Al-Mustansiriya

Technical
Technical
Engineering University
CollegeCollege
/ Al-Najaf
/ Al-Najaf
College of Techniques
Communications EngineeringEng. Dpt.
Electrical
ComputerEngineering Department
Networks-4th Class-2015/2016
Class-2011/2012
Ph.D. courses /Comm. Eng./2018-2019

Spread Spectrum Techniques in

Wireless Communication
Lec.#3:

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

A Seminar
By: :Ahmed Jameel Abdulqader

Tus. 12/03/2019
Topics:
1. Introduction to Frequency Synthesizer
1-1 Characterization of a Frequency Synthesizer
1-2 Reference Frequencies
1-3 Frequency Translation – Mixers

2. Techniques for Frequency Synthesis

2-1 Incoherent Synthesis

2-2 Coherent Synthesis

2-3 Combination of Techniques

3. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

3-1 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Transmitter)

3-2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Receiver)

4. Slow and Fast FHSS

5. Application of Frequency Hopping

6. Comparison Between DSS and FH

6-1 Hybrid DSS/ FH System

1. INTRODUCTION TO FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS

What is the frequency Synthesizer

A frequency synthesizer is the means by which many discrete frequencies are generated from one or more fixed reference
frequencies.

• The reference frequencies are stable and spectrally pure frequency typically generated from a piezoelectric
crystal.
•The control input determines the value of the frequency synthesizer output frequency, fo
1-1Characterization of a Frequency Synthesizer
•Output frequency range : fmin  fo  fmax
•Frequency accuracy : fo ± f (typically in % or parts per million, ppm)

•Frequency switching time –

•Frequency stability as a function of time, temperature and power supply

Expressed as parts per million per influence (time, temperature or power supply)
1-2 Reference Frequencies
Ideally, the reference frequency should be a single frequency independent of all possible influences. It is very difficult
to achieve an output frequency with better characteristics than the reference frequency.

Resonators
The reference frequency can be generated using resonators. Resonator technologies include:
• Quarter-wave resonators – lossless 1/4 wave transmission line (at 3 GHz /4 = 1 inch)
• Quartz resonators – although the piezoelectric effect is smaller, quartz has exceptional mechanical and electrical
stability..

Co = parallel plate capacitance, Lm and Cm = mechanical energy storage, RS = losses

• Surface acoustic wave devices
• Surface waves avoid the undesired nonlinear behavior of bulk waves (LiNbO3)
1-3 Frequency Translation – Mixers
Mixers require nonlinear or time-varying elements in order to provide frequency translation.
Mixer types:
• Multiplication – the output has only the sum and difference of the two input frequencies.

• Modulation – the output not only has the sum and differences of the two input frequencies, but many other
frequencies
Mixer fundamentals:

• A lowpass filter is used to obtain the difference frequency and a highpass filter to obtain the sum frequency

• The mixer gain is given as 2

• A mixer is difficult to analyze because the output frequency is different from the input frequency.
Note: The signals into the mixer do not need to be sinusoidal.
2. Techniques for Frequency Synthesis

1.) Incoherent Synthesis – A relatively few reference frequencies are combined to generate many frequencies.

2.) Coherent Synthesis – A single reference frequency is used to generate many output frequencies.

• Coherent Direct Synthesis – Frequency mixers, frequency dividers, and frequency multipliers are used to generate
many output frequencies. This method is also called arithmetic synthesis.

• Coherent Direct Digital Synthesis – Digital accumulators, ROMs, and digital-analog converters are used to
generate a discrete-time approximation to a sine wave.

• Coherent Indirect Synthesis – Voltage controlled oscillators, mixers, phase locked loops (PLLs), frequency
multipliers, and frequency dividers generate an output that has a definite relationship to a reference frequency.
 2-1

• This synthesizer covers the frequency range of 62.000 to 62.999 MHz

• Thirty reference frequencies (crystals) are used to generate 1000 frequencies
• Minimizing spurious outputs generated in the mixers is important
• At one time, this synthesizer had the advantage of lowest cost, but now indirect digital PLL synthesizers are less expensive.
2-2

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• The speed of switching is high, typically  10µs • Complex system is too expensive to build
• The frequency resolution can be made very • Large number of mixers increases the likelihood of
high without affecting switching speed spurious outputs
Coherent Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS)
DDS generates the signal in the digital domain and utilizes an D/A converter and filtering to reconstruct the waveform in
the analog domain.
Illustration of the DDS principle:
Simple digital synthesis of a sine wave using a counter with N counts-
Coherent Indirect Synthesis
Function of a frequency synthesizer is to generate a frequency fo from a reference frequency fref.
Block diagram:

Components:
Phase/frequency detector outputs a signal that is proportional to the difference between the frequency/phase of two input
periodic signals.

The low-pass filter is use to reduce the phase noise and enhance the spectral purity of the output.

The voltage-controlled oscillator takes the filtered output of the PFD and generates an output frequency which is controlled by
the applied voltage. fo = Nfref
The divider scales the output frequency by a factor of N.
 2-3 Combination of Techniques
Combining the various approaches offers performance that could not otherwise be achieved by a single approach or
technique.
Example of a DDS plus a coherent indirect synthesizer:

Comments:

• The loop bandwidth can be optimized for noise since the output frequency can be changed rapidly and in small intervals by
changing the DDS frequency.
• The technique suffers from a limited output frequency range due to the low value of flow.
• If the purity requirements are high, the DAC needs to have a large number of bits and will be power hungry
3. FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS)

• Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies

• Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter
• Eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips
• Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits

Basic Operation

• Typically 2𝑘 carriers frequencies forming 2𝑘 channels

• Channel spacing corresponds with bandwidth of input
• Each channel used for fixed interval
300 ms in IEEE 802.11
Some number of bits transmitted using some encoding scheme
Sequence dictated by spreading code
 Frequency Hopping Example

Figure above shows an example of a frequency-hopping signal. A number of channels are allocated for the FH signal.
Typically, there are 2k carrier frequencies forming 2k channels. The spacing between carrier frequencies and hence the width
of each channel usually corresponds to the bandwidth of the input signal. The transmitter operates in one channel at a time
for a fixed interval; for example, the IEEE 802.11 standard uses a 300-ms interval. During that interval, some number of
bits is transmitted using some encoding scheme. A spreading code dictates the