F. 3.65)
Where H: Water depth (m)
B: Width of water surface (m)
b: Width of channel bed (m)
θ: Angle between sidewall and horizontal plane (°)
m: Gradient of slope (cotθ)
ℓ: Slope length (m)
A: Cross-sectional flow area (m2)
The most hydraulically effective cross-sections for each side slope gradient
m in channels of trapezoid and rectangular cross-section are as shown in
Table 3.35.
125
Table 3.35 The most hydraulically effective cross-sections and dimensions
(2) Freeboard
The freeboard of canal shall be determined in consideration of the canal
elements such as purposes, cross section shape, route shape, size,
importance, site conditions, allocation of canal structures, flow velocities,
etc.
1) Factors for determining canal freeboard

(a) Coefficient of roughness
The coefficient of roughness of canal surface varies widely depending
on construction and arrangement of canal even in the light of actual
measurement results. Although it would be safe if the whole amount which
covers potential fluctuation is given as a factor of freeboard, there are actual
instances where fluctuation of approximately "n = 0.001" is incorporated for
concrete lining, etc., based on probability of occurrence and uncertainties
associated with fluctuation range, etc. While necessary freeboard based on
coefficient of roughness also varies depending on materials, cross section
shape, and other elements of canal, approximately 5 to 7 % of the water
depth is commonly used for concrete canals.
(b) Velocity head
Since the flow running down the canal is in moving condition, it always has
velocity head. It has potential to raise the water surface as it changes to
static head. When there is no structure or other factors that hinder the
water flow inside the canal for a typical open channel, it is very unlikely to
see the uprise of water surface due to velocity head. However, when there
are gates and/or screens that can block the canal completely, it is possible
to have an uprise of water surface by 50 to 100 % of the velocity head in the
upstream side of these structures depending on their operation mode. Like
this, since the height of water surface uprise to be considered as the
freeboard varies widely depending on the degree of hindrances in the canal,
126
50 % of the velocity head shall be allotted to deal with unanticipated

situations. The other events for canals where factors for water surface uprise
due to velocity head is not particularly expected, and 100 % shall be allotted
when water surface uprise is expected due to the size and importance of
canal, allocation of structures, etc. Additionally, when there are facilities
such as spillways, bypasses, etc. that restrains the water level from rising,
50 % of the velocity head shall be anticipated.
(c) Water surface vibration
The flow in a canal generates wave movement due to structures (gates,
drops, chutes, pumping stations, etc.), wind, etc., resulting in water surface
vibration. While the degree of water surface vibration varies with 1 the
arrangement of structures in the canal, 2 relationship between wind
direction and the canal orientation, 3 the water surface width, and 4 the
water depth, it is normally considered to be approximately 10 to 30cm.
Therefore, the half-wave height of such vibration, that can be 5 to 15 cm
depending on the canal conditions, shall be added as freeboard specifically
for the water surface vibration.
(d) Freeboard by discharge ratio
The freeboard is to deal with unanticipated events that a canal may
encounter, and its size shall be assessed by the discharge, which is capable
of flow including such freeboard. The ratio of the possible discharge in cross
section including freeboard and the design discharge (the possible discharge
in cross section including freeboard divided by the design discharge) shall be
approximately 1.25 to 1.35, and that ratio shall not be below 1.2.
2) Points to be looked into to determine canal freeboard

While canal freeboard shall be assessed based on each factor described
above, it is necessary to study each case in design to incorporate
modifications in accordance with the field conditions. The following are
points to be looked into when doing so.
(a) Size, importance, and site conditions
The size and importance of canal must be considered in determining
the freeboard. It is inappropriate to treat an important main canal
involving a wide area and other main/lateral canals, diversion canals or
secondary canals equally. Similarly, a canal on embankment close to
housing area may have freeboard somewhat different from that of an
intermountain canal.
127
(b) Types of canal structure

The adaptability of a canal for unanticipated events varies with types of
canal structure and cross section shape of water conveying facility. In
internal pressure siphons, tunnels, circular or horseshoe shape culverts,
the relations applied to the head increase or water conveying capacity
increase changes once a certain limit is exceeded. Therefore, types of
structure, allocation, hydraulic characteristics of the canal should be also
considered in determining the freeboard, and it is necessary to carefully
determine the freeboard together with consideration of spillways, etc., for
the canal portion directly upstream of these canal structures.
(c) Allocation of structures and canal curvature
Structures (drops, chutes, gates, screens, etc.) within a canal and sharp
curvature of a canal cause backwater or wave movement. Thus, in allotting
freeboard, relationships with these subjects shall be also considered, and
there can be instances that freeboard beyond its standard value for some
canals.
(d) Operation
Depending on possible change in water source discharge level, structures
and operation of diversion works and spillways, a flow beyond the design
discharge level may run down the canal. Like this situation, particularly in
case of canal, these factors must be taken into account in allotting
freeboard for areas close to the intake.
(e) Flood inflow
Under the concept of this technical guideline, flood is not expected to flow
into the canal as a general rule for an irrigation canal. However, for
situations where flood flow of a certain basin is brought in the canal out of
necessity, or for the storm water which drops and flow into the canal lot,
their water volumes have to be considered in determining freeboard. In this
case, it is desirable to leave freeboard of approximately 10 cm from the
lining top. Also, there have been reported cases noting that coefficient of
roughness is significantly increased due to overgrowth of water plants on
the canal inside surfaces. While these water plants can be removed by
routine maintenance and operation efforts, the task is sometimes too
difficult. Thus, when it is assessed imperative, estimate appropriate
coefficient of roughness to take measures such as increasing freeboard, etc.
128
3) Calculation methods for canal freeboard

Standard calculation methods for canal freeboard by purposes of canal, by
types of canal, and by cross section shapes are as follows.
(a) Basic equation for canal freeboard calculation (Fr ≤ 1)
The basic equations for canal freeboard calculation by cross section shapes
and types of canal are as follows.
a) Non-lining canals and lining canals

The freeboard for non-lining canals and lining canals shall be calculated by
using the equation (F. 3.66), as a general rule.
Fb = 0.05 d + β • hv + hw.........................................................................(F. 3.66)
Where Fb: Freeboard (m)

d: Water depth corresponding to design discharge (m)
hv: Velocity head (m)
β: Conversion factor from velocity head to static head,
ranging 0.5 - 1.0
hw: Freeboard for water surface vibration (m)
b) Retaining wall canals (flumes, retaining wall canals, box culverts, ready-
made product canals, etc.) The freeboard for retaining wall canals shall be
calculated by using the equation (F. 3.67), as a general rule.
Fb = 0.07 d + β • hv + hw ........................................................................................(F. 3.67)
(b) Calculations of freeboard by canal purposes and canal sidewall height

Calculations of freeboard and sidewall height for the open channel irrigation
or drainage canals shall be performed according to the flow charts shown
below.
The freeboard for irrigation or drainage canals is the height indicated in Fig.
3.35.
Fig. 3.35 Freeboard for canals
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a) Irrigation canals
Calculations of freeboard and sidewall height of irrigation canals including
non-lining canals, lining canals (trapezoidal cross section canals), and
retaining wall canals (flumes, retaining wall canals, box culverts, ready-
made product canals, etc.) shall be performed in accordance with the flow
chart shown in Fig. 3.36.
b) Drainage canals
Calculations of freeboard and sidewall height of drainage canals including
non-lining canals, lining canals (trapezoidal cross section canals), and
retaining wall canals (flumes, retaining wall canals, box culverts, ready-
made product canals, etc.) shall be performed in accordance with the flow
chart shown in Fig. 3.37.
c) Dual-purpose canals
The sidewall height of dual-purpose canals shall be calculated by using the
freeboard obtained for either 1 Irrigation canals or 2 Drainage canals,
whichever is greater. Also, for a typical open channel type canal in which
allocation of structures or hydraulic conditions that cause significant water
level uprise due to the velocity head are not expected, it is considered
sufficient to allot 0.5 hv which can be derived from assumptions already
described or judgment based on experience. Furthermore, particularly in
cases that water level uprise are expected and bypasses or spillways are
installed as countermeasures against them, again, 0.5 hv shall be used.
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H=d+Fb
Note: In cases of (b) or (c) of the points to be looked into for canal freeboard determination,
if it is deemed necessary by a hydraulic study, the sidewall height may be calculated by
means other than described above.
Fig. 3.36 Flow chart for calculation of irrigation (open channel) canal
freeboard and determination of canal sidewall height
131
H=d+Fb
Notes: 1. In cases of (b) or (c) of the points to be looked into for canal freeboard
determination, if it is deemed necessary based on a hydraulic study, the side wall
height may be calculated by means other than described above.
2. For small-scale drainage canals, the minimum freeboard 0.30 m can be reduced.
Fig. 3.37 Flow chart for calculation of drainage (open channel) canal
freeboard and determination of canal sidewall height
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(c) Freeboard of supercritical or rapid flow canals (Fr > 1)

The freeboard of a steep slope canal with rectangular cross section where
the running water becomes the supercritical flow shall be normally
calculated by using equation (F. 3.68), as a general rule.
Fb = 0.6 + 0.037 v • h1/3....................................................................................(F. 3.68)
Where Fb: Freeboard (m)

v: Velocity (m/s)
h: Water depth (m)
Herein, that Fb and h are distance measured perpendicular to the steep

slope canal bed.
Since the design of freeboard for a steep slope canal varies widely depending
on factors including the size, gradient, cross section shape, degree of
unevenness of canal, in addition to the equation (F. 3.68), It is necessary to
study the water surface uprise due to air entrainment by the high velocity
supercritical flow. The effects of the roll wave trains on the water surface
vibration caused by waves, and the splash height generated by the
unevenness of canal.
Additionally, for the case of a small scale supercritical or rapid flow canal,
since the freeboard calculated by using the equation (F. 3.68) would be an
over estimate, it is necessary to study the freeboard otherwise by using the
equation (F. 3.69) or (F. 3.70) which is the freeboard calculation formula, or
other means.
Fb = CVh1/2 ........................................................................................................(F. 3.69)
Fb = 0.6 + 0.037 Vh1/3 .......................................................................................(F. 3.70)

Where
Fb: Freeboard (m)
V: Velocity (m/s)
h: Water depth (m)
C: Coefficient Rectangular canal 0.1, trapezoidal canal 0.13
Herein, both the water depth and the freeboard shall be perpendicular to the
inclination of the bottom of the steep slope distribution canal.
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(3) Treatment for the foundation ground

Based on the foundation ground conditions that have been grasped through
soil investigations, safety of the channel structures should be studied so
that an appropriate design should be performed. When unfavorable ground
exists in the foundation of the channel, it is normally preferable to make a
plan avoiding such a site. However, if it is inevitable to make such a plan
due to various conditions including cost efficiency of the alignment of the
channel or ease of works, then suitable soil stabilization works or
foundation works should be selected. So that the design should be executed
to take counter measures for preventing differential settlement and others,
or, for important channels, even liquefaction on the occasion of earthquakes,
etc.
In channel construction, however, changes in the foundation ground are
often realized in the site working stage, therefore supplement investigations
or the like should be executed for such occurrences, and it is required to
cope with quickly basing on the investigation results.
1) Soft ground
As for conditions that lead to ground settlement or sliding due to soft
ground, the following can be noted: increase of contact pressure by
surcharge load, a consolidation phenomenon in the ground, as well as
liquefaction in the loose sandy ground, pumping up groundwater, or even
degradation activity on organic matter, etc. Thus, it should be decided how
to deal with the issue, after discussing a long-term safety for settlement and
sliding. Especially for designs near the boundary of the soft ground and
otherwise, careful attention should be paid for not only foundation
treatment but also the structure itself of the open channel.
2) Expansive clay
In cases where consolidated clay exists in the foundation of the linings, the
clay generally absorbs water and expands (swells) after starting water flow
operation, sometimes causing excess pressure onto the linings to damage
through heaving. In addition, the swelling may result in significant
reduction in shear strength of the clay that can make the slopes slide.
Although it is not so often to encounter such excessively dried and
consolidated clay, careful attention should be paid to clay in deep layers in
cases of large cutting. There are two methods for treating expansive clay: to
spray water for allowing the clay to expand before lining works, and to
replace with good quality materials. In either case, the property of the
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expansive clay should in advance be thoroughly grasped, and discussions

should be made on the safety of the structures.
3) Boulders and Rock Mass
In cases where the foundation ground is formed by boulder stones or partly
by rock mass, loads on channel structures tend to concentrate to this part,
often causing to develop cracks or the like in the structures. Hence, it is
significant to take proper measures such as removing boulders, cutting
down further, or replacing the ground, etc. In cases of continuous rock mass
especially near the boundary of compressible ground, the design is required
careful attention to structures, joints, etc. of the open channel as well as to
their behaviors during earthquakes. Additionally, it is necessary to be aware
that the concepts for ground reaction or structural analysis methods are
different in rock foundations and usual soil foundations.
(4) Earth works

In planning earth works for open channels, an appropriate scheme of haul
excavation and filling shall be established through studying balance of
cutting/filling earth volumes, reusing, waste, etc., and types of structure,
construction scale, working conditions, or the like shall be considered.
1) Cutting
Natural ground often shows non-uniformity with reasons including that soil
property significantly differs depending on the extent of weathering and
cracking, cutting height, state of spring water, conditions of stratification,
water content, etc. Therefore, for designing gradient of slopes, investigations
should be in advance carried out for site conditions, state of existing slopes,
or the like, and then design specifications, for including cutting heights or
slope gradient suitable to each site condition, should be determined
referring to Table 3.36 or actual values in the past, etc. In this connection,
stability calculations shall be performed when specifically required. When
the cutting height is large, berms should be provided depending on the state
of soil character and the site conditions. As the sizes of berms, actual
examples in the past show that, many of them have berm width of 0.5 to 1.0
m for cutting height 5 m. In cases where rainwater can possibly scour or
slope failure, it is required to provide collecting/draining trenches along the
top of slopes and berms, so that surface water should escape.
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Table 3.36 Standard gradient of cutting slope Note 1)

Soil property of natural ground Cutting height Gradient
Hard rock 1 : 0.3 - 1 : 0.8
Soft rock 1 : 0.5 - 1 : 1.2
Sand Not dense and gradation distribution is bad 1 : 1.5 -
5 m or less 1 : 0.8 - 1 : 1.0
Dense (tight)
5 - 10 m 1 : 1.0 - 1 : 1.2
Sandy soil
5 m or less 1 : 1.0 - 1 : 1.2
Not dense (loose)
5 - 10 m 1 : 1.2 - 1 : 1.5
10 m or less 1 : 0.8 - 1 : 1.0
Pebbly soil, Dense or gradation distribution is good
gravel or 10 - 15 m 1 : 1.0 - 1 : 1.2
rock-lump mixed 10 m or less 1 : 1.0 - 1 : 1.2
sandy soil Not dense or gradation distribution is bad
10 - 15 m 1 : 1.2 - 1 : 1.5
Note 2)
Cohesive soil 10 m or less 1 : 0.8 - 1 : 1.2
5 m or less 1 : 1.0 - 1 : 1.2
Rock-lump or cobble stone mixed cohesive soil
5 - 10 m 1 : 1.2 - 1 : 1.5
Notes: 1. For the concept of the cutting height and gradient which is not a single
gradient due to soil configuration, refer to Fig. 3.38.
2. Silt is included in cohesive soil.
3. Soil properties other than the above will be considered separately.
1. Gradient does not include berm.

· 2. The cutting height to the
ha
gradient shall be the entire
hb upper cutting height from the
related cutting slope.
ha: Cutting height to slope a
hb: Cutting height to slope b
Fig. 3.38 Cutting height and gradient
2) Banking
For designing banking, studies are required as shown below.
(a) The type of banking shall be decided depending on structures of the open
channel, topographic features, presence or absence of soil to be reused,
balance of cut and banking, etc. Especially for lining canals where stability
of structures heavily depends on the banking conditions, it is required not
only to fill up good quality soil and compact it sufficiently so that rainwater
should not enter into the backside of linings, but also to carry out a careful
design. It includes securing necessary banking height and crest length with
considerations for maintenance at the top of the linings, etc.
136
(b) Good or poor quality of banking materials has great effect on ease or
difficulty of works, as well as on stability of the banking after completion. In
open channel construction, it is necessary to establish the most economical
earthwork plan as possible through studies including properly reuse the
materials, which have been developed through cutting, for banking
materials.
When it is difficult to obtain appropriate materials, note that it can be
another option to rethink the type of the structure. Suitability of banking
materials is judged depending on using positions, banking heights, banking
types, and working methods, etc.
(c) Gradients of banking slopes cannot be defined sweepingly as they depend
on the site topography, banking materials, banking methods, slope
protection methods, etc. Design specifications, for including banking heights
or gradients of banking slopes suitable to each site condition, should be
determined referring to Table 3.37 or actual values in the past. When
specifically required, stability calculations shall be performed to decide the
design specifications.
Table 3.37 Standard gradient of slope related to banking material and banking height
Banking
Banking material Gradient Notes
height
Sand with good gradation (S), pebble, and 5 m or less 1 : 1.5 - 1 : 1.8 Applied to the banking
fine-grain mixed pebble (G) 5 - 10 m 1 : 1.8 - 1 : 2.0 whose base ground
provides sufficient
Sand with bad gradation (SG) 10 m or less 1 : 1.8 - 1 : 2.0 bearing capacity that
10 m or less 1 : 1.5 - 1 : 1.8 will not be affected by
Rock lump (including muck) water exposure.
10 - 20 m 1 : 1.8 - 1 : 2.0
Unified classification in
Sandy soil (SF), hard viscous soil, hard clay 5 m or less 1 : 1.5 - 1 : 1.8 parentheses indicates a
(diluvium hard viscous soil, clay, Kanto loam, representative example.
etc.) 5 - 10 m 1 : 1.8 - 1 : 2.0
Volcanic cohesive soil (V) 5 m or less 1 : 1.8 - 1 : 2.0

Note: The banking height is a height difference between the top of slope and the toe of
slope.
3) Crest length
Crest lengths of both sides along cross-sectional area of flow shall be
decided through considering to secure the channel safety as a matter of
course, and also considering necessary width for maintenance and repair
works of the channel, cost effectiveness, etc. In some cases, the top is thus
designed to provide with functions as a maintenance road enabling to
inspect the channel or to operate gates, etc. When fences or guard rails are
set at the top or near the top of the channel, structural consideration is
137
required for the channel, and when a side drain or the like is placed, the
design should take the placing width for it into account.
3.4.2 Masonry Canal
(1) Outline for applications

A masonry canal is a type of canals where the wall body is independent from
the canal base, and the retaining wall itself acts a role for maintaining
stability against earth pressure from behind, water pressure, inner water
pressure, etc. For this canal, a large bearing capacity is necessary
comparing with flumes or others, and therefore in cases where the
foundation ground is soft, discussions are required on replacement with
good quality materials or foundation treatment including pile foundations
before making a decision for adopting or not adopting.
(2) Types of canal

The type of masonry canals is gravity type. Masonry canals are generally of
stone and mortar structures that act as earth retaining structures as well,
and are often used for drainage and irrigation canals, where wall heights are
less than 2 m.
(3) Structural designs

In structural designs for masonry canals, loads to be given shall be
determined conforming to " 3.3.4 Loads acting on open channels" and
member dimensions and stress intensity of each part of the canal structures
shall be studied, and also stability of the canal shall be discussed. Specific
descriptions of the studies are as follows.
1) Studies on overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity of the foundation
ground
The details are shown in "3.3.5 Stability analysis"
2) Joints
Joints are provided in response to structural and constructional necessity,
similarly as in the case of flumes.
3) Weep holes and underdrains
Weep holes and underdrains are placed for the purpose of lowering outside
water pressure that acts on canal sidewalls, as well as reducing the risk of
floating up of canals.
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3.4.3 Concrete Lining Canals
(1) Outline for applications

A concrete lining canal is a canal where concrete is used for a pavement
material. Concrete has higher resistance against corrosion than other
generally used materials, and is adaptable to comparatively large velocity.
Concrete linings, especially those designed and constructed favorably, have
small roughness, and are broadly applied. Since stability of canals of this
type depends on the stability of the foundation ground, the lining thickness
generally requires only the bare minimum. However, in cases including
where the groundwater level is high and amount of spring water is large, or
the foundation ground is unsuitable, the canal is structurally unstable and
consequently it is desirable to discuss on structures or to select other
construction method.
(2) Types of concrete lining canal

As representative types of concrete lining canal, there are concrete lining
canals and reinforced concrete lining canals.
1) Concrete lining canals
This is a canal where plain concrete is laid on gradient of slopes with lining
thickness of actual construction examples show 10 to 20cm. The following
matters should be taken into consideration for designing the canal.
(a) When a slope form is used in concrete placement, the lining bottom shall
have larger thickness than the specified value and be extruded for around
10 cm toward the base slab portion. When a slip form is used, the lining
bottom is sometimes provided with a shape of circular arc.
(b) In cases where the wall height is about 2.5 m or more, contraction joints
shall be provided at the position of 1/3 wall height from the base slab,
(c) Distance of contraction joints in the longitudinal direction shall be 3 to 4
m, and when slope length is especially large, closed joints or the like are
required to provide in the transversal direction with an appropriate distance,
(d) Since thin linings have limitations in capability for water sealing, it is
necessary in cases of sandy ground to take measures for water sealing by
using impermeable materials.
2) Reinforced concrete lining canals
This is such a canal that a concrete lining canal has its lining thickness
added where minimum reinforcing bars are arranged. This type is given
objectives for increasing resistance against uplift pressure to the lined
139
canals, strengthening durability for wear, and preventing most cracks as

possible caused by differential settlement or temperature changes, etc.
Other than these, there is a type using panels instead of cast-in-place
concrete. As a reference, many examples show that construction zones of
reinforced concrete lining canals are usually about 20m (about 5 panels)
upstream side and about 30m (about 8 panels) downstream side of water
level control weirs, about 8m (about 2 panels) at connection parts with other
kinds of work (flumes, tunnels, culverts, siphons, etc.) and about 4 m (about
1 panel) of each side of upstream and downstream of division works.
It is necessary to consider the following matters for designing reinforced
concrete lining canals:
(a) Descriptions on the inside cross-sections of canals are the same as of
concrete lining canals.
(b) Reinforcing bars of side slope lining portions and base slab portions in
the transversal direction of the canals shall be connected, but reinforcing
bars in each panel in the longitudinal direction shall be independent and
shall not be connected.
(3) Basement of linings

1) Banking
For basement of banking parts, surface soils shall be peeled away, garbage
or the like shall be removed, and proper materials shall be filled back, so
that the linings and the filling materials should come into intimate contact
with each other.
2) Cutting
In cases where some or all parts of the lining canal is placed after excavating
the foundation ground, the ground shall be properly treated through a
judgment whether the ground is appropriate or inappropriate. In cases of
unsuitable soil such as where slopes are not stable, designs shall be
performed through overall discussions on necessity of replacing banking,
conditions of groundwater, range of the unsuitable ground, and
presence/absence of banking materials, etc.
(4) Cross-sections of canals

The bottom width/depth ratio shall be determined through considering
hydraulic characteristics and cost efficiency. Many of actual
accomplishments so far take the values of the bottom width/depth ratio of
around 1:1 to 2:1. In general, when a large bottom width comparing to water
140
depth is taken, it makes mechanical earth works easy, and lowered slopes
enables to implement a cost efficient construction. In addition, slope
stability is improved since slope length is reduced. However, too large
bottom width may sometimes result in constraints from the canal site width
or facilities of others, etc.
(5) Gradient of slope

Gradient of slope of concrete lining canals shall be determined through
considering soil character, canal size, construction method, maintenance,
etc. In general, the values of grade fall into a range of 1:1 to 1:1.5.
1) Stability of concrete lining canals depend on stability of side slopes of the
canals performed by earth works. The gradient of slope shall be determined
considering nature of soil, canal size, construction method, extent of
compaction, distinction of cut or fill, slope height, rapid draw down of water
level, etc., so that earth pressure, which can lessen the slope stability
should not act on.
2) The following constraints can be named from an aspect of construction
works. In cases of long and wide canals where traveling forms such as slope
forms, slip forms or others are used, slump of concrete shall be
appropriately selected, and gradient of slopes shall be thus determined that
concrete slopes can be stable after placement.
(6) Thickness of linings

Thickness of linings shall be determined through studying the canal size,
purposes, degree of importance, and conditions of future maintenance, etc.
Generally, the value shall be around 10 cm as a standard. In cases of
including reinforced concrete lining canals or cold climates, or where canal
size is extraordinarily large, it shall be studied to increase the thickness, or
others.
(7) Weep holes and underdrains

Since canals with thin linings are structurally vulnerable to uplift pressure,
studies shall be pursued not only for the ordinary groundwater level but
also on countermeasures against floating up by raise of groundwater or the
like due to local severe rain, etc. In this connection, decompression of uplift
pressure shall be in principle performed by the weep hole method or the
underdrain method. However, these works are sometimes deteriorated with
141
time, and therefore it is desirable to give sufficient allowance of safety in

planning.
3.4.4 Unlined Canals
Unlined canals consist of unlined canals and protected canals. The former
are canals where the natural ground is simply excavated or dikes are simply
filled up on the natural ground, and the latter are canals where inner flow
portions are protected by turf, stabilizer or granular fill, etc.
(1) Outline of applications

Unlined canals are generally applied to drainage canals or the like where it
is not necessary to consider leakage prevention. It is favorable to make up a
safe and cost efficient design through sufficient studies on alignment of the
canal, longitudinal slope, cross-section and the like, so that the canal
should be a structure where mechanical stability is secured and where
scouring and erosion are not developed by water flow.
(2) Design of unlined canals

1) Alignment planning
It is desirable for the alignment to be as close as possible to a straight line,
and studies shall be carried out with the aim of providing with a minimum
number of curved sections. When a curved section is introduced due to
absolute necessity, the section shall be curved in a most gentle bend
possible so that energy by stream should not concentrate at a single position.
Alignment of curves shall be determined referring to the following values, in
response to the canal size, etc. For further details, see "3.1.7 Particulars to
be considered in Selection of Canal Route and Structures"
(a) Alignment of curves
Maximum degree of curvature θ = around 60 degrees
Minimum radius of curve R = around 10B
Where B is Canal width (m)
(b) In cases where curves are adopted, continuous curves shall be avoided
and a straight section with length of six times or more canal width shall be
placed in between curved sections.
2) Planning for longitudinal features
Planning for longitudinal features shall be decided based on soil properties
composing the canal, velocity or the like. It shall be ascertained that these
142
values are not different from those of nearby similar canals. When the
values are extensively different, they shall be appropriately revised
considering distribution of river discharge or the like of the nearby similar
canals. In cases of repair works for present state drainage canals or the like,
longitudinal slopes of the canals are often determined basing on the
longitudinal slope of the present state canals.
3) Planning for bed elevation of drainage canals
In planning for bed elevation of drainage canals, the lower elevation than the
ground level in question is planned, the more capability of the canal is
secured. On the other hand, the higher construction cost or the like is
required. Therefore, bed elevations shall be determined considering depth of
buried culverts for draining off the groundwater, access grade of field
drainage, and estimated settlement of the base plane, etc.
4) Cross-sections of canals
Cross-sections of canals differ depending on the respective canal size, but
generally in cases of canals where quantity of flow is small, bottom
width/depth ratio of around 2:1 is adopted. Where quantity of flow is large,
width/depth ratio of up to around 8:1 is applied. Inner gradient of slopes of
canals often takes values of around 1:1.5 to 1:2.5, and in cases where soil
character is especially of good quality and the canal size is small, inner
gradient of slopes shall be able to be steeper within a range where no trouble
occurs on the slope stability. In such cases, inner gradient of slopes are
sometimes as steep as around 1:0.8 to 1:1.1.
On the other hand, in cases of soft ground or large-sized canals, it is often
difficult to maintain slope stability, and careful studies are required for
adopting gentler gradient of slopes or other bank protection methods, after
grasping accurate geological features by soil tests. Canal size, purposes, site
conditions or the like shall be considered for determining cross-sections of
canals including gradient of slope of the canal. Table 3.38 shows general
values for gradient of slope by soil character. Studies on slope stability shall
also be carried out.
143
Table 3.38 Gradient of slopes of canals
5) Design velocity
Velocity is decided as a consequent of longitudinal slopes and cross-
sectional shapes of canals, and it is important to check whether the velocity
does not cause serious scouring against canals or whether mud does not
accumulate.
6) Cross-sections of watercourse and longitudinal slopes
It is desirable for cross-sections of watercourse (width, depth, cross-
sectional area of flow) and longitudinal slopes to have mostly certain
continuity from downstream to upstream direction. Also it shall be avoided
to provide narrow sections where cross-sectional area of flow is significantly
narrowed comparing with neighboring sections ahead and behind, or where
the water level is swelled up.
7) Revetment planning
It shall be studied to perform linings or reinforcement for revetments of
canals considering nature of soil, safety, maintenance, etc. In cases of
drainage canals, banks are sometimes protected or reinforced by concrete
retaining walls, concrete block masonry works, prefabricated concrete
products, sheet-piles, linings or the like, considering importance of the canal,
ease of maintenance works, and advantages of reducing cross-sectional area
brought about by making canals compound cross-sectional, etc. In such
cases, ranges of bank protection are usually and often set as high as water
levels corresponding to one-year or two-year probable discharge. In cases of
unlined canals, economy, effects, shapes of watercourse, placement of
structures or others shall be studied, and sometimes partial revetment are
required for water colliding areas or neighboring portions of structures, etc.
144
3.4.5 Drops
(1) General description

In the design of the canal system, when an excess head is present in spite of
the appropriate distribution of the longitudinal slope of the canal and the
appropriate selection of route, drops are installed in the canal. It adjusts the
head, ensure the safety of the canal, and make the best use of functions of
the entire canal system.
Generally, locations and types of drops are selected according to topographic
features and other locational conditions. It is desirable that drops be stable
and do not inhibit functions of the canal and be planned and designed by
fully considering the economic efficiency of the entire canal system. A drop
is a structural designed to adjust the heads of streams by means of steps
and an energy dissipater. In some cases, drops may vibrate due to impact
resulting from the adjustment of high heads; therefore, bearing capacity to
withstand the impact as well as safety must be ensured. In addition, when
drops are planned in the urban area and its vicinity, noise, vibration, and
splash must be considered and studied.
(2) The type of drop works

The water-cushion type drop works is one of the types of drop works and
consists of an inlet canal, which is normally a transition section from an
upstream canal, outfall, water cushion section for energy dissipation, and
an outlet canal for a downstream canal. In this type of drop works, vertical
steps are made just below the outfall and energy is dissipated by the impact
resulting from falling water clashing into a water cushion and disturbance
in the water cushion. When vibration, noise or splash does not have
limitation, this type can be adopted.
Fig. 3.39 Example of water cushion type drop works
145
(3) Design
1) General description
(a) When designing drop works, it is necessary to consider the prevention of
inconvenient swell-head or drop down into the upstream canal as well as the
prevention of disturbed flow caused by insufficient energy dissipation in the
downstream canal.
(b) When installing drop works in an irrigation canal, a complete drop
should be designed since design discharge has been determined. When
incomplete drop or submerged flow occurs due to the influence of swell-head
backwater in the escape channel at the end stream portion of the drainage
canal and dual-purpose canals, design must be carried out to cope with
stationary waves appearing in the downstream canal.
(c) The water level of the boundary area between an area with complete drop
and an area with incomplete drop can be estimated by Equation (F. 3.71).
………………………..(F. 3.71)
Where h2: Water depth in the cross-section of the downstream canal (m)
hc: Critical depth in the cross-section of the upstream canal (m)
hf: Step difference between upstream and downstream canals (m)
B1: Width of upstream canal (m)
B2: Width of downstream canal (m)
To obtain a value of h2 by using Equation (F. 3.71), a provisional calculation

method for estimating h2 is used. Calculation is easy by estimating (hf + hc)
as first h2.
(d) When the amount of discharge is not equal to a design discharge,
incomplete overflow occurs to the drop works, generating wavy flow and
decreasing the water level of upstream and downstream canals.
Consequently, functions of the division works deteriorate causing
unfavorable distribution of river discharges to occur in some cases.
Accordingly, it is desirable that distribution of river discharges be
researched in regards to the amount of discharge not equal to a design
discharge; for example, most frequent discharge in the irrigation canal and
the discharge for low-level revetment in the drainage canal.
(e) In the drop works, negative pressure is generated on the back side of the
falling water vein, causing the water vein to vibrate. And, because low-
frequency noise problems may occur, it is necessary to install a pipe to
supply air to the back side of the falling water vein or a spoiler to cut the
water vein.
146
2) Upstream canal
The necessary length of the upstream canal of the drop works must be
ensured so that the side slopes and the bottom of the canal will not be
eroded or scoured due to the increase in flow velocity resulting from the
lowering of water surface. It is desirable that the length of the upstream
canal be obtained by backwater calculation, however, usually it is obtained
by using Equation (F. 3.72), Equation (F. 3.73), and Equation (F. 3.74). With
regard to a length longer than the above value, necessary measures should
be taken.
………………………….(F. 3.72)
………………………….(F. 3.73)
…………………………(F. 3.74)
Where
L: Length of upstream canal (m)
Q: Discharge (m3/S)
q: Discharge per unit width (m3 · s−1 · m−1)
z: Water level difference between upstream and downstream (m)
In the case of q>2, the value obtained by Equation (F. 3.73) or the value
obtained by Equation (F. 3.74), whichever is larger is used. When the
upstream canal is a three-side concrete lined canal, it is not necessary to
consider the upstream canal.
3) Outfall
(a) Shape
The cross-section of the outfall sally be basically rectangular in order to
equalize the flow condition in the canal’s cross-section to perfect the
functions of the energy dissipater. However, in the drainage canal, there
are many examples in which the cross-section of the outfall is trapezoidal
as is the same as in the upstream canal. Furthermore, with respect to the
flow just below the outfall, sufficient air should be supplied to the bottom
surface of the falling water vein. In order to prevent hydraulic influences on
the upstream canal associated with lowering of water surface at the drop
works outfall, measures should be taken for the drop works outfall; for
example, narrowing the width, increasing the bed height, or narrowing the
width and increasing the bed height. From the view point of safety of canal’s
functions, when planning to install drop works in the drainage canal, it is
147
desirable that the cross-section of the outfall be the same shape as that of
the upstream canal instead of narrowing the width of the outfall or raising
the height of the head.
(b) Value of the water depth at the outfall
If the head is raised at least 0.3 times the critical depth, the water depth hb
at the outfall is supposed to be equal to the critical depth hc. Furthermore,
at the outfall having a rectangular cross-section in which the head is not
raised, hb/hc is considered to be nearly 0.72. Furthermore, at the outfall
having a trapezoidal cross-section in which the head is not raised, the ratio
hb/hc, of outfall water depth hb to critical depth hc is considered to be nearly
0.72 from a practical view point.
(c) Critical depth
In a rectangular section, the critical depth can be expressed by using
Equation (F. 3.13). Refer to 3.2.4(2) for the detail.
4) Shape of falling water vein and energy dissipater
The design method is as described below. A water-cushion type energy
dissipater is designed such that a water vein comes in contact with a
downstream water-cushion and disturbed, thereby dissipating energy.
Generally, the water-cushion type energy dissipater is adopted when
sufficient depth of downstream water is available with respect to the depth
of hydraulic jump of the virtual falling water vein.
(a) Shape of water vein (hydraulic characteristics until immediately before
encounter)
The track of falling water vein, angle of inclination, velocity, and thickness of
water vein can be expressed by using Equation (F. 3.75) to Equation (F.
3.80).
a) Track of the center of water vein

Without afflux x/H = 1.477 {(y/H) + 0.242}0.567 .................................................(F. 3.75)
With afflux x/H = 1.155 {(y/H) + 0.333}0.500 ..................................................(F. 3.76)
However, "with afflux" means the condition in which the head is raised
about 0.3 times the critical depth.
b) Inclination angle of water vein

Without afflux tanθ = 0.866 (x/H)0.763 .....................................................................(F. 3.77)
With afflux tanθ = 1.500 (x/H) ........................................................................(F. 3.78)
148
c) Velocity at the center of water vein

V = 2g ⋅ z .........................................................................................................(F. 3.79)
d) Thickness of water vein

d = Q / (B ⋅ V) …………………………………………………….……………(F. 3.80)
Where
H: Specific energy at the critical depth of upstream canal
(however, H=1.5 hc) (m)
h c: Critical depth of upstream canal (outfall) (m)
x: Horizontal distance measured downward from the outfall’s
downstream end (m)
y: Vertical distance measured downward from the outfall’s downstream
end (m)
θ: Inclination angle of water vein’s center line at arbitrary point (x, y) (°)
V: Velocity (m/s)
g: Gravity acceleration 9.8 (m/s2)
z: Head from energy line to the center of water vein (m)
d: Thickness of falling water vein (m)
Q: Discharge (m3/s)
B: Width of outfall (m)
Fig. 3.40 Explanatory drawing of falling water vein (free drop)
(b) Flow velocity of downward water vein in the water cushion

The relation among flow velocity Vmax at an arbitrary point in the penetration
direction which is on the extension of the center entry angle of falling water
vein, water vein center penetration velocity V, penetration distance S, and
thickness d of water vein at the penetration point is expressed by Equation
(F. 3.81) and Equation (F. 3.82).
In the case of S ≤ 5.82d Vmax = V ……………………(F. 3.81)
In the case of S > 5.82d Vmax / V = 2.41 / S / d ……………………(F. 3.82)
149
Where
Vmax: Flow velocity at an arbitrary point in the penetration direction which is
on the extension of the center entry angle of falling water vein (m/s)
V : Water vein center penetration velocity (m/s)
S : Penetration distance (m)
D : Thickness d of water vein at the penetration point (m)
(c) Length of the water cushion (L0)
Length L0 of the water cushion is based on the horizontal distance L which
is from the outfall section of the falling water vein to the location at which
the central portion of water vein comes in contact with the bottom of the
water cushion. And, when the width B0 of the water cushion is wider than
the width of the upstream canal, L0 ≥ 2.5L; and when the width B0 of the
water cushion is equal to the width of the downstream canal, L0 ≥ 3.0L.
Fig. 3.41 Explanatory drawing of falling water diffusion in the water cushion
To provide appropriate depth hD and width B0 of the water cushion and

sufficiently dissipate energy in the water cushion, Equation (F. 3.83) for the
hydrostatic pressure P at the end of the water cushion must be satisfied.
However, the width of the water cushion shall be within twice the outfall. If
Equation (F. 3.83) is not satisfied, values of depth hD and width B0 of the
water cushion should be revised, and calculation should be repeated.
P > 3M .........................................................................................................(F. 3.83)

Where
P: Hydrostatic pressure at the end of the water cushion

(=γw • B0 • Hn2 / 2) (kN)
M: Percentage (Force) of momentum change per unit time (γw • Q • Vm / g)
(kN) at a location at which a falling water vein reaches the bottom of
the water cushion
γw: Unit volume weight of water (kN/m3)
150
Q: Discharge (m3/s)
Hn: Water depth at the end of the water cushion ( ≈ hD+h2+V22/2g )
Vm: Velocity at the time a falling water vein reaches the bottom of the
water cushion (m/s)
5) Ruffle in the case of incomplete drop

(a) Attenuation of center velocity in the downstream canal
In the case of incomplete drop, the maximum flow velocity exists near the
water surface of the downstream canal; therefore, the water cushion does
not influence dissipation effect. Maximum velocity hardly attenuates within
the range 8 to 10 times the water depth at the outfall and shows the value
equal to the mean velocity at the outfall. For this reason, in the drop with a
downstream canal, it is desirable that the start point of the canal be located
at the location at least 8 times the critical depth hc of the upstream canal
downward from the outfall intended for design discharge flow. The splay
angle of the downstream canal is equal to or less than 12°30'.
(b) Ruffle in the downstream canal
Stationary waves occur in the downstream canal in the state of incomplete
drop, and the wave height gradually smaller than that of the first wave. The
approximate value of ratio Wa1/hc between the wave height Wa1 of the first
wave and the critical depth hc of the upstream canal is 0.6. Accordingly, it
can be estimated that the water depth of the downstream canal is higher by
0.3 which is a half of the value 0.6. Furthermore, when the Froude number
of the downstream canal is equal to or less than 0.2, distance L at which
ruffle finishes is nearly 30 times the critical depth of the upstream canal.
Thus, in cases in which there is a possibility that side slopes of the
downstream canal connected to the drop may be scoured, installation of
revetment must be considered in the range where L/hc is up to 30.
Where
Q: Discharge (m3/s)
hf : Height of head (m)
h c: Critical depth (m)
H2: Water depth of downstream
canal (m)
Wa1: Height of first wave (m)
Wa2: Height of second wave (m)
Fig. 3.42
Explanatory drawing of height
of waves near the outfall
151
6) Downstream canal
Specifications of the shape of the transition section connecting the energy
dissipater to the downstream canal must be determined so that flow velocity
does not change rapidly and irregular flows and waves will not occur on the
downstream water surface. It is desirable that the splay angle be kept 12°30'
on the water surface and the gradient of the bottom of the canal be more
moderate than 1:4. Furthermore, in order to cope with remaining turbulence
of flow and vortex, in some cases, protective structure is additionally
installed downstream the approach canal. When the canal connected to
downstream of the drop works is an unlined canal, it is desirable that the
length of the protective structure in the downstream canal be as long as the
length of the water cushion.
7) Design of construction joint

In the event sidewalls and the bottom slab are moved and deformed due to
the joint, careful attention should be taken because the structures may
block the stream thereby adversely affecting the drop body. Furthermore, it
is necessary to take measures to prevent such displacement when designing
the drop works. Moreover, as a reference, Fig. 3.43 shows the joint structure
commonly used. As shown in Fig. 3.43 (a), the bottom slab is fixed to a cut-
off wall on the upstream side. Furthermore, structures of the vertical step
wall of the small-scale drop works and the bottom slab of the upstream
transition section shall be as shown in Fig. 3.43 (b), and the bottom slab of
the transition section shall be a simply supporting structure. This is
because of the prevention of cracking on the wall due to settlement since
this section becomes a banking portion resulting from excavation. When the
thickness of pavement of the canal is thin, the projecting portion of
downstream concrete is inserted under the upstream end as shown in Fig.
3.43 (c) so as to prevent the downstream block from being lifted by the
inflow. Quality of concrete poured on the slope must be fully controlled so
that expected effects can be obtained as designed.
Fig. 3.43 Joint structure
152
3.4.6 Division Boxes
(1) General description

When installing division boxes, it is necessary to plan the division boxes
with prescribed functions based on the irrigation network studied in
designing the canal system, scrap-and-build plan for division boxes, and the
diversion plan and its arrangement of route system, which consider the local
irrigation custom and the will of the community. Accordingly, before
designing a facility, design consideration points based on the canal system
must be confirmed; for example, water supply plan, water management
system, type of division box considering the canal type, scale, and the
number of facilities. To select the installation location, the following matters
should be considered from the viewpoint of maintenance, management and
structural design.
1) The location shall be on the good ground,
2) The location shall be near the irrigated area and convenient for the
maintenance and management of the division boxes,
3) High banking or deep cutting shall be avoided as much as possible,
4) The location where there is no possibility of the occurrence of disaster,
5) The location at which construction can be executed easily,
6) The location where water flow is stabilized,
7) The location where necessary head can be ensured.
(2) Consideration points for designing division boxes

When designing division boxes, it is desirable that the following matters be
considered.
1) The structure shall be rigid, accurate, and durable,
2) The costs of facility, maintenance and management shall be economical,
3) Division boxes shall not cause hydraulic state of upstream and
downstream to change significantly,
4) Although division boxes are designed based on the design discharge, the
amount of discharge other than the design discharge, such as most frequent
discharge, minimum discharge, etc., shall be considered according to the
functions and purpose of each division box.
5) Head loss for diversion shall be minimized and easily regulated from the
viewpoint of maintenance and management.
153
6) Functions of pressure regulation, elimination of air, settling basin, and

spillways can be provided for division boxes with free surface. Therefore,
head distribution and dual-purpose function shall be considered,
7) Depending on the selection of valves used for division boxes, large water
hammer pressure occurs causing the barrel to break. Accordingly, valve
opening/closing velocity shall be also considered,
8) Scale of the division box stand shall be determined by considering water
surface vibration by surging and ensuring the seal of pipelines.
(3) Design
1) Water-gate type division boxes
Coefficients of discharge of water gate outflow differ significantly according
to the type of water gate. Furthermore, according to the condition of flow,
outflow from the water gate can be classified into two types as shown in Fig.
3.44: (a) and (b). These are (a) free outflow (an outflow water vein from the
water gate is a supercritical flow and continues into downstream flow
by hydraulic jump); and (b) submerged outflow (an outflow water vein is
submerged under the downstream water surface). Various equations have
been proposed to obtain the amount of discharge from the water gate.
However, this guideline uses Equation (F. 3.84) which can be applied to both
the free outflow and the submerged outflow.
Fig. 3.44 Water gate Fig. 3.45 Coefficient of discharge

Ca at water gate
Equation (F. 3.84) is Henry’s experimental equation at the flap gate, and the
relation between coefficient of discharge Ca and h1/d, h2/d is as shown in
Fig. 3.45.
Q = Ca · b · d 2g ·h1 ......................................................................................(F. 3.84)
154

C a: Coefficient of discharge obtained from Fig. 3.45
b, d: Inner space width and opening height of gate (m)
h 1: Water depth upstream of gate (m)
h2 : Water depth downstream of gate (m)
C c: Coefficients of contraction
On the other hand, when obtaining an opening of gate or water depth

upstream or downstream of the gate, Equation (F. 3.84) is not convenient;
therefore, in those cases, Equation (F. 3.85) and Equation (F. 3.86) can be
used. Moreover, because results vary greatly due to coefficients of
discharge in Equation (F. 3.85) and Equation (F. 3.86), in some cases,
revision may be necessary by obtaining actual measurements after
completion.
In the case of free outflow
Q = C1 · b · d 2g (h1 − d) …………………………………. (F. 3.85)
In the case of submerged outflow
Q = C2 · b · d 2g (h1 − h2) …………………………………. (F. 3.86)

C1, C2: Coefficient of discharge; between 0.62 and 0.66 when h1/d > 2.5 according to Yokota
b, d: Inner space width and opening height of gate (m)
h1: Water depth of main canal (upstream of gate) (m)
h2: Water depth of diversion channel (downstream of gate) (m)
2) Sluice-pipe type division works

When water flow is diverted from the main canal through pipe, discharge
can be obtained by Equation (F. 3.87).
……………………………….(F. 3.87)
3
Where Q: Discharge (m /s)
A: Cross-sectional area of flow of diversion pipe (m2)
fe : Inflow loss coefficient (Table 3.39)
f: Pipe’s friction loss coefficient f = 124.5n2 / D1/3
n: Coefficient of roughness of diversion pipe
L: Length of diversion pipe (m)
155
D: Diameter of diversion pipe (m)

h: Difference between main canal’s water level and sluice-pipe outlet’s
water level (m)
fo : Outflow loss coefficient (f0 = 1.0)
As shown in Fig. 3.46, when a diversion pipe is directly mounted to the

sidewall of the main canal to divert water to the diversion channel, inflow
loss coefficient fe is as shown in Table 3.39.
Fig. 3.46 Shape of sluice-pipe type division work
Table 3.39 Loss coefficient (fe) of sluice-pipe type division work due to inflow
1.5/m0.5
156
4. Check list for canal

Check list is one of the effective methods to prevent oversight and mistake and to
easily understand the condition of design. At the present’s situation, some of
investigation and design can’t be done, because of the problem of cost and
equipment. These necessary matters are done during construction time. So it is
not necessary to check the entire item before construction. But there are
necessary item that should be checked at construction time. So check list is
made separately one for before construction, another for at construction time.
Format of check list is next page. When the answer is “yes”, check into □. And fill
the necessary information. Some of the item is not necessary according to the
situation of each project.
157
Check list for canal before construction (1/3 )

Item Contents Check Remark
Survey
Topographic survey □
Km
section
Longitudinal (canal route) survey □
Cross-section survey □
Survey for temporary works □
Collection of topographic map □

Design intake water level
There is consideration for irrigation area □
There is consideration for protecting flowing
□
in sediment.
Condition of canal How to investigate

(foundation, side wall)
Drilling □
Test pitting □
Observation □
Bearing test by standard penetration test □
Bearing test by Loading test □
Investigation on river deposit □
Ground water investigation □

Dikes, Bridge and other Data is collected
□
structures
Present condition of river Data is collected
□
water utilization
158
Check list for canal before construction (2/3 )

Investigation for
Meteorology □
construction works
Surface water
□
Ground water
□
Construction equipment
□
Construction material(cement)
□
Construction material(gravel)
□
Construction material(sand)
□
Construction material(stone for masonry)
□
Transportation
□
Electric
□
Other
Environmental impact assessment □
Type of canal
Earthen type □
Masonry type
□
Lining (concrete) type
□
Design discharge
There is ground data and document □
159
Check list for canal before construction (3/3)

Velocity
The velocity is more than minimum □
allowable velocity
The velocity is less than maximum allowable

velocity □
Canal side wall stability
Overturning ok □
Sliding ok
□
Settlement ok
□
Stress ok
□
Gate
There is consideration for not bending □
There is consideration for operation by
human □
Wing wall
It has enough height □
It has enough stability □

Settling basin The design is done by guideline
□
Spill way
□
160
5. EXAMPLE OF DESIGN FOR CANAL AND RELATED STRUCTURES
This Chapter shows an example of crucial data and calculation for basic
design of canal and related structures. In case of actual design, designer
must follow the contents of this Chapter.
5.1 Design of Canal
5.1.1 Basic Data for Design of Canal
(1) Data from surveyor

- Topographic map, cross-section, longitudinal-section (canal profile)
- The highest elevation of the irrigation area (starting point of irrigation area)
= EL.2420.5m
- Canal length from starting point of canal to starting point of irrigation area
(the highest elevation of the irrigation area) = 1300m
※This data is an assumption value at first
- Canal slope = 1/1000 (Lined canal), 2/1000 (Earthen canal)
※This data is an assumption value at first
(2) Data from hydrologist

- The amount of usable water for irrigation = 63 l/s
(Comparison with Agronomist’s data)
(3)Data from Agronomist

- The crop water requirement = 63 l/s
(Comparison with Hydrologist’s data)
(4) Data from geologist

- The geological condition on the canal route
Minimum Depth
Chain-
Geology Topography Expected risk from surface to
age
hard rock
0+00 to Porous soil with Flat and stable Water loss due to leakage 3.0m
0+100 soft rock and slope
boulder stones
0+100 to Slightly soft rock Stable slope Difficulty of excavation 1.2m
0+200 But at 0+100 this rock
need deep cut
161
0+200 to Soil underlain by Stable slope Water loss due to leakage 1.0m
0+325 highly weathered and Flat problem
rock
0+325 to Hard Ignimbrite Steep slope Seepage and canal breach 0.3m
0+381 rock if earthen canal assumed
0+381 to Partly soil and steep slope Piping failure at soil and Unmeasured
0+500 Partly soft rock rock interface if Earthen
canal assumed
0+500 to Thick soil Flat and Stable Seepage problem if Unmeasured
0+700 slope Earthen canal assumed
0+700 to partly soft rock Steep Slope Leakage problem due to 0.2m
1+000 and thick soil weathered rock
partly Highly
Weathered Tuff
and Ash rock
1+000 to Porous soil and Steep slope Leakage problem if canal Unmeasured
1+280 partly weathered is Earthen
Tuff and ash
1+280 to Water tight dark Stable and flat No expected risk so Unmeasured
2+400 heavy clay slope Earthen canal is possible
onset
with
command
5.1.2 Canal Condition (Chapter3.1)
Based on 5.1.1, the canal condition will be assumed as follows;
Type of canal Place Length Discharge Slope

(m) (m3/s)
Retaining wall canal 0m -1280m 1280 0.063 1/1000 =
(Masonry) or Berm 0.001
canal
Earthen canal (Clay 1280m - 1120 0.063 2/1000 =
soil) or Berm canal 2400m 0.002
162
5.1.3 Canal Shape

(Chapter 3.2.2, 3.2.3, 3.3.2, 3.3.3, 3.3.4, 3.3.5, 3.4.1, 3.4.4)
(1) Hydraulic design ….. (See Chapter 3.2.2, 3.2.3)

Based on 5.1.2 and according to the Chapter 3.2.2 and 3.2.3, the allowable
velocity and coefficient of roughness is as follows;
Type of Place Length Discharge Slope Minimum Maximum Coefficient

canal (m) (m3/s) allowable allowable of
velocity velocity Roughness
(m/s) (m/s)
Retaining 0m - 1280 0.063 1/1000 0.45 1.5* 0.015
wall canal 1280m =0.001 (Concrete
(cast-in place
(Masonry) flume,
culvert, etc.))
Earthen 1280m 1120 0.063 1/500 0.45 1.0 0.025
canal - =0.002 (Clay) (Earthen canals,
curved and non-
(Clay soil) 2400m uniform (No
vegetation
coverage))
* : Maximum allowable velocity for Retaining wall canal (Masonry) is 1.5m/s
as thin concrete (approximately10cm). Because there is plastering on the
surface of canal.
And it is known that the stable water surface can be expected at least if the
velocity is equal to or less than approximately two-thirds of the critical
velocity (Froude number: 0.54) under identical discharge condition. ……
(See 3.2.2(4))
Fr = v / √ (g × h) < 0.54
(2) Cross-section form …… (See 3.4.1(1), 3.4.4(2)4))

According to Chapter 3.4.1(1), hydraulically favorable cross-section is
decided by the following formula,
B = 2H × tan(θ/2)
And the case of unlined canal, according to Chapter 3.4.4(2)4) Table 3.3.38,
the slope of canal is decided.
163
Table 3.38
(3) Canal freeboard …… (See 3.4.1(2))

1) In case of normal canal (Fr = v/√gh ≤ 1)
Canal freeboard is decided by the following formula and Fig. 3.36 in 3.4.1(2),
(a) Retaining wall canals (flumes, retaining wall canals (masonry), box
culverts, ready-made product canals, etc.)
Fb = 0.07d + β × hv + hw
(b) Non-lining canals and lining canals by concrete

Fb = 0.05d + β × hv + hw
2) In case of supercritical or rapid flow canal (Fr = v/√gh > 1)

Canal freeboard is decided by the following formula,
Fb = C × Vh1/2
Fb = 0.6 + 0.037 × Vh1/3
There is a range at the length of freeboard calculated above formula, so

freeboard is decided based on the actual site condition.
(4) Calculation on canal shape

Based on (1)～(3) above, canal shape is decided.
The check points are as follows,
1) Minimum and maximum allowable velocity

2) Froude number
3) Cross-section form
4) Canal freeboard
Refer to Excel format guide 1 for the calculation.
164
Excel format guide 1. Canal size (non‐lining and lining canal) ※In the case of normal slope canal : Fr < 1
#Please input data into yellow cell.
#The input data of green cell is the value assumed yourself. (Goal seek "By changing cell")
#Blue cell is the "set sell" for Goal seek. "to value" = Qd value
1. Consideration of B and h of canal
(1)Design discharge (Qd) = 0.063 m3/s
(2)Coefficient of Roughness (n) = 0.025
(3)Slope of canal (I) = 0.002 When check point ① and ② is OK, compare
(4)Side slope of wall (m) = 1: 1 = 0.79 rad with canal width B and ③, and select B
(5)Minimum allowable velocity (V min) = 0.45 m/s which is near value with ③
(6)Maximum allowable velocity (V max) = 1.0 m/s
This value is assumption
↓ ↓Goal seek "By changing cell" ↓Goal seek ("set sell". "to value" = Qd value)
Canal Water Water Wetted Hydraulic Discharge Check points
Velocity
width depth area Perimeter radius (Goal seek) ①Velocity ②Froude number ③Recommendation Result
B(m) h(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) V(m/s) Q(m3/s) 0.45 <V< 1.0 Fr Fr<0.54 B=2h*tan(θ/2)
0.100 0.321 0.135 1.009 0.134 0.469 0.063 OK 0.149 OK 1.547
0.150 0.299 0.135 0.997 0.135 0.471 0.063 OK 0.160 OK 1.443 Select
0.200 0.279 0.134 0.989 0.135 0.471 0.063 OK 0.172 OK 1.344
0.250 0.263 0.135 0.995 0.136 0.473 0.064 OK 0.183 OK 1.269
0.300 0.246 0.134 0.995 0.135 0.470 0.063 OK 0.195 OK 1.184
0.350 0.233 0.136 1.009 0.135 0.470 0.064 OK 0.206 OK 1.123
0.400 0.219 0.135 1.019 0.133 0.466 0.063 OK 0.217 OK 1.054
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! 0.000
2. Freebard of canal (check point ④)
(1)Form of canal (α) = 0.05 Retaining wall canals : 0.07
(flumes, retaining wall canals, box culverts, ready‐made product canals, etc.)
Non‐lining canals and lining canals : 0.05
(2)Conversion factor from velocity head to static head (β) = 1.0
(3)Freeboard for water surface vibration (hw) = 0.15 ↓Goal seek ("set cell")
↓Goal seek "By changing cell" ( "to value" = 1.2*Design discharge(a) value)
Calculation of freebard Confirmation of the case of 1.2*Qd Result of
confirmation
Necessary 1.2*Design 1.2*Design
Canal Water Velocity Water Water Wetted Hydraulic (compare with
velocity Freeboard canal discharge Velocity discharge
width depth head depth area Perimeter radius (b) "Necessary canal
height (a)
height" and "Water
depth")
B(m) d(m) V(m/s) hv(m) Fb(m) (m) (m3/s) d'(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) V(m/s) (m3/s)
0.100 0.321 0.469 0.011 0.177 0.498 0.0756 0.345 0.154 1.077 0.143 0.489 0.0752 OK
0.150 0.299 0.471 0.011 0.176 0.476 0.0756 0.324 0.153 1.065 0.144 0.491 0.0753 OK
0.200 0.279 0.471 0.011 0.175 0.454 0.0756 0.304 0.153 1.059 0.144 0.493 0.0754 OK
0.250 0.263 0.473 0.011 0.175 0.438 0.0756 0.286 0.153 1.058 0.145 0.493 0.0755 OK
0.300 0.246 0.470 0.011 0.174 0.419 0.0756 0.271 0.155 1.067 0.145 0.494 0.0765 OK
0.350 0.233 0.470 0.011 0.173 0.406 0.0756 0.256 0.155 1.073 0.144 0.492 0.0762 OK
0.400 0.219 0.466 0.011 0.172 0.391 0.0756 0.241 0.155 1.082 0.143 0.489 0.0757 OK
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! 0.0756 0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
165
Excel format guide 1. Canal size (retainig wall canal) ※ In the case of normal slope canal : Fr < 1
(3)Slope ofcanal (I) = 0.001 When check point ① and ② is OK, compare
(4)Side slope of wall (m) = 1: 0 = 1.57 rad with canal width B and ③, and select B which
(5)Minimum allowable velocity (V min) = 0.45 m/s is near value with ③
(6)Maximum allowable velocity (V max) = 1.5 m/s
↓ ↓Goal seek "By changing cell" ↓Goal seek ("set cell". "to value" = Qd value)
Canal Water Water Wetted Hydraulic Discharge Check points
Velocity
width depth area Perimeter radius (Goal seek) ①Velocity ②Froude number ③Recommendation Result
B(m) h(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) V(m/s) Q(m3/s) 0.45 <V< 1.5 Fr Fr<0.54 B=2h*tan(θ/2)
0.300 0.431 0.129 1.163 0.111 0.488 0.063 OK 0.115 OK 0.862
0.350 0.358 0.125 1.067 0.118 0.506 0.063 OK 0.144 OK 0.716
0.400 0.307 0.123 1.013 0.121 0.516 0.063 OK 0.172 OK 0.613
0.450 0.270 0.121 0.989 0.123 0.520 0.063 OK 0.197 OK 0.539
0.500 0.243 0.121 0.986 0.123 0.522 0.063 OK 0.219 OK 0.485 Select
0.550 0.221 0.121 0.991 0.122 0.520 0.063 OK 0.240 OK 0.441
0.600 0.202 0.121 1.004 0.121 0.515 0.062 OK 0.260 OK 0.404
2. Freebard of canal (check point ④)
(1)Form of canal (α) = 0.07 Retaining wall canals : 0.07
(flumes, retaining wall canals, box culverts, ready‐made product canals, etc.)
Non‐lining canals and lining canals : 0.05
(2)Conversion factor from velocity head to static head (β) = 1.0
(3)Freeboard for water surface vibration (hw) = 0.15 ↓Goal seek ("set cell")
↓Goal seek "By changing cell" ( "to value" = 1.2*Design discharge(a) value)
Calculation of freebard Confirmation of the case of 1.2*Qd Result of
confirmation
Necessary 1.2*Design 1.2*Design
Canal Water Velocity Water Water Wetted Hydraulic (compare with
velocity Freeboard canal discharge Velocity discharge
width depth head depth area Perimeter radius (b) "Necessary canal
height (a)
height" and "Water
depth")
B(m) d(m) V(m/s) hv(m) Fb(m) (m) (m3/s) d'(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) V(m/s) (m3/s)
0.300 0.431 0.488 0.012 0.192 0.624 0.0756 0.505 0.152 1.310 0.116 0.500 0.0759 OK
0.350 0.358 0.506 0.013 0.188 0.547 0.0756 0.414 0.145 1.179 0.123 0.522 0.0757 OK
0.400 0.307 0.516 0.014 0.185 0.492 0.0756 0.355 0.142 1.110 0.128 0.535 0.0761 OK
0.450 0.270 0.520 0.014 0.183 0.452 0.0756 0.311 0.140 1.072 0.131 0.542 0.0759 OK
0.500 0.243 0.522 0.014 0.181 0.424 0.0756 0.278 0.139 1.055 0.132 0.545 0.0757 OK
0.550 0.221 0.520 0.014 0.179 0.400 0.0756 0.252 0.139 1.054 0.132 0.545 0.0756 OK
0.600 0.202 0.515 0.014 0.178 0.380 0.0756 0.232 0.139 1.064 0.131 0.543 0.0757 OK
166
Excel format guide 1. Canal size (supercritical or rapid flow canal ) ※In the case of steep slope canal : Fr > 1
When check point ① is OK and ② is
(3)Slope ofcanal (I) = 0.07
greater than 1, compare with canal
(4)Side slope of wall (m) = 1: 1 = 0.79 rad
width B and ③, and select B which is
(5)Minimum allowable velocity (V min ) = 0.45 m/s near value with ③
(6)Maximum allowable velocity (V max) = 2.25 m/s (t=14cm)
↓ ↓Goal seek "By changing cell" ↓Goal seek ("set cell". "to value" = Qd)
Canal Water Water Wetted Discharge Check points
Hydraulic radius Velocity
width depth area Perimeter (Goal seek) ①Velocity ②Froude number ③Recommendation Result
B(m) h(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) V(m/s) Q(m3/s) 0.45 <V< 2.25 Fr B=2h*tan(θ/2)
0.400 0.059 0.027 0.567 0.048 2.323 0.063 NG 4.015 0.284
0.450 0.055 0.028 0.606 0.046 2.265 0.063 NG 4.187 0.266
0.500 0.052 0.029 0.647 0.044 2.208 0.063 OK 4.341 0.250 Select
0.550 0.049 0.029 0.689 0.043 2.153 0.063 OK 4.481 0.236
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! 0.000
2. Freebard of canal (ckeck point④)
①Cofficient (C) = 0.13 Rectangular canal : 0.1
Trapezoidal canal : 0.13
Canal Water velocity Freeboard

width depth
1/2
Fb=CVh Fb=0.6+0.037Vh1/3
B(m) h(m) V(m/s) Fb(m) Fb(m)
0.400 0.059 2.323 0.073 0.633
0.450 0.055 2.265 0.069 0.632
0.500 0.052 2.208 0.065 0.630
0.550 0.049 2.153 0.062 0.629
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
0.000 0.000 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!
167
The result of calculation and check above four points, the proper canal
cross-section is below.
Type of Discharge Slope Coefficient Canal Water Side Velocity Free Necessary Design Hard Lean
canal (m3/s) of width depth slope (m/s) board canal canal height coring concrete
Roughness (m) (m) (m) height (m) (m) (m) (m)
Retaining 0.063 1/1000 0.015 0.50 0.24 1:0 0.52 0.181 0.424 0.45 0.1 0.1
wall =0.001
canal
(Masonry)
Earthen 0.063 2/1000 0.025 0.15 0.30 1:1 0.47 0.176 0.476 0.50 - -
canal =0.002
(Clay soil)
<In case of supercritical or rapid flow canal >

Slope = 7/100 = 0.07
Minimum allowable velocity = 0.45m/s
Maximum allowable velocity = 2.25m/s
(Velocity of Thick concrete (approximately 14 cm) = (Velocity of Thick concrete (approximately 18 cm) + Velocity of Thick concrete
(approximately 10 cm) ) / 2 = (3 + 1.5) / 2 = 2.25m/s )
Type of Discharge Slope Coefficient Canal Water Side Velocity Free Necessary Design Hard Lean
canal (m3/s) of width depth slope (m/s) board canal canal height coring concrete
Roughness (m) (m) (m) height (m) (m) (m) (m)
Rapid 0.063 7/100 0.015 0.50 0.052 1:1 2.21 0.065 0.117 - 0.30 0.1 -
flow =0.07 Concrete - 0.63 0.682
canal (cast-in
(concrete place
lining) flume,
culvert,
etc.))
This result should be checked and modified according to the actual site
condition. Especially it should be checked the possibility of excavation until
the canal bed based on geological data.
(5) Stability analysis of retaining wall canal…… (See 3.3.2, 3.3.3, 3.3.4,
3.3.5)
For stability analysis of retaining wall canal can be used Excel format guide
2. There are three types of calculation for stability analysis according to the
ground condition of back side of canal.
The result of calculation, the size of retaining wall canal does not have any
problem.
168
Excel format guide 2. Wall Stability Analysis Type1 (Summary)
#Please input data into yellow cell
1.Basic data for calculation
Item Value Reference
3
Unit weight of plane concrete γc＝ 23 kN/m Reinforced concrete: 24.5KN/m3, Plain concrete: 23KN/m3, Cement mortar: 21KN/m3
Unit weight of soil γs＝ 20 kN/m3
internal friction angle ϕ＝ 25 ° =0.436rad
Angle between wall's back surface and vertical plane α＝ 0.0 ° =0.000rad
Angle of wall friction (normal condition) δ＝ 16.7 ° =0.291rad

Angle of wall friction (seismic condition) δ＝ 12.5 ° =0.218rad
Liveload q＝ 3.00 kN/m2
Unit weight of water W0 ＝ 9.8 kN/m3
Coefficient of earth pressure C0＝ 0.45
Uplift coefficient μ＝ 1.0 Rock foundation case or a case using sheet piles reaching an impermeable stratum: 0.4, Otherwise: 1.0
Seismic horizontal acceleration kh＝ 0.15
Seismic vertical acceleration kv＝ 0
Seismic compound angle θ＝ 8.53 ° =0.149rad
Friction coefficient f＝ 0.7
Allowable stress of the graund qa＝ 50 kN/m2 Bedrock=1000KN/m2 See 3.2.4 　　
2.Mesurement of structure 3. The result of calculation

Dynamic Static Earthquake
169
Item Value Content
Slope of front body m1 = 1 : 0.00 Overturning e<B/6 or B/3 0.02 ≤ 0.05 OK 0.04 ≤ 0.05 OK 0.08 ≤ 0.10 OK
Slope of back body m2 = 1 : 0.00 Sliding ΣV・f/ΣH≥1.5or1.2 10.92 ≥ 1.50 OK 2.14 ≥ 1.50 OK 1.20 ≥ 1.20 OK
B1 0.30 m Settlement ΣV/B・(1+6e/B)<qa 13kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK 20kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK 32kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK
B2 0.00 m ΣV/B・(1-6e/B)<qa 6kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK 4kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK -8kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK
B3 0.00 m (Without uplift) ΣV/B・(1+6e/B)<qa 14kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK
B4 (B1+B2+B3) 0.30 m (Without uplift) ΣV/B・(1-6e/B)<qa 10kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK
H 0.45 m
B1

Hd 0.45 m
1:m1 1:m2
H α
Hd
B2 B3 ω
B4
Type 1
①Calculation of earth pressure (The case of dynamic)
1. Calculation of active earth pressure
ω(°) ω(rad) W(KN/m3) l(m) Q=q*l W+Q PA(KN/m) Runking
25.00 0.436 4.342627 0.965028 2.895084 7.237711 0 56
26.00 0.454 4.151865 0.922637 2.76791 6.919775 0.125426 55
27.00 0.471 3.974286 0.883175 2.649524 6.62381 0.238954 54
28.00 0.489 3.808471 0.846327 2.538981 6.347452 0.34188 53
29.00 0.506 3.653197 0.811821 2.435464 6.088661 0.435318 52
30.00 0.524 3.507403 0.779423 2.338269 5.845671 0.520231 51
31.00 0.541 3.370166 0.748926 2.246777 5.616943 0.597454 50
32.00 0.559 3.240677 0.720151 2.160452 5.401129 0.667713 47
33.00 0.576 3.118227 0.692939 2.078818 5.197044 0.731643 45
34.00 0.593 3.002186 0.667152 2.001457 5.003643 0.789802 43
35.00 0.611 2.892 0.642667 1.928 4.82 0.842682 40
36.00 0.628 2.787173 0.619372 1.858116 4.645289 0.890716 38
37.00 0.646 2.687266 0.59717 1.791511 4.478776 0.934287 35
38.00 0.663 2.591882 0.575974 1.727921 4.319803 0.973737 33
39.00 0.681 2.500667 0.555704 1.667111 4.167778 1.00937 31
40.00 0.698 2.413301 0.536289 1.608867 4.022168 1.041454 28
170
41.00 0.716 2.329496 0.517666 1.552997 3.882493 1.070233 26
42.00 0.733 2.24899 0.499776 1.499327 3.748317 1.09592 24
43.00 0.750 2.171547 0.482566 1.447698 3.619244 1.118711 22
44.00 0.768 2.096949 0.465989 1.397966 3.494915 1.138777 19
45.00 0.785 2.025 0.45 1.35 3.375 1.156274 17
46.00 0.803 1.95552 0.43456 1.30368 3.2592 1.171341 15
47.00 0.820 1.888343 0.419632 1.258895 3.147238 1.184102 13
48.00 0.838 1.823318 0.405182 1.215545 3.038864 1.19467 11

49.00 0.855 1.760306 0.391179 1.173537 2.933843 1.203143 9
50.00 0.873 1.699177 0.377595 1.132785 2.831961 1.20961 7
51.00 0.890 1.639813 0.364403 1.093208 2.733021 1.214151 5
52.00 0.908 1.582103 0.351579 1.054736 2.636839 1.216836 3
53.00 0.925 1.525947 0.339099 1.017298 2.543245 1.217726 1
54.00 0.942 1.471249 0.326944 0.980832 2.452081 1.216876 2
55.00 0.960 1.41792 0.315093 0.94528 2.3632 1.214333 4
56.00 0.977 1.36588 0.303529 0.910586 2.276466 1.210136 6
57.00 0.995 1.31505 0.292233 0.8767 2.191751 1.20432 8
58.00 1.012 1.26536 0.281191 0.843574 2.108934 1.196913 10
59.00 1.030 1.216743 0.270387 0.811162 2.027905 1.187937 12
ω(°) ω(rad) W(KN/m3) l(m) Q=q*l W+Q PA(KN/m) Runking The result of calculation
60.00 1.047198 1.169134 0.259808 0.779423 1.948557 1.177409 14 Angle between the sliding surface and horizontal plane (ω) 53 °
61.00 1.064651 1.122476 0.249439 0.748317 1.870793 1.16534 16 Active earth pressure (PA) 1.22 KN/m
62.00 1.082104 1.076712 0.239269 0.717808 1.794519 1.151737 18
63.00 1.099557 1.031789 0.229286 0.687859 1.719648 1.136601 20
64.00 1.117011 0.987658 0.21948 0.658439 1.646097 1.11993 21
65.00 1.134464 0.944273 0.209838 0.629515 1.573788 1.101714 23 2. Horizontal, Vertical component and vertical distance to the action point of active earth pressure
66.00 1.151917 0.901588 0.200353 0.601059 1.502647 1.081941 25
67.00 1.169371 0.859562 0.191014 0.573041 1.432603 1.060591 27
68.00 1.186824 0.818153 0.181812 0.545435 1.363589 1.037643 29
69.00 1.204277 0.777325 0.172739 0.518216 1.295541 1.013067 30
70.00 1.22173 0.73704 0.163787 0.49136 1.2284 0.986831 32
71.00 1.239184 0.697263 0.154947 0.464842 1.162106 0.958894 34
72.00 1.256637 0.657962 0.146214 0.438642 1.096604 0.929213 36
73.00 1.27409 0.619105 0.137579 0.412736 1.031841 0.897736 37
74.00 1.291544 0.580659 0.129035 0.387106 0.967766 0.864408 39
75.00 1.308997 0.542597 0.120577 0.361731 0.904329 0.829163 41
171
76.00 1.32645 0.504889 0.112198 0.336593 0.841482 0.791933 42 PAH＝ 1.17 KN/m
77.00 1.343904 0.467508 0.103891 0.311672 0.77918 0.752637 44 PAV＝ 0.35 KN/m
78.00 1.361357 0.430427 0.09565 0.286951 0.717378 0.711191 46 hp＝ 0.15 m
79.00 1.37881 0.39362 0.087471 0.262413 0.656034 0.667499 48
80.00 1.396263 0.357062 0.079347 0.238041 0.595104 0.621457 49

②Stability analysis (The case of dynamic)
1.Basic calculation 2.Calculation table
(1 )Area （unit width）
External force Area Vertical Distance Resistance Horizontal Distance Turning
Dead load; W1 0.14m2= 0.30m× 0.45m force moment force moment
W2 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Ｖ(kN) ｘ(m) V*x(kN･m) Ｈ(kN) ｙ(m) H*y(kN･m)
W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
Static water P1 0.10m2= 0.45m× 0.45m× 1/2 W2 0.00 0.00 0.00
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift; U1 0.07m2= 0.45m× 0.30m× 1/2
Earth pressure PAH water pressure P1 0.98 0.15 0.15
PAV
Uplift U1 -0.66 0.10 -0.07
(2)Distance
External force Distance Earth pressure PAH -1.17 0.15 -0.17
Dead load; W1 0.15m= 0.00m+ 0.30m× 1/2 PAV 0.35 0.30 0.10
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 Total 2.91 0.51 -0.19 -0.02
Static water P1 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3
l
172
pressure; q
Uplift; U1 0.10m= 0.30m× 1/3
H1 1:m3
Earth pressure; PAH 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3 B1
β
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m- 0.15m)
(3)External force by unit width

External force External force by unit width ↓PAV
Dead load; W1 3.22kN= 0.14m2× 23.00kN/m2 1:m1 ←PAH

H α 1:m2
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2
0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 w2 w1 w3
W3
Hd ↓ ↓ ↓
Static water P1 1.0kN= 0.10m2× 9.80kN/m2 B2 B3 ω
pressure;
Uplift; U1 -0.66kN= 0.07m2× -9.80kN/m2 ×1.0 B4
Earth pressure; PAH -1.17kN
PAV 0.35kN
Type 1
①Calculation of earth pressure (The case of static)
25.00 0.436 4.342627 0.965028 2.895084 7.237711 0 56
26.00 0.454 4.151865 0.922637 2.76791 6.919775 0.125426 55
27.00 0.471 3.974286 0.883175 2.649524 6.62381 0.238954 54
28.00 0.489 3.808471 0.846327 2.538981 6.347452 0.34188 53
29.00 0.506 3.653197 0.811821 2.435464 6.088661 0.435318 52
30.00 0.524 3.507403 0.779423 2.338269 5.845671 0.520231 51
31.00 0.541 3.370166 0.748926 2.246777 5.616943 0.597454 50
32.00 0.559 3.240677 0.720151 2.160452 5.401129 0.667713 47
33.00 0.576 3.118227 0.692939 2.078818 5.197044 0.731643 45
34.00 0.593 3.002186 0.667152 2.001457 5.003643 0.789802 43
35.00 0.611 2.892 0.642667 1.928 4.82 0.842682 40
36.00 0.628 2.787173 0.619372 1.858116 4.645289 0.890716 38
37.00 0.646 2.687266 0.59717 1.791511 4.478776 0.934287 35
38.00 0.663 2.591882 0.575974 1.727921 4.319803 0.973737 33
39.00 0.681 2.500667 0.555704 1.667111 4.167778 1.00937 31
40.00 0.698 2.413301 0.536289 1.608867 4.022168 1.041454 28
173
41.00 0.716 2.329496 0.517666 1.552997 3.882493 1.070233 26
42.00 0.733 2.24899 0.499776 1.499327 3.748317 1.09592 24
43.00 0.750 2.171547 0.482566 1.447698 3.619244 1.118711 22
44.00 0.768 2.096949 0.465989 1.397966 3.494915 1.138777 19
45.00 0.785 2.025 0.45 1.35 3.375 1.156274 17
46.00 0.803 1.95552 0.43456 1.30368 3.2592 1.171341 15
47.00 0.820 1.888343 0.419632 1.258895 3.147238 1.184102 13

48.00 0.838 1.823318 0.405182 1.215545 3.038864 1.19467 11
49.00 0.855 1.760306 0.391179 1.173537 2.933843 1.203143 9
50.00 0.873 1.699177 0.377595 1.132785 2.831961 1.20961 7
51.00 0.890 1.639813 0.364403 1.093208 2.733021 1.214151 5
52.00 0.908 1.582103 0.351579 1.054736 2.636839 1.216836 3
53.00 0.925 1.525947 0.339099 1.017298 2.543245 1.217726 1
54.00 0.942 1.471249 0.326944 0.980832 2.452081 1.216876 2
55.00 0.960 1.41792 0.315093 0.94528 2.3632 1.214333 4
56.00 0.977 1.36588 0.303529 0.910586 2.276466 1.210136 6
57.00 0.995 1.31505 0.292233 0.8767 2.191751 1.20432 8
58.00 1.012 1.26536 0.281191 0.843574 2.108934 1.196913 10
59.00 1.030 1.216743 0.270387 0.811162 2.027905 1.187937 12
62.00 1.082104 1.076712 0.239269 0.717808 1.794519 1.151737 18
63.00 1.099557 1.031789 0.229286 0.687859 1.719648 1.136601 20
64.00 1.117011 0.987658 0.21948 0.658439 1.646097 1.11993 21
66.00 1.151917 0.901588 0.200353 0.601059 1.502647 1.081941 25
67.00 1.169371 0.859562 0.191014 0.573041 1.432603 1.060591 27
68.00 1.186824 0.818153 0.181812 0.545435 1.363589 1.037643 29
69.00 1.204277 0.777325 0.172739 0.518216 1.295541 1.013067 30
70.00 1.22173 0.73704 0.163787 0.49136 1.2284 0.986831 32
71.00 1.239184 0.697263 0.154947 0.464842 1.162106 0.958894 34
72.00 1.256637 0.657962 0.146214 0.438642 1.096604 0.929213 36
73.00 1.27409 0.619105 0.137579 0.412736 1.031841 0.897736 37
74.00 1.291544 0.580659 0.129035 0.387106 0.967766 0.864408 39
75.00 1.308997 0.542597 0.120577 0.361731 0.904329 0.829163 41
174
76.00 1.32645 0.504889 0.112198 0.336593 0.841482 0.791933 42 PAH＝ 1.17 KN/m
77.00 1.343904 0.467508 0.103891 0.311672 0.77918 0.752637 44 PAV＝ 0.35 KN/m
78.00 1.361357 0.430427 0.09565 0.286951 0.717378 0.711191 46 hp ＝ 0.15 m
79.00 1.37881 0.39362 0.087471 0.262413 0.656034 0.667499 48
80.00 1.396263 0.357062 0.079347 0.238041 0.595104 0.621457 49

②Stability analysis (The case of static)
W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
Static water W2 0.00 0.00 0.00
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift;
Earth pressure PAH water pressure
PAV
Uplift
(2)Distance
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 Total 3.57 0.58 -1.17 -0.17
Static water
175
pressure; l
q
Uplift;
Earth pressure; PAH 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3 H1 1:m3
B1
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m- 0.15m) β

External force External force by unit width
↓PAV

Dead load; W1 3.22kN= 0.14m2× 23.00kN/m2 1:m1 ←PAH
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 H α 1:m2
W3 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 w1 w3
w2
Static water Hd ↓ ↓ ↓
B2 B3 ω
pressure;
Uplift;
B4
PAV 0.35kN
Type 1
①Calculation of earth pressure (The case of earthquick)
25.00 0.436 4.342627 0.965028 2.895084 7.237711 1.112016 47
26.00 0.454 4.151865 0.922637 2.76791 6.919775 1.18231 45
27.00 0.471 3.974286 0.883175 2.649524 6.62381 1.244981 42
28.00 0.489 3.808471 0.846327 2.538981 6.347452 1.300853 39
29.00 0.506 3.653197 0.811821 2.435464 6.088661 1.350634 36
30.00 0.524 3.507403 0.779423 2.338269 5.845671 1.394932 34
31.00 0.541 3.370166 0.748926 2.246777 5.616943 1.434276 31
32.00 0.559 3.240677 0.720151 2.160452 5.401129 1.469126 28
33.00 0.576 3.118227 0.692939 2.078818 5.197044 1.499882 26
34.00 0.593 3.002186 0.667152 2.001457 5.003643 1.526896 24
35.00 0.611 2.892 0.642667 1.928 4.82 1.550476 21
36.00 0.628 2.787173 0.619372 1.858116 4.645289 1.570893 19
37.00 0.646 2.687266 0.59717 1.791511 4.478776 1.588386 17
38.00 0.663 2.591882 0.575974 1.727921 4.319803 1.603168 14
39.00 0.681 2.500667 0.555704 1.667111 4.167778 1.615427 12
40.00 0.698 2.413301 0.536289 1.608867 4.022168 1.625328 10
41.00 0.716 2.329496 0.517666 1.552997 3.882493 1.63302 8
42.00 0.733 2.24899 0.499776 1.499327 3.748317 1.638633 6
176
43.00 0.750 2.171547 0.482566 1.447698 3.619244 1.642285 4
44.00 0.768 2.096949 0.465989 1.397966 3.494915 1.644077 2
45.00 0.785 2.025 0.45 1.35 3.375 1.644103 1
46.00 0.803 1.95552 0.43456 1.30368 3.2592 1.642442 3
47.00 0.820 1.888343 0.419632 1.258895 3.147238 1.639167 5
48.00 0.838 1.823318 0.405182 1.215545 3.038864 1.634339 7
49.00 0.855 1.760306 0.391179 1.173537 2.933843 1.628014 9
50.00 0.873 1.699177 0.377595 1.132785 2.831961 1.620239 11

51.00 0.890 1.639813 0.364403 1.093208 2.733021 1.611055 13
52.00 0.908 1.582103 0.351579 1.054736 2.636839 1.600496 15
53.00 0.925 1.525947 0.339099 1.017298 2.543245 1.58859 16
54.00 0.942 1.471249 0.326944 0.980832 2.452081 1.575362 18
55.00 0.960 1.41792 0.315093 0.94528 2.3632 1.560829 20
56.00 0.977 1.36588 0.303529 0.910586 2.276466 1.545004 22
57.00 0.995 1.31505 0.292233 0.8767 2.191751 1.527895 23
58.00 1.012 1.26536 0.281191 0.843574 2.108934 1.509507 25
59.00 1.030 1.216743 0.270387 0.811162 2.027905 1.489838 27
60.00 1.047 1.169134 0.259808 0.779423 1.948557 1.468883 29
61.00 1.065 1.122476 0.249439 0.748317 1.870793 1.446634 30
62.00 1.082 1.076712 0.239269 0.717808 1.794519 1.423076 32
63.00 1.100 1.031789 0.229286 0.687859 1.719648 1.398191 33
64.00 1.117 0.987658 0.21948 0.658439 1.646097 1.371957 35
67.00 1.169371 0.859562 0.191014 0.573041 1.432603 1.284869 40
68.00 1.186824 0.818153 0.181812 0.545435 1.363589 1.252923 41
69.00 1.204277 0.777325 0.172739 0.518216 1.295541 1.219446 43
71.00 1.239184 0.697263 0.154947 0.464842 1.162106 1.147686 46
72.00 1.256637 0.657962 0.146214 0.438642 1.096604 1.109281 48
73.00 1.27409 0.619105 0.137579 0.412736 1.031841 1.069102 49
74.00 1.291544 0.580659 0.129035 0.387106 0.967766 1.027072 50
75.00 1.308997 0.542597 0.120577 0.361731 0.904329 0.983105 51
76.00 1.32645 0.504889 0.112198 0.336593 0.841482 0.937108 52
77.00 1.343904 0.467508 0.103891 0.311672 0.77918 0.88898 53
78.00 1.361357 0.430427 0.09565 0.286951 0.717378 0.838609 54
79.00 1.37881 0.39362 0.087471 0.262413 0.656034 0.785872 55
80.00 1.396263 0.357062 0.079347 0.238041 0.595104 0.730635 56
PAH＝ 1.61 KN/m
PAV＝ 0.36 KN/m
177
hp＝ 0.15 m

②Stability analysis (The case of earthquick)
W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift;
Earth pressure PAH water pressure P1
PAV
Uplift U1
(2)Distance
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3 S1 -0.48 0.23 -0.11
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 S2 0.00 0.15 0.00
Static water S3 0.00 0.15 0.00
pressure;
Uplift; Total 3.58 0.59 -2.09 -0.35
178
Earth pressure; PAH 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m- 0.15m)
S1 0.23m= 0.45m× 1/2
S2 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3
S3 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3


Dead load; W1 3.22kN= 0.14m2× 23.00kN/m2
l
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 q
W3 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2
Static water H1 1:m3
B1
pressure; β
Uplift;
Earth pressure; PEAH -1.61kN
PEAV 0.36kN
↓PEAV
S1 -0.48kN= -3.22KN× 0.15 1:m1 S2 S1 α
H S3 ←PEAH
S2 0.00kN= 0.00KN× 0.15 1:m2
S3 0.00kN= 0.00KN× 0.15 w2 w1 w3
Hd ↓ ↓ ↓
B2 B3 ω
B4
3
Unit weight of plane concrete γc＝ 23 kN/m Reinforced concrete: 24.5KN/m3, Plain concrete: 23KN/m3, Cement mortar: 21KN/m3
Inclination angle of wall's backside ground β＝ 15 ° =0.262rad
2
Crowd load q＝ 3.00 kN/m
3
Unit weight of water W0＝ 9.8 kN/m
Seismic horizontal acceleration kh＝ 0
179
Item Value Content Dynamic Static Earthquake
B2 0.00 m ΣV/B・(1-6e/B)<qa 8kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK 3kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK 0kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK
H 0.45 m
B1
β
Hd 0.45 m

1:m1 1:m2
H α
Hd
B2 B3 ω
B4
Type 2
25.00 0.436 10.20879 2.26862 6.80586 17.01465 0 56
26.00 0.454 9.213617 2.408933 7.226799 16.44042 0.297996 55
27.00 0.471 8.382446 1.546812 4.640436 13.02288 0.4698 54
28.00 0.489 7.677427 0.817489 2.452467 10.12989 0.545606 53
29.00 0.506 7.071522 0.784159 2.352478 9.424 0.673783 51
30.00 0.524 6.544903 0.752865 2.258594 8.803497 0.783461 47
31.00 0.541 6.082699 0.723407 2.17022 8.252919 0.877833 44
32.00 0.559 5.673538 0.695612 2.086836 7.760374 0.959373 41
33.00 0.576 5.308574 0.669328 2.007984 7.316557 1.030029 38
34.00 0.593 4.980823 0.64442 1.933259 6.914082 1.091356 35
35.00 0.611 4.684698 0.620768 1.862305 6.547003 1.144615 32
36.00 0.628 4.415677 0.598267 1.794802 6.210479 1.190835 29
37.00 0.646 4.170057 0.576822 1.730466 5.900523 1.230868 26
38.00 0.663 3.944781 0.556348 1.669044 5.613825 1.265426 24
39.00 0.681 3.737301 0.536769 1.610306 5.347607 1.295106 21
40.00 0.698 3.545476 0.518016 1.554047 5.099522 1.320412 19
180
41.00 0.716 3.367493 0.500027 1.50008 4.867573 1.341776 16
42.00 0.733 3.20181 0.482746 1.448239 4.650048 1.359566 14
43.00 0.750 3.047102 0.466123 1.398369 4.445471 1.374098 12
44.00 0.768 2.902229 0.45011 1.350331 4.25256 1.385647 10
45.00 0.785 2.766201 0.434667 1.304 4.070201 1.39445 7
46.00 0.803 2.638158 0.419753 1.259258 3.897416 1.400713 5
47.00 0.820 2.517343 0.405333 1.216 3.733343 1.404616 3
48.00 0.838 2.403095 0.391376 1.174127 3.577222 1.406315 1
49.00 0.855 2.294828 0.37785 1.13355 3.428377 1.405947 2
50.00 0.873 2.192022 0.364729 1.094186 3.286208 1.403632 4

51.00 0.890 2.094218 0.351986 1.055958 3.150176 1.399473 6
52.00 0.908 2.001003 0.339599 1.018796 3.019799 1.393563 8
53.00 0.925 1.912009 0.327545 0.982634 2.894643 1.385978 9
54.00 0.942 1.826904 0.315804 0.947411 2.774315 1.376789 11
55.00 0.960 1.745391 0.304357 0.913071 2.658461 1.366053 13
56.00 0.977 1.667199 0.293186 0.879559 2.546758 1.353819 15
57.00 0.995 1.592087 0.282276 0.846827 2.438914 1.340131 17
60.00 1.047198 1.383101 0.250955 0.752865 2.135965 1.290649 22
61.00 1.064651 1.318275 0.24094 0.722819 2.041094 1.271422 23
62.00 1.082104 1.255598 0.231116 0.693349 1.948947 1.25085 25
64.00 1.117011 1.136138 0.212001 0.636003 1.772141 1.205684 28
65.00 1.134464 1.079103 0.202688 0.608065 1.687169 1.181085 30
66.00 1.151917 1.023716 0.193526 0.580578 1.604294 1.155129 31
67.00 1.169371 0.969873 0.184505 0.553515 1.523388 1.127802 33
68.00 1.186824 0.917478 0.175617 0.52685 1.444328 1.099083 34
69.00 1.204277 0.866444 0.166853 0.500559 1.367002 1.068947 36
70.00 1.22173 0.816688 0.158206 0.474617 1.291305 1.037365 37
71.00 1.239184 0.768133 0.149668 0.449003 1.217136 1.004302 39
72.00 1.256637 0.720709 0.141232 0.423695 1.144404 0.969716 40
73.00 1.27409 0.674347 0.132891 0.398673 1.07302 0.933564 42
181
74.00 1.291544 0.628986 0.124639 0.373916 1.002902 0.895792 43 PAH＝ 1.35 KN/m
75.00 1.308997 0.584567 0.116469 0.349406 0.933973 0.856344 45 PAV＝ 0.40 KN/m
76.00 1.32645 0.541034 0.108375 0.325124 0.866158 0.815155 46 hp＝ 0.15 m
77.00 1.343904 0.498336 0.100351 0.301052 0.799388 0.772156 48
78.00 1.361357 0.456422 0.092391 0.277174 0.733596 0.727269 49
79.00 1.37881 0.415248 0.084491 0.253472 0.66872 0.680407 50
80.00 1.396263 0.374769 0.076643 0.22993 0.604699 0.631477 52

W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift; U1 0.07m2= 0.45m× 0.30m× 1/2
PAV
Uplift U1 -0.66 0.10 -0.07
(2)Distance
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 Total 2.96 0.53 -0.37 -0.05
182
l
pressure; q
Uplift; U1 0.10m= 0.30m× 1/3
H1 1:m3
β
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m- 0.15m)

3.22kN= 0.14m2× 23.00kN/m2 1:m1
Dead load; W1 ←PAH
H α 1:m2
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2
0.00kN= w2 w1 w3
W3 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2
Hd ↓ ↓ ↓

pressure;
Uplift; U1 -0.66kN= 0.07m2× -9.80kN/m2 ×1.0 B4
PAV 0.40kN
Type 2
25.00 0.436 10.20879 2.26862 6.80586 17.01465 0 56
26.00 0.454 9.213617 2.408933 7.226799 16.44042 0.297996 55
27.00 0.471 8.382446 1.546812 4.640436 13.02288 0.4698 54
28.00 0.489 7.677427 0.817489 2.452467 10.12989 0.545606 53
29.00 0.506 7.071522 0.784159 2.352478 9.424 0.673783 51
30.00 0.524 6.544903 0.752865 2.258594 8.803497 0.783461 47
31.00 0.541 6.082699 0.723407 2.17022 8.252919 0.877833 44
32.00 0.559 5.673538 0.695612 2.086836 7.760374 0.959373 41
33.00 0.576 5.308574 0.669328 2.007984 7.316557 1.030029 38
34.00 0.593 4.980823 0.64442 1.933259 6.914082 1.091356 35
35.00 0.611 4.684698 0.620768 1.862305 6.547003 1.144615 32
36.00 0.628 4.415677 0.598267 1.794802 6.210479 1.190835 29
37.00 0.646 4.170057 0.576822 1.730466 5.900523 1.230868 26
38.00 0.663 3.944781 0.556348 1.669044 5.613825 1.265426 24
39.00 0.681 3.737301 0.536769 1.610306 5.347607 1.295106 21
40.00 0.698 3.545476 0.518016 1.554047 5.099522 1.320412 19
183
41.00 0.716 3.367493 0.500027 1.50008 4.867573 1.341776 16
42.00 0.733 3.20181 0.482746 1.448239 4.650048 1.359566 14
43.00 0.750 3.047102 0.466123 1.398369 4.445471 1.374098 12
44.00 0.768 2.902229 0.45011 1.350331 4.25256 1.385647 10
45.00 0.785 2.766201 0.434667 1.304 4.070201 1.39445 7
46.00 0.803 2.638158 0.419753 1.259258 3.897416 1.400713 5
47.00 0.820 2.517343 0.405333 1.216 3.733343 1.404616 3
48.00 0.838 2.403095 0.391376 1.174127 3.577222 1.406315 1
49.00 0.855 2.294828 0.37785 1.13355 3.428377 1.405947 2
50.00 0.873 2.192022 0.364729 1.094186 3.286208 1.403632 4

51.00 0.890 2.094218 0.351986 1.055958 3.150176 1.399473 6
52.00 0.908 2.001003 0.339599 1.018796 3.019799 1.393563 8
53.00 0.925 1.912009 0.327545 0.982634 2.894643 1.385978 9
54.00 0.942 1.826904 0.315804 0.947411 2.774315 1.376789 11
55.00 0.960 1.745391 0.304357 0.913071 2.658461 1.366053 13
56.00 0.977 1.667199 0.293186 0.879559 2.546758 1.353819 15
57.00 0.995 1.592087 0.282276 0.846827 2.438914 1.340131 17
60.00 1.047198 1.383101 0.250955 0.752865 2.135965 1.290649 22
61.00 1.064651 1.318275 0.24094 0.722819 2.041094 1.271422 23
62.00 1.082104 1.255598 0.231116 0.693349 1.948947 1.25085 25
64.00 1.117011 1.136138 0.212001 0.636003 1.772141 1.205684 28
65.00 1.134464 1.079103 0.202688 0.608065 1.687169 1.181085 30
66.00 1.151917 1.023716 0.193526 0.580578 1.604294 1.155129 31
67.00 1.169371 0.969873 0.184505 0.553515 1.523388 1.127802 33
68.00 1.186824 0.917478 0.175617 0.52685 1.444328 1.099083 34
69.00 1.204277 0.866444 0.166853 0.500559 1.367002 1.068947 36
70.00 1.22173 0.816688 0.158206 0.474617 1.291305 1.037365 37
71.00 1.239184 0.768133 0.149668 0.449003 1.217136 1.004302 39
72.00 1.256637 0.720709 0.141232 0.423695 1.144404 0.969716 40
73.00 1.27409 0.674347 0.132891 0.398673 1.07302 0.933564 42
184
74.00 1.291544 0.628986 0.124639 0.373916 1.002902 0.895792 43 PAH＝ 1.35 KN/m
75.00 1.308997 0.584567 0.116469 0.349406 0.933973 0.856344 45 PAV＝ 0.40 KN/m
76.00 1.32645 0.541034 0.108375 0.325124 0.866158 0.815155 46 hp＝ 0.15 m
77.00 1.343904 0.498336 0.100351 0.301052 0.799388 0.772156 48
78.00 1.361357 0.456422 0.092391 0.277174 0.733596 0.727269 49
79.00 1.37881 0.415248 0.084491 0.253472 0.66872 0.680407 50
80.00 1.396263 0.374769 0.076643 0.22993 0.604699 0.631477 52

W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift;
PAV
Uplift
(2)Distance
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 Total 3.62 0.60 -1.35 -0.20
Static water
185
pressure; l
q
Uplift;
B1
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m- 0.15m) β

3.22kN= 0.14m2× 23.00kN/m2 ↓PAV
Dead load; W1 1:m1 ←PAH
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 H α 1:m2
W3 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 w2 w1 w3

B2 B3 ω
pressure;
Uplift;
B4
PAV 0.40kN
Type 2
25.00 0.436 10.20879 2.26862 6.80586 17.01465 0 56
26.00 0.454 9.213617 2.408933 7.226799 16.44042 0.292803 55
27.00 0.471 8.382446 1.546812 4.640436 13.02288 0.462232 54
28.00 0.489 7.677427 0.817489 2.452467 10.12989 0.53753 53
29.00 0.506 7.071522 0.784159 2.352478 9.424 0.664686 52
30.00 0.524 6.544903 0.752865 2.258594 8.803497 0.773896 48
31.00 0.541 6.082699 0.723407 2.17022 8.252919 0.868246 45
32.00 0.559 5.673538 0.695612 2.086836 7.760374 0.950126 42
33.00 0.576 5.308574 0.669328 2.007984 7.316557 1.021417 39
34.00 0.593 4.980823 0.64442 1.933259 6.914082 1.083622 36
35.00 0.611 4.684698 0.620768 1.862305 6.547003 1.137958 34
36.00 0.628 4.415677 0.598267 1.794802 6.210479 1.185421 31
37.00 0.646 4.170057 0.576822 1.730466 5.900523 1.226835 28
38.00 0.663 3.944781 0.556348 1.669044 5.613825 1.262884 26
39.00 0.681 3.737301 0.536769 1.610306 5.347607 1.294147 23
40.00 0.698 3.545476 0.518016 1.554047 5.099522 1.321111 21
41.00 0.716 3.367493 0.500027 1.50008 4.867573 1.344192 18
42.00 0.733 3.20181 0.482746 1.448239 4.650048 1.363746 16
186
43.00 0.750 3.047102 0.466123 1.398369 4.445471 1.38008 14
44.00 0.768 2.902229 0.45011 1.350331 4.25256 1.393456 12
45.00 0.785 2.766201 0.434667 1.304 4.070201 1.404103 9
46.00 0.803 2.638158 0.419753 1.259258 3.897416 1.412221 7
47.00 0.820 2.517343 0.405333 1.216 3.733343 1.417982 5
48.00 0.838 2.403095 0.391376 1.174127 3.577222 1.421536 3
49.00 0.855 2.294828 0.37785 1.13355 3.428377 1.423014 1
50.00 0.873 2.192022 0.364729 1.094186 3.286208 1.422531 2
51.00 0.890 2.094218 0.351986 1.055958 3.150176 1.420186 4
52.00 0.908 2.001003 0.339599 1.018796 3.019799 1.416065 6
53.00 0.925 1.912009 0.327545 0.982634 2.894643 1.410242 8
54.00 0.942 1.826904 0.315804 0.947411 2.774315 1.402782 10

55.00 0.960 1.745391 0.304357 0.913071 2.658461 1.393737 11
56.00 0.977 1.667199 0.293186 0.879559 2.546758 1.383154 13
57.00 0.995 1.592087 0.282276 0.846827 2.438914 1.37107 15
58.00 1.012 1.519831 0.27161 0.81483 2.33466 1.357516 17
59.00 1.030 1.45023 0.261174 0.783522 2.233752 1.342514 19
60.00 1.047 1.383101 0.250955 0.752865 2.135965 1.326081 20
61.00 1.065 1.318275 0.24094 0.722819 2.041094 1.308229 22
62.00 1.082 1.255598 0.231116 0.693349 1.948947 1.288962 24
63.00 1.100 1.194929 0.221474 0.664421 1.85935 1.268279 25
64.00 1.117 1.136138 0.212001 0.636003 1.772141 1.246174 27
67.00 1.169371 0.969873 0.184505 0.553515 1.523388 1.171182 32
68.00 1.186824 0.917478 0.175617 0.52685 1.444328 1.143217 33
69.00 1.204277 0.866444 0.166853 0.500559 1.367002 1.113717 35
71.00 1.239184 0.768133 0.149668 0.449003 1.217136 1.049945 38
72.00 1.256637 0.720709 0.141232 0.423695 1.144404 1.015578 40
73.00 1.27409 0.674347 0.132891 0.398673 1.07302 0.979479 41
74.00 1.291544 0.628986 0.124639 0.373916 1.002902 0.941586 43
75.00 1.308997 0.584567 0.116469 0.349406 0.933973 0.901824 44
76.00 1.32645 0.541034 0.108375 0.325124 0.866158 0.860113 46
77.00 1.343904 0.498336 0.100351 0.301052 0.799388 0.816363 47
78.00 1.361357 0.456422 0.092391 0.277174 0.733596 0.770478 49
79.00 1.37881 0.415248 0.084491 0.253472 0.66872 0.722347 50
80.00 1.396263 0.374769 0.076643 0.22993 0.604699 0.671851 51
PAH＝ 1.39 KN/m
PAV＝ 0.31 KN/m
187
hp＝ 0.15 m

W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift;
PAV
Uplift U1
(2)Distance
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3 S1 0.00 0.23 0.00
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 S2 0.00 0.15 0.00
pressure;
Uplift; Total 3.53 0.57 -1.39 -0.21
188
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m- 0.15m)
S1 0.23m= 0.45m× 1/2
S2 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3
S3 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3
(3)External force by unit width l

q
Dead load; W1 3.22kN= 0.14m2× 23.00kN/m2 1:m3
H1 B1
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2
β
W3 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2
Static water

pressure;
Uplift; ↓PEAV
Earth pressure; PAH -1.39kN 1:m1
S2 S1 α ←PEAH
H S3 1:m2
PAV 0.31kN
w2 w1 w3
S1 0.00kN= -3.22KN× 0 Hd ↓ ↓ ↓
S2 0.00kN= 0.00KN× 0 B2 B3 ω
S3 0.00kN= 0.00KN× 0
B4
Unit weight of plane concrete γc＝ 23 kN/m3 Reinforced concrete: 24.5KN/m3, Plain concrete: 23KN/m3, Cement mortar: 21KN/m3
Inclination angle of wall's backside ground β＝ 15 ° =0.262rad
Crowd load q＝ 3.00 kN/m2
Unit weight of water W0 ＝ 9.8 kN/m3
Seismic horizontal acceleration kh＝ 0.15

Item Value Content Dynamic Static Earthquake
189
B2 0.00 m ΣV/B・(1-6e/B)<qa 1kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK 8kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK -8kN/m2 < 50kN/m2 OK
H 0.45 m
H1 0.50 m H1 B1 1:m3
Hd 0.45 m β

1:m1 1:m2
H α
Hd
B2 B3 ω
B4
Type 3
25.00 0.436 10.02405 0.171256 0.513769 10.53782 0 14
26.00 0.454 9.173865 0.081763 0.24529 9.419155 0.17073 12
27.00 0.471 8.382433 ‐0.00155 ‐0.00464 8.377797 0.302229 9
28.00 0.489 7.643429 ‐0.07934 ‐0.23801 7.405424 0.398863 7
29.00 0.506 6.951404 ‐0.15218 ‐0.45654 6.494864 0.46436 5
30.00 0.524 6.301632 ‐0.22058 ‐0.66173 5.6399 0.501919 3
31.00 0.541 5.689995 ‐0.28496 ‐0.85488 4.835116 0.514294 1
32.00 0.559 5.112892 ‐0.34571 ‐1.03712 4.075769 0.503866 2
33.00 0.576 4.567154 ‐0.40315 ‐1.20946 3.357693 0.472698 4
34.00 0.593 4.049986 ‐0.45759 ‐1.37278 2.677208 0.422585 6
35.00 0.611 3.558909 ‐0.50928 ‐1.52785 2.031054 0.35509 8
36.00 0.628 3.09172 ‐0.55846 ‐1.67539 1.416332 0.271576 10
37.00 0.646 2.646452 ‐0.60533 ‐1.816 0.830454 0.173235 11
38.00 0.663 2.221346 ‐0.65008 ‐1.95024 0.271104 0.06111 13
39.00 0.681 1.81482 ‐0.69287 ‐2.07862 ‐0.2638 ‐0.06389 15
40.00 0.698 1.425449 ‐0.73386 ‐2.20158 ‐0.77613 ‐0.20096 16
41.00 0.716 1.051948 ‐0.77318 ‐2.31953 ‐1.26758 ‐0.34942 17
190
42.00 0.733 0.693151 ‐0.81094 ‐2.43283 ‐1.73968 ‐0.50864 18
43.00 0.750 0.348001 ‐0.84728 ‐2.54183 ‐2.19382 ‐0.67811 19
44.00 0.768 0.015534 ‐0.88227 ‐2.64681 ‐2.63128 ‐0.85737 20
45.00 0.785 ‐0.30513 ‐0.91603 ‐2.74808 ‐3.0532 ‐1.04603 21
46.00 0.803 ‐0.61479 ‐0.94862 ‐2.84586 ‐3.46065 ‐1.24374 22
47.00 0.820 ‐0.91418 ‐0.98014 ‐2.94041 ‐3.85459 ‐1.45023 23
48.00 0.838 ‐1.20398 ‐1.01064 ‐3.03192 ‐4.23591 ‐1.66526 24
49.00 0.855 ‐1.48481 ‐1.0402 ‐3.12061 ‐4.60542 ‐1.88864 25
50.00 0.873 ‐1.75725 ‐1.06888 ‐3.20664 ‐4.9639 ‐2.12022 26
51.00 0.890 ‐2.02183 ‐1.09673 ‐3.29019 ‐5.31202 ‐2.35988 27
52.00 0.908 ‐2.27902 ‐1.1238 ‐3.37141 ‐5.65044 ‐2.60754 28
53.00 0.925 ‐2.5293 ‐1.15015 ‐3.45045 ‐5.97975 ‐2.86315 29

54.00 0.942 ‐2.77308 ‐1.17581 ‐3.52743 ‐6.30051 ‐3.12671 30
55.00 0.960 ‐3.01075 ‐1.20083 ‐3.60248 ‐6.61324 ‐3.39822 31
56.00 0.977 ‐3.24269 ‐1.22524 ‐3.67573 ‐6.91841 ‐3.67773 32
57.00 0.995 ‐3.46922 ‐1.24909 ‐3.74726 ‐7.21649 ‐3.96531 33
58.00 1.012291 ‐3.69068 ‐1.2724 ‐3.8172 ‐7.50788 ‐4.26105 34 Angle between the sliding surface and horizontal plane (ω) 31 °
59.00 1.029744 ‐3.90736 ‐1.29521 ‐3.88562 ‐7.79298 ‐4.56509 35 Active earth pressure (PA) 0.51 KN/m
60.00 1.047198 ‐4.11954 ‐1.31754 ‐3.95263 ‐8.07217 ‐4.87758 36
61.00 1.064651 ‐4.32749 ‐1.33943 ‐4.0183 ‐8.34578 ‐5.19869 37
62.00 1.082104 ‐4.53145 ‐1.3609 ‐4.0827 ‐8.61415 ‐5.52863 38
63.00 1.099557 ‐4.73166 ‐1.38198 ‐4.14593 ‐8.87759 ‐5.86764 39 2. Horizontal, Vertical component and vertical distance to the action point of active earth pressure
64.00 1.117011 ‐4.92834 ‐1.40268 ‐4.20804 ‐9.13638 ‐6.21598 40
65.00 1.134464 ‐5.1217 ‐1.42303 ‐4.2691 ‐9.3908 ‐6.57393 41
66.00 1.151917 ‐5.31194 ‐1.44306 ‐4.32917 ‐9.64111 ‐6.94182 42
67.00 1.169371 ‐5.49924 ‐1.46277 ‐4.38832 ‐9.88756 ‐7.32001 43
68.00 1.186824 ‐5.68379 ‐1.4822 ‐4.4466 ‐10.1304 ‐7.70887 44
69.00 1.204277 ‐5.86575 ‐1.50135 ‐4.50406 ‐10.3698 ‐8.10883 45
70.00 1.22173 ‐6.0453 ‐1.52025 ‐4.56076 ‐10.6061 ‐8.52034 46
71.00 1.239184 ‐6.22257 ‐1.53891 ‐4.61674 ‐10.8393 ‐8.9439 47
72.00 1.256637 ‐6.39773 ‐1.55735 ‐4.67206 ‐11.0698 ‐9.38004 48
73.00 1.27409 ‐6.57091 ‐1.57558 ‐4.72674 ‐11.2977 ‐9.82934 49
74.00 1.291544 ‐6.74225 ‐1.59362 ‐4.78085 ‐11.5231 ‐10.2924 50 PAH＝ 0.49 KN/m
191
75.00 1.308997 ‐6.91189 ‐1.61147 ‐4.83442 ‐11.7463 ‐10.77 51 PAV＝ 0.15 KN/m
76.00 1.32645 ‐7.07994 ‐1.62916 ‐4.88749 ‐11.9674 ‐11.2627 52 hp＝ 0.15 m
77.00 1.343904 ‐7.24654 ‐1.6467 ‐4.9401 ‐12.1866 ‐11.7715 53
78.00 1.361357 ‐7.4118 ‐1.6641 ‐4.99229 ‐12.4041 ‐12.2971 54
79.00 1.37881 ‐7.57584 ‐1.68136 ‐5.04409 ‐12.6199 ‐12.8405 55
80.00 1.396263 ‐7.73878 ‐1.69851 ‐5.09554 ‐12.8343 ‐13.4027 56

W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift; U1 0.07m2= 0.45m× 0.30m× 1/2
PAV
Uplift U1 -0.66 0.10 -0.07
(2)Distance
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 Total 2.71 0.45 0.49 0.08
l
pressure; q
192
Uplift; U1 0.10m= 0.30m× 1/3
H1 1:m3
β
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m‐ 0.15m)
3.22kN= 0.14m2× 23.00kN/m2 1:m1
Dead load; W1 ←PAH
H α 1:m2
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2
0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 w2 w1 w3
W3
Hd ↓ ↓ ↓
pressure;
Uplift; U1 ‐0.66kN= 0.07m2× ‐9.80kN/m2 ×1.0 B4

Earth pressure; PAH ‐0.49kN
PAV 0.15kN
Type 3
25.00 0.436 10.02405 0.171256 0.513769 10.53782 0 14
26.00 0.454 9.173865 0.081763 0.24529 9.419155 0.17073 12
27.00 0.471 8.382433 ‐0.00155 ‐0.00464 8.377797 0.302229 9
28.00 0.489 7.643429 ‐0.07934 ‐0.23801 7.405424 0.398863 7
29.00 0.506 6.951404 ‐0.15218 ‐0.45654 6.494864 0.46436 5
30.00 0.524 6.301632 ‐0.22058 ‐0.66173 5.6399 0.501919 3
31.00 0.541 5.689995 ‐0.28496 ‐0.85488 4.835116 0.514294 1
32.00 0.559 5.112892 ‐0.34571 ‐1.03712 4.075769 0.503866 2
33.00 0.576 4.567154 ‐0.40315 ‐1.20946 3.357693 0.472698 4
34.00 0.593 4.049986 ‐0.45759 ‐1.37278 2.677208 0.422585 6
35.00 0.611 3.558909 ‐0.50928 ‐1.52785 2.031054 0.35509 8
36.00 0.628 3.09172 ‐0.55846 ‐1.67539 1.416332 0.271576 10
37.00 0.646 2.646452 ‐0.60533 ‐1.816 0.830454 0.173235 11
38.00 0.663 2.221346 ‐0.65008 ‐1.95024 0.271104 0.06111 13
39.00 0.681 1.81482 ‐0.69287 ‐2.07862 ‐0.2638 ‐0.06389 15
40.00 0.698 1.425449 ‐0.73386 ‐2.20158 ‐0.77613 ‐0.20096 16
193
41.00 0.716 1.051948 ‐0.77318 ‐2.31953 ‐1.26758 ‐0.34942 17
42.00 0.733 0.693151 ‐0.81094 ‐2.43283 ‐1.73968 ‐0.50864 18
43.00 0.750 0.348001 ‐0.84728 ‐2.54183 ‐2.19382 ‐0.67811 19
44.00 0.768 0.015534 ‐0.88227 ‐2.64681 ‐2.63128 ‐0.85737 20
45.00 0.785 ‐0.30513 ‐0.91603 ‐2.74808 ‐3.0532 ‐1.04603 21
46.00 0.803 ‐0.61479 ‐0.94862 ‐2.84586 ‐3.46065 ‐1.24374 22
47.00 0.820 ‐0.91418 ‐0.98014 ‐2.94041 ‐3.85459 ‐1.45023 23
48 00
48.00 0
0.838
838 ‐1.20398
1 20398 ‐1.01064
1 01064 ‐3.03192
3 03192 ‐4.23591
4 23591 ‐1.66526
1 66526 24
49.00 0.855 ‐1.48481 ‐1.0402 ‐3.12061 ‐4.60542 ‐1.88864 25
50.00 0.873 ‐1.75725 ‐1.06888 ‐3.20664 ‐4.9639 ‐2.12022 26
51.00 0.890 ‐2.02183 ‐1.09673 ‐3.29019 ‐5.31202 ‐2.35988 27
52.00 0.908 ‐2.27902 ‐1.1238 ‐3.37141 ‐5.65044 ‐2.60754 28

53.00 0.925 ‐2.5293 ‐1.15015 ‐3.45045 ‐5.97975 ‐2.86315 29
54.00 0.942 ‐2.77308 ‐1.17581 ‐3.52743 ‐6.30051 ‐3.12671 30
55.00 0.960 ‐3.01075 ‐1.20083 ‐3.60248 ‐6.61324 ‐3.39822 31
56.00 0.977 ‐3.24269 ‐1.22524 ‐3.67573 ‐6.91841 ‐3.67773 32
57.00 0.995 ‐3.46922 ‐1.24909 ‐3.74726 ‐7.21649 ‐3.96531 33
60.0 1.047198 ‐4.11954 ‐1.31754 ‐3.95263 ‐8.07217 ‐4.87758 36
61.0 1.064651 ‐4.32749 ‐1.33943 ‐4.0183 ‐8.34578 ‐5.19869 37
62.0 1.082104 ‐4.53145 ‐1.3609 ‐4.0827 ‐8.61415 ‐5.52863 38
64.0 1.117011 ‐4.92834 ‐1.40268 ‐4.20804 ‐9.13638 ‐6.21598 40
65.0 1.134464 ‐5.1217 ‐1.42303 ‐4.2691 ‐9.3908 ‐6.57393 41
66.0 1.151917 ‐5.31194 ‐1.44306 ‐4.32917 ‐9.64111 ‐6.94182 42
67.0 1.169371 ‐5.49924 ‐1.46277 ‐4.38832 ‐9.88756 ‐7.32001 43
68.0 1.186824 ‐5.68379 ‐1.4822 ‐4.4466 ‐10.1304 ‐7.70887 44
69.0 1.204277 ‐5.86575 ‐1.50135 ‐4.50406 ‐10.3698 ‐8.10883 45
70.0 1.22173 ‐6.0453 ‐1.52025 ‐4.56076 ‐10.6061 ‐8.52034 46
71.0 1.239184 ‐6.22257 ‐1.53891 ‐4.61674 ‐10.8393 ‐8.9439 47
72.0 1.256637 ‐6.39773 ‐1.55735 ‐4.67206 ‐11.0698 ‐9.38004 48
73.0 1.27409 ‐6.57091 ‐1.57558 ‐4.72674 ‐11.2977 ‐9.82934 49
194
74.0 1.291544 ‐6.74225 ‐1.59362 ‐4.78085 ‐11.5231 ‐10.2924 50 PAH＝ 0.49 KN/m
75.0 1.308997 ‐6.91189 ‐1.61147 ‐4.83442 ‐11.7463 ‐10.77 51 PAV＝ 0.15 KN/m
76.0 1.32645 ‐7.07994 ‐1.62916 ‐4.88749 ‐11.9674 ‐11.2627 52 hp ＝ 0.15 m
77.0 1.343904 ‐7.24654 ‐1.6467 ‐4.9401 ‐12.1866 ‐11.7715 53
78.0 1.361357 ‐7.4118 ‐1.6641 ‐4.99229 ‐12.4041 ‐12.2971 54
79.0 1.37881 ‐7.57584 ‐1.68136 ‐5.04409 ‐12.6199 ‐12.8405 55
80.0 1.396263 ‐7.73878 ‐1.69851 ‐5.09554 ‐12.8343 ‐13.4027 56

W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift;
PAV
Uplift
(2)Distance
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 Total 3.37 0.52 -0.49 -0.07
Static water
195
pressure; l
q
Uplift;
B1
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m‐ 0.15m) β
3 22kN
3.22kN= 0 14 2 23.00kN/m2
0.14m2× 23 00kN/ 2 ↓PAV
Dead l d
D d load; W1 1:m1 ←PAH
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 H α 1:m2
W3 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 w1 w3
w2
B2 B3 ω
pressure;

Uplift;
B4
Earth pressure; PAH ‐0.49kN
PAV 0.15kN
Type 3
25.00 0.436 10.02405 0.171256 0.513769 10.53782 1.61905 1
26.00 0.454 9.173865 0.081763 0.24529 9.419155 1.609353 2
27.00 0.471 8.382433 ‐0.00155 ‐0.00464 8.377797 1.574653 3
28.00 0.489 7.643429 ‐0.07934 ‐0.23801 7.405424 1.517675 4
29.00 0.506 6.951404 ‐0.15218 ‐0.45654 6.494864 1.44074 5
30.00 0.524 6.301632 ‐0.22058 ‐0.66173 5.6399 1.345829 6
31.00 0.541 5.689995 ‐0.28496 ‐0.85488 4.835116 1.234638 7
32.00 0.559 5.112892 ‐0.34571 ‐1.03712 4.075769 1.108624 8
33.00 0.576 4.567154 ‐0.40315 ‐1.20946 3.357693 0.96904 9
34.00 0.593 4.049986 ‐0.45759 ‐1.37278 2.677208 0.816969 10
35.00 0.611 3.558909 ‐0.50928 ‐1.52785 2.031054 0.65334 11
36.00 0.628 3.09172 ‐0.55846 ‐1.67539 1.416332 0.47896 12
37.00 0.646 2.646452 ‐0.60533 ‐1.816 0.830454 0.294518 13
38.00 0.663 2.221346 ‐0.65008 ‐1.95024 0.271104 0.100612 14
39.00 0.681 1.81482 ‐0.69287 ‐2.07862 ‐0.2638 ‐0.10225 15
40.00 0.698 1.425449 ‐0.73386 ‐2.20158 ‐0.77613 ‐0.31363 16
41.00 0.716 1.051948 ‐0.77318 ‐2.31953 ‐1.26758 ‐0.53316 17
42.00 0.733 0.693151 ‐0.81094 ‐2.43283 ‐1.73968 ‐0.76053 18
43.00 0.750 0.348001 ‐0.84728 ‐2.54183 ‐2.19382 ‐0.99548 19
196
44.00 0.768 0.015534 ‐0.88227 ‐2.64681 ‐2.63128 ‐1.23781 20
45.00 0.785 ‐0.30513 ‐0.91603 ‐2.74808 ‐3.0532 ‐1.48734 21
46.00 0.803 ‐0.61479 ‐0.94862 ‐2.84586 ‐3.46065 ‐1.74396 22
47.00 0.820 ‐0.91418 ‐0.98014 ‐2.94041 ‐3.85459 ‐2.00757 23
48.00 0.838 ‐1.20398 ‐1.01064 ‐3.03192 ‐4.23591 ‐2.27812 24
49.00 0.855 ‐1.48481 ‐1.0402 ‐3.12061 ‐4.60542 ‐2.55559 25
50.00 0.873 ‐1.75725 ‐1.06888 ‐3.20664 ‐4.9639 ‐2.83997 26
51.00 0.890 ‐2.02183 ‐1.09673 ‐3.29019 ‐5.31202 ‐3.13132 27
52.00 0.908 ‐2.27902 ‐1.1238 ‐3.37141 ‐5.65044 ‐3.42967 28
53.00 0.925 ‐2.5293 ‐1.15015 ‐3.45045 ‐5.97975 ‐3.73514 29
54.00 0.942 ‐2.77308 ‐1.17581 ‐3.52743 ‐6.30051 ‐4.04782 30
55.00 0.960 ‐3.01075 ‐1.20083 ‐3.60248 ‐6.61324 ‐4.36786 31
56.00 0.977 ‐3.24269 ‐1.22524 ‐3.67573 ‐6.91841 ‐4.69543 32
57.00 0.995 ‐3.46922 ‐1.24909 ‐3.74726 ‐7.21649 ‐5.0307 33

58.00 1.012 ‐3.69068 ‐1.2724 ‐3.8172 ‐7.50788 ‐5.3739 34
59.00 1.030 ‐3.90736 ‐1.29521 ‐3.88562 ‐7.79298 ‐5.72526 35
60.00 1.047 ‐4.11954 ‐1.31754 ‐3.95263 ‐8.07217 ‐6.08505 36
61.00 1.065 ‐4.32749 ‐1.33943 ‐4.0183 ‐8.34578 ‐6.45357 37
62.00 1.082 ‐4.53145 ‐1.3609 ‐4.0827 ‐8.61415 ‐6.83113 38
63.00 1.100 ‐4.73166 ‐1.38198 ‐4.14593 ‐8.87759 ‐7.21808 39

64.00 1.117 ‐4.92834 ‐1.40268 ‐4.20804 ‐9.13638 ‐7.61481 40
67.00 1.169371 ‐5.49924 ‐1.46277 ‐4.38832 ‐9.88756 ‐8.86793 43
68.00 1.186824 ‐5.68379 ‐1.4822 ‐4.4466 ‐10.1304 ‐9.30823 44
69.00 1.204277 ‐5.86575 ‐1.50135 ‐4.50406 ‐10.3698 ‐9.76073 45
71.00 1.239184 ‐6.22257 ‐1.53891 ‐4.61674 ‐10.8393 ‐10.7048 47
72.00 1.256637 ‐6.39773 ‐1.55735 ‐4.67206 ‐11.0698 ‐11.1978 48
73.00 1.27409 ‐6.57091 ‐1.57558 ‐4.72674 ‐11.2977 ‐11.7056 49
74.00 1.291544 ‐6.74225 ‐1.59362 ‐4.78085 ‐11.5231 ‐12.2293 50
75.00 1.308997 ‐6.91189 ‐1.61147 ‐4.83442 ‐11.7463 ‐12.7695 51
76.00 1.32645 ‐7.07994 ‐1.62916 ‐4.88749 ‐11.9674 ‐13.3274 52
77.00 1.343904 ‐7.24654 ‐1.6467 ‐4.9401 ‐12.1866 ‐13.904 53
78.00 1.361357 ‐7.4118 ‐1.6641 ‐4.99229 ‐12.4041 ‐14.5003 54
79.00 1.37881 ‐7.57584 ‐1.68136 ‐5.04409 ‐12.6199 ‐15.1176 55
80.00 1.396263 ‐7.73878 ‐1.69851 ‐5.09554 ‐12.8343 ‐15.7573 56
PAH＝ 1.58 KN/m
PAV＝ 0.35 KN/m
hp＝ 0.15 m
197

W3 0.00m2= 0.00m× 0.45m× 1/2 Dead load W1 3.22 0.15 0.48
pressure; W3 0.00 0.30 0.00
Uplift;
PAV
Uplift U1
(2)Distance
W2 0.00m= 0.00m× 2/3 S1 -0.48 0.23 -0.11
W3 0.30m= 0.00m+ 0.30m+ 0.00m× 1/3 S2 0.00 0.15 0.00
pressure;
Uplift; Total 3.57 0.59 -2.06 -0.35
198
PAV 0.30m= 0.30m+ 0.00m× (0.45m‐ 0.15m)
S1 0.23m= 0.45m× 1/2
S2 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3
S3 0.15m= 0.45m× 1/3
l
(3)External force by unit width q
Dead load; W1 3.22kN= 0.14m2× 23.00kN/m2 H1 1:m3
B1
W2 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2 β
W3 0.00kN= 0.00m2× 23.00kN/m2
Static water
pressure;
1:m1 ↓P
EAV
Uplift; S1 α ←P
S2 EAH
Earth pressure; PAH ‐1.58kN H S3

1:m2
PAV 0.35kN w2 w1 w3
↓ ↓ ↓
S1 ‐0.48kN= ‐3.22KN× 0.15 Hd
B2 B3 ω
S2 0.00kN= 0.00KN× 0.15
S3 0.00kN= 0.00KN× 0.15 B4
5.2 Design of Related Structures
5.2.1 Design of Inner Space Width and Opening Height of Gate (Chapter
3.4.6)
Based on the assumed value of inner space width and opening height of gate,
space width and opening height of gate can be calculated trial and error
calculation. Refer to Excel format guide 3 for the calculation.
In case of free out flow (Fr=V/√(g×h) ≥ 1)
Q = Ca × b × d × √ ( 2g × h1 )
Division Gate h1 h2 b D h1/d h2/d Ca Q Design d≤ Design d

box
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m3/s) max d(m)
DB1 Retaining wall 0.24 0.053 0.2 0.14 1.74 0.38 0.45 0.027 0.45 OK
canal → ※1 ※2 ※1
Secondary canal
DB1 Retaining wall 0.24 0.30 0.15 0.43 1.30 1.14 0.45 0.063 0.50 OK
canal → Earthen ※2
canal
※ 1; These value is calculated based on design of secondary canal
※ 2; These value is calculated by Trial and error calculation
199
Excel format guide 3. Opening height of gate (Division box)
1. Opening height of gate (d)
①Water depth upstream of gate (h1) 0.24 m
②Water depth downstream of gate (h2) 0.053 m
③Inner space width (b) = 0.2 m
④Opening height of gate (d) = 0.138 m ← Goal seek ("By changing cell")
⑤h1 / d = 1.74
⑥h2 / d = 0.38
⑦Coefficient of discharge (Ca) 0.45
⑧Discharge 0.027 m3/s
⑨The result of calculation of discharge 0.027 ← Goal seek
( "set cell". "to value" = ⑧ value)
200
5.2.2 Design of Drops (Chapter 3.4.5)
(1) Basic data for design (in case of construction of drop into retaining
wall canal)
・Design water intake discharge (Q) = 0.063m3/s,
・Upstream canal width (B1) = 0.5m,
Water depth (h1) = 0.24m, Velocity (V1) = 0.52m/s
・Downstream canal width (B2) = 0.5m,
Water depth (h2) = 0.24m, Velocity (V2) = 0.52m/s
・Width of outfall (B) = 0.5m (This value is assumption at first)
・Width of the water cushion (B0) = 0.7m (This value is assumption at first)
・Head of energy line to the center of water vain (Z) = 0.3
(This value is assumption at first)
・Depth of water cushion (hD) = 0.15m (This value is assumption at first)
(2) Upstream canal ….. (See 3.4.5(3)2))

q = 0.063 / 0.5 =0.13 m3/s · m ≤ 2
So, L = 1.2 + 3√Q / 2 = 1.2 + 3√0.063 /2 = 1.58m ≈ 1.60m
(3) Critical Depth and others

Critical depth (hc), Specific energy at the critical depth of upstream canal (H),
Head of energy line to the center of water vain (Z), Vertical distance
measured downward from the outfall’s downstream end (y) ….. (See
3.4.5(3)3)(c), 3.4.5(3)4)(d), 3.2.4(2))
hc = 0.467q2/3 = 0.467 × 0.1262/3 = 0.12m

hvc = (Q / (hc × B))2 / 2g = (0.063 / (0.12 × 0.5))2 / (2 × 9.8) = 0.06m
H = 1.5 × hc = 1.5 × 0.12 = 0.18m
Z = y + H = y + 0.18 = 0.3
∴ y = 0.3 – 0.18 = 0.12 m
(4) Shape of water vein ….. (See 3.4.5(3)4)(a))

In case of with afflux, the calculation is as follows;
(a) Track of the center of water vein
X/H = 1.155 { (y/H) + 0.333 }0.5

∴ X = 1.155 × 0.18 { (0.12/0.18) + 0.333 }0.5 = 0.21m
201
(b) Inclination angle of water vein

tanϴ = 1.5 (X/H) = 1.5 (0.21/0.18) = 1.75
∴ϴ = 60.3°
(c) Velocity at the center of water vein

V = √(2gz) = √ (2 × 9.8 × 0.3) = 2.42m/s
(d) Thickness of water vein

d = Q / (B × V) = 0.063 / (0.5 × 2.42) = 0.05m
(5) Flow velocity of downward water vein in the water cushion ….. (See
3.4.5(3)4)(b))
Hn = hD + h2+V22/2g = 0.15 + 0.24 +0.522 / (2 × 9.8) = 0.40m

S = Hn / sinϴ = 0.4 /sin60.3° = 0.4 / 0.869 = 0.46m
5.82d = 5.82 × 0.05 = 0.29m
So, S = 0.46 > 5.82d = 0.29

∴Vmax = 2.41V/ √(S/d) = 2.41 × 2.42 / √(0.46/0.05) = 1.92m/s
(6) Length of the water cushion (L0) ….. (See 3.4.5(3)4)(c))

In the case of the width B0 of the water cushion is equal to the width of
downstream canal.
L = X + l’ = X + Hn / tanϴ = 0.21 + 0.4/1.75 = 0.44m
L0 ≥ 2.5L = 2.5 × 0.44 = 1.1m

∴L0 = 1.5m
(7) Confirmation calculation ….. (See 3.4.5(3)4)(c))

2
P = γw × B0 × Hn / 2 = 1 × 0.5 × 0.42 / 2 = 0.04KN
3M = 3× γw × Q × Vmax / g = 3 × 1 × 0.063 × 1.92 / 9.8 = 0.037
∴ P = 0.04 > 3M = 0.037 OK
(8) Height of drop (hf + hd)

hf + hd = y + Hn = 0.12 + 0.4 = 0.52m ≈ 0.6m
202
(9) Rising height of outfall (d0)

hvc + hc + d0 = h1 + V12/2g
∴ d0 = h1 + V12/2g – hvc – hc = 0.24 + 0.522 / (2 x 9.8) – 0.06 – 0.12 = 0.074

≈ 0.08m
<Confirmation calculation>
d0 = 0.08 > 0.3 × hc = 0.3 × 0.12 = 0.036 OK
Refer to Excel format guide 4 for the calculation.
(10) Confirmation of the water level whether complete drop or

incomplete drop….. (See 3.4.5(3)1)(c))
∴ 0 =
The value of h2 (the water level of the boundary area between an area with
complete drop and an area with incomplete drop) is calculated by trial and
error calculation. Refer to Excel format guide 4 for calculation of above
formula.
The result of calculation, h2 = 0.49m
Actual downstream canal water depth is 0.24m, so this water flow is
complete drop.
203
Excel format guide 4. Drops
(1) Basic data for design
Design water discharge (Q) 0.063 m3/s
Upstream canal width (B1) 0.5 m
Upstream canal water depth (h1) 0.24 m
Upstream canal water velocity (V1) 0.52 m/s
Downstream canal width (B2) 0.5 m
Downstream canal water depth (h2) 0.24 m
Downstream canal water velocity (V2) 0.52 m/s
Width of outfall (B) 0.5 m ← Use for design ※This value is assumption at first
Width of the water cushion (B0) 0.7 m ← Use for design ※This value is assumption at first
Head of energy line to the center of water vain (Z) 0.30 m ※This value is assumption at first
Depth of water cushion (hD) 0.15 m ← Use for design ※This value is assumption at first
(2) Upstream canal
※In the case of q>2, formula has
Discharge per unit width (q) 0.13 m3/s
to be changed
Length of upstream canal (L) 1.58 m
∴ For design, L = 1.60 m ← Use for design
(3) Critical depth (hc), Specific energy at the critical
depth of upstream canal (H), Head of energy line to
the center of water vain (Z), Vertical distance
measured downward from the outfall’s downstream
end (y)
Critical depth (hc) 0.12 m
Water head of velocity in the case of Critical depth
0.06 m
(hvc)
Specific energy at the critical depth of upstream
0.18 m
canal (H)
Vertical distance measured downward from the
0.12 m
outfall’s downstream end (y)
(4) Shape of water vein
In the case of with afflux,
(a) Track of the center of water vein (X) 0.21 m ※In the case of without afflux,
(b) Inclination angle of water vein (tanϴ) 1.75 formula has to change
ϴ 60.3 °
rad 1.1
(c) Velocity at the center of water vein (V) 2.42 m/s
(d) Thickness of water vein (d) 0.05 m
(5) Flow velocity of downward water vein in the water cushion
Water depth at the end of the water chshion(Hn) 0.4 m
Penetration distance (S) 0.46 m
5.82d 0.29 m
S > 5.82d
204
Flow velocity at an arbitrary point in the penetration
※In the case of S≤5.82d, formula
direction which is on the extention of the center 1.92 m/s
has to be changed
entry angle of falling water vein (Vmax)
(6) Length of the water cushion
The horizontal distance which is from the outfall
section of the falling water vein to the location at
0.44 m
which the central portion of water vein comes in
contact with the bottom of the water cushion (L)
※In the case of B0=B2, formula
Length of the water cushion (L0) > 1.1 m
has to be changed
∴ For design, L0 = 1.5 ← Use for design
(7) Confirmation calculation
Hydrostatic pressure at the end of the water cushion
0.04 KN
(P)
Percentage (Force) of momentum change per unit
time at a location at which a falling water vein 0.0123 KN
reaches the bottom of the water cushion (M)
∴ 3M = 0.037
P > 3M
OK ← When this cell is "NG", B0 or hD has to be change
(8) Height of drop (hf + hD) 0.52 m
∴ For design, hf + hD = 0.60 m ← Use for design
(9) Rising height of outfall (d0) 0.074 m
∴ For design, d0 = 0.08 m ← Use for design
d0 > 0.3hc
OK ← When this cell is "NG", d0 has to be changed
(10) Confirmation
hf 0.45 m
←Goal seek "By changing cell"
h2 0.49 m
※This value is assumption at first
0.000 ← Goal seek ("set sell". "to value" = 0)
Above h2 > 0.24 ←Downstream canal water depth (h2)
OK = Complete drop
When this cell is "NG", Z or hD has to be changed
205
5.3 How to use “Goal seek”
There is a function named “Goal Seek” on Excel.

This function can simplify trial and error calculation.
To use this function, it has to go to [Data] tab on Excel, then select [What-IF
Analysis], and select [Goal Seek]. Place of item is shown below.
After select [Goal Seek], it can be selected “Set cell” which is having formula.
Then enter a figure into “To value” which is target value.
Finally it can be selected “By changing cell” which is a cell to change figure
to get target value. This cell’s figure is an assumption value at first.
After those three cells are set on Goal Seek and click on OK, Excel calculates
to find target value by itself and show that value under “By changing cell”.
There is some guidance about “Set cell”, “To value” and “By changing cell” in
Excel format guide on this manual as follows.
206
<Example>
In this case above,
“Set cell” is a ⑥ cell (blue color cell) which is having formula about the
calculation of Design head,
“To value” is 0 because the formula about the calculation of Design head
should be close to zero as much as possible,
“By changing cell” is ⑤ cell (green cell). This cell’s figure is an assumption
value at first.
After those three cells are set on Goal Seek and click on OK, the value of “By
changing cell” is shown most proper value (target value) to be close to zero
as the answer of formula about the calculation of Design head automatically.
207
References
1. Engineering Manual for Irrigation & Drainage, Canal Works, The

Japanese Institute of Irrigation and Drainage, 1987
2. Land Improvement Project Plan Design Standard, Design Canal Works

Technical Document, The Japanese Institute of Irrigation and Drainage,
2002
208
List of Authors

Name of Guidelines and Manuals Name Field Affiliation
Ministry of
Water resources
Mr. Nobuhiko Suzuki Agriculture, Forestry
Guideline for Irrigation Master planning
and Fisheries
Plan Study Preparation
on Surface Water Resources
Mr. Roba Muhyedin Irrigation Engineer OIDA Head Office
LANDTEC JAPAN,
Manual for Runoff Analysis Mr. Yasukazu Kobayashi Runoff Analysis
Inc.
Manual of GIS for ArcGIS KOKUSAI KOGYO

Mr. Ron Nagai GIS Application
(Basic & Advanced Section) CO., LTD.
Manual on Land Use Classification KOKUSAI KOGYO

Mr. Kazutoshi Masuda Remote Sensing
Analysis Using Remote Sensing CO., LTD.
Guidance for Oromia Irrigation Facility Ministry of
Development Project Mr. Kenjiro Futagami Design/Construction Agriculture, Forestry
Implementation Supervision and Fisheries
Study and Design Technical Facility Design/ Ministry of
Guideline for Irrigation Projects Mr. Naoto Takano Construction Agriculture, Forestry
(Irrigaiton Engineering Part) Supervision and Fisheries
(Socio-Economy, Community,
Financial and Economic analysis Mr. Tafesse Andargie Economist OIDA Head Office
Part)
(Agronomy and Soil Part) Mr. Abdeta Nate'a Agronomist OIDA Head Office
Technical Guideline for Sanyu Consultants

Mr. Motohisa Wakatsuki Head works design
Design of Headworks Inc.
Project
Technical Guideline for Small Sanyu Consultants
Mr. Haruo Hiki Management/
Scale Reservoir Inc.
Planning/Reservoir
Facility Design/ Ministry of
Technical Guideline for Irrigation
Mr. Naoto Takano Construction Agriculture, Forestry
Canal and Related Structures
Supervision and Fisheries
Construction
Construction Control Manual Mr. Yoshiaki Otsubo Supervision (Bura Tokura Corporation
SSSIP)
Guidance for Preparation of Facility Ministry of
Operation and Maintenance Mr. Kenjiro Futagami Design/Construction Agriculture, Forestry
Manual Supervision and Fisheries
Irrigation Water Users Association
Formation and Development Mr. Tafesse Andargie Economist OIDA Head Office
Manual
Strengthening of
Mr. Yasushi Osato Nippon Koei Co.
Strengthening Irrigation Water WUA
Users Association (IWUA)
Guideline
Mr. Tafesse Andargie Economist OIDA Head Office
Small Scale Irrigation Water

Management Guideline Mr. Yohannes Geleta Irrigation Engineer OIDA Head Office
(Irrigation Water Supply Part)
(Field Irrigation Water
Mr. Abdeta Nate'a Agronomist OIDA Head Office
Management Part)
Remarks: Affiliation is shown when he work for CBID project.
209
List of Experts who contributed to revise guidelines and manuals (1/5)

Office Name Specialty
OIDA Head office Mr. Abdeta Nate'a Agronomist
OIDA Head office Mr. Kibrom Driba Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Kurabachew Shewawerk Agronomist
OIDA Head office Mr. Lemma Adane Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Roba Muhyedin Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Shemeles Tefera Agronomist
OIDA Head office Ms. Sintayehu Getahun Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Tafesse Andargie Economist
OIDA Head office Mr. Tafesse Tsegaye Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Tatek Worku Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Teferi Dhaba Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Terfasa Fite Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Tesfaye Deribe Irrigation Engineer
OIDA Head office Mr. Yohannes Dessalegn Economist

OIDA Head office Mr. Yohannes Geleta Irrigation Engineer
OWMEB Mr. Girma Etana Irrigation Engineer
OWMEB Mr. Kedir Lole Irrigation Engineer
Arsi Mr .Dedefi Ediso Agronomist
Arsi Mr. Birhanu Mussie Irrigation Engineer
Arsi Mr. Dinberu Abera Sociologist
Arsi Mr. Hussen Beriso Economist
Arsi Mr. Mulat Teshome Surveyor
Arsi Mr. Segni Bilisa Agronomist
Arsi Mr. Shewngezew Legesse Irrigation Engineer
210

Arsi Mr. Tamerwold Elias Irrigation Engineer

Arsi Mr. Tesfaye Gudisa Irrigation engineer
Arsi Mr. Teshome Eda'e Irrigation Engineer
Arsi Ms. Worknesh Kine Geologist
Bale Mr. Abboma Terresa Irrigation Engineer
Bale Mr. Abdulreshed Namo Irrigation Engineer
Bale Mr. Beyan Ahmed Economist
Bale Mr. Diriba Beyene Irrigation Engineer
Bale Mr. Firew Demeke Teferi Irrigation engineer
Bale Mr. Gosa Taye Debela Irrigation engineer
Bale Mr. Zeleke Agonafir Agronomist
Borena Mr. Dida Sola Irrigation Engineer
East Harerge Mr. Abdi Abdulkedar Irrigation Engineer
East Harerge Mr. Elias Abdi Irrigation Engineer
East Harerge Mr. Shemsedin kelil Irrigation Engineer
East Harerge Ms. Eskedar Mulatu Economist
East Shewa Mr. Andaregie Senbeta Economist
East Shewa Mr. Bekele Gebre Irrigation Engineer
East Shewa Mr. Dilibi ShekAli Sociologist
East Shewa Mr. Ejara Tola Agronomist
East Shewa Mr. Girma Niguse Irrigation Engineer
East Shewa Mr. Kebebew Legesse Irrigation Engineer
East Shewa Mr. Mulatu Wubishet Agronomist
East Shewa Mr. Tadesse Mekuria Agronomist
211

East Shewa Ms. Tigist Amare Irrigation Engineer

East Shewa Mr. Zerfu Seifu Irrigation Engineer
East Welega Mr. Benti Abose Economist
East Welega Mr. Birhanu Yadete Agronomist
East Welega Mr. Dasalegn Tesema Economist
East Welega Mr. Gamachis Asefa Irrigation Engineer
East Welega Mr. Getachew Irena Agronomist
East Welega Mr. Kidane Fekadu Irrigation Engineer
East Welega Mr. Milikesa Workeneh Irrigation Engineer
East Welega Ms. Mulunesh Bekele Irrigation Engineer
East Welega Mr. Samson Abdu Irrigation Engineer
East Welega Mr. Tulam Admasu Irrigation Engineer
East Welega Ms. Yeshimebet Bule Economist
Guji Mr. Abadir Sultan Sociology
Guji Mr. Dawud Menza Irrigation Engineer
Guji Mr. Fikadu Mekonin Geologist
Guji Mr. Megersa Ensermu Irrigation Engineer
Guji Mr. Wandesen Bakale Economist
Horoguduru Welega Mr. Seleshi Terfe Economist
Horoguduru Welega Mr. Temesgen Mekonnen Irrigation Engineer
Horoguduru Welega Mr. Tesfaye Chimdessa Economist
Illubabor Mr. Ahmed Sani Irrigation Engineer
Jimma Mr. Lebeta Adera Irrigation Engineer
Kelem Welega Mr. Ayana Fikadu Agronomist
212

Kelem Welega Mr. Megarsa Kumara Hydrologist

Kelem Welega Mr. Oda Teshome Economist
Northe Shewa Mr. Henok Girma Irrigation Engineer
South West Shewa Mr. Bedasa Tadele Irrigation Engineer
South West Shewa Mr. Gemechu Getachew Irrigation Engineer
West Arsi Mr. Abebe Gela Irrigation Engineer
West Arsi Mr. Demissie Gnorie Irrigation Engineer
West Arsi Mr. Feyisa Guye Irrigation Engineer
West Arsi Mr. Hashim Hussen Economist
West Arsi Mr. Jemal Jeldo Economist
West Arsi Mr. Mekonnen Merga Environmentalist
West Arsi Mr. Mohamedsafi Edris Irrigation Engineer
West Arsi Mr. Molla Lemesa Agronomist
West Arsi Mr. Tamene Kena Sociologist
West Arsi Mr. Tibaho Gobena Irrigation Engineer
West Harerge Mr. Alemayehu Daniel Agronomist
West Harerge Mr. Dereje Kefyalew Irrigation Engineer
West Harerge Mr. Ferid Hussen Irrigation Engineer
West Harerge Mr. Nuredin Adem Irrigation Engineer
West Harerge Mr. Seifu Gizaw Economist
West Shewa Mr. Jergna Dorsisa Irrigation Engineer
West Shewa Mr. Solomon Mengistu Agronomist
West Shewa Mr. Zerhun Abiyu Irrigation Engineer
West Welega Mr. Belaye kebede Irrigation Engineer
213

West Welega Mr. Busa Degefe Economist

West Welega Mr. Temesgen Runda Irrigation Engineer
Ministry of Agriculture Mr. Amerga Kearsie Irrigation Engineer
Ministry of Agriculture Mr. Zegeye Kassahun Agronomist
Amhara Agriculture
Mr. Assefa Zeleke Economist
Bureau
OWWDSE Mr. Damtew Adefris Irrigation Engineer
OWWDSE Mr. Demelash Mulu Irrigation Engineer
OWWDSE Mr. Teshoma Wondemu Irrigation Engineer
Latinsa SC. Mr. Aschalew Deme Irrigation Engineer
Latinsa SC. Mr. Daba Feyisa Agronomist
Metaferia Consulting
Mr. Getu Getoraw Irrigation Engineer
Engineers
Mr. Hassen Bahru Sociologist
Engineers
Ms. Nitsuh Seifu Irrigation Engineer
Engineers
Remarks: Office Name is shown when he/she works for CBID project.
214
List of Editors
Name of Guidelines and Manuals Name Field Affiliation
 Guideline for Irrigation Master Lecturer in Arba

Mr. Ermias Alemu Demissie Irrigation Engineer
Plan Study Preparation on Minch University
Surface Water Resources Lecturer in Arba
Mr. Zerihun Anbesa Hydrologist
Minch University
 Technical Guideline for Lecturer in Arba
Mr. Ermias Alemu Demissie Irrigation Engineer
Design of Headworks Minch University
 Technical Guideline for Hydraulic
Irrigation Canal and Related Lecturer in Arba
Mr. Bereket Bezabih Engineer
Structures Minch University
(Geo technical)
Construction
LANDTEC JAPAN,
 Construction Control Manual Mr. Eiji Takemori Supervision (Hirna
Inc.
SSIP)
Construction
Supervision Sanyu Consultants
 Construction Control Manual Dr. Hiroaki Okada
(Sokido/Saraweba Inc.
SSIP)
Construction
Independent
 Construction Control Manual Mr. Shinsuke Kubo Supervision
Consulting Engineer
(Shaya SSIP)
 Technical Guideline for Chief JIID (The Japanese
Design of Headworks Mr. Toru Ikeuchi Advisor/Irrigation Institute of Irrigation
 Construction Control Manual Technology and Drainage)
 Technical Guideline for Facility Ministry of
Design of Headworks Mr. Kenjiro Futagami Design/Constructi Agriculture, Forestry
 Construction Control Manual on Supervision and Fisheries
Chief Ministry of
 All Guidelines and Manuals Mr. Hiromu Uno Advisor/Irrigation Agriculture, Forestry
Technology and Fisheries
 Manual for Runoff Analysis
 Manual of GIS for ArcGIS
Ministry of
(Basic & Advanced Section) Water resources
Mr. Nobuhiko Suzuki Agriculture, Forestry
 Manual on Land Use planning
and Fisheries
Classification Analysis Using
Remote Sensing
 Guidance for Oromia
Irrigation Development
Project Implementation
 Study and Design Technical
Guideline for Irrigation
Projects
 Technical Guideline for
Design of Headworks
 Technical Guideline for Small
Scale Reservoir
Facility Design/ Ministry of
 Construction Control Manual
Mr. Naoto Takano Construction Agriculture, Forestry
 Guidance for Preparation of Supervision and Fisheries
Operation and Maintenance
Manual
 Irrigation Water Users
Association Formation and
Development Manual
 Strengthening Irrigation Water
Users Association (IWUA)
Guideline
 Small Scale Irrigation Water
Management Guideline
215
List of Coordinators

Name Field Affiliation
Mr. Ryosuke Ito Coordinator/Training Independent
Mr. Tadashi Kikuchi Coordinator/Training Regional Planning International Co.
216
Contact Person
Mr. Yohannes Geleta (Irrigation Engineer; Environmentalist)

(Tel: 0911-981665, E-mail: yohketi@gmail.com)
Mr. Tafesse Andargie (Economist)

(Tel: 0911-718671, E-mail:andargietafesse@yahoo.com)
Mr. Abdeta Nate'a (Agronomist)

(Tel: 0912-230407, E-mail: abdetanatea@yahoo.com)
Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA)

Tel: 011-1262245
C/O JICA Ethiopia Office

Mina Building, 6th & 7th Floor,
P.O.Box 5384, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel : (251)-11-5504755
Fax: (251)-11-5504465

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Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA)

Technical Guideline for Design of

The Project for Capacity Building in Irrigation Development (CBID)

Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA) is established on June,

To improve irrigation development activities in the Region, the previous

Finally, I would like to thank the Japanese Government, JICA Ethiopia

Feyisa Asefa Adugna

Adugna Jabessa Shuba

2. BASIC DESIGN INPUT DATA (INVESTIGATION) ................................................... 9

3. DESIGN CONCEPTS .................................................................................... 35

4. CHECK LIST FOR CANAL.............................................................................. 157

5. EXAMPLE OF DESIGN FOR CANAL AND RELATED STRUCTURES ........... 161

References .......................................................................................................... 208

1.1 Aim of the Manual

This manual discusses general terms to be considered in the design and

1.2 Scope of the Manual

1.2.1 Classification of Canals and Application

A canal is a series of structures (including facilities for water distribution,

1.3 Classification of Canals

1.3.1 Classification by Purpose

(1) Irrigation canal

(2) Drainage canal

(3) Dual-purpose canal (for irrigation and drainage)

1.3.2 Classification by System

1.3.3 Classification by Type

(1) Open channel type

(2) Pipe line type

1.4 Canal System

The canal system consists of water conveying facilities, diversion facilities,

1.4.1 Water Conveying Facilities

1.4.2 Diversion Facility, Water Measuring Facility and Canal Junction

1.4.3 Regulating Facilities

1.4.4 Protection Facilities

1.4.5 Safety Facilities

1.4.6 Operation and Maintenance Facilities

1.4.7 Appurtenant Facilities

1.4.8 Other Related Facilities for Water Utilization

designing canals and in planning water management, these related facilities

1.5 Basic Considerations in Canal Design

In designing canals, the following matters must be considered basically. The

1.5.1 Basic Considerations in Design

The design of canals must be done so as to fulfill their functions for

(1) Information necessary for design

6) Operation and maintenance

(2) Basic considerations in design of canals

1.5.2 Consideration of Rules Related to Canal Design

1.6 Basic Considerations in Canal Construction

The canal must be constructed according to the plan prepared for

1.6.1 Basic Consideration in Canal Construction

The construction must be executed economically and safely within the

Construction must be executed rationally, economically and safely in

2. BASIC DESIGN INPUT DATA (INVESTIGATION)

2.1 Basic Consideration in Investigation

Investigation must be executed according to well-conceived plan, by an

2.1.1 Plan of Investigation

(1) General items

required in the process due to the interaction of the results. Hence, it is

(2) Steps of investigation

for any material or social reason, suitable supplementary investigation will

2.1.2 Items for Investigation

Items for investigation necessary for the design, construction and

(1) Investigation items for overall plan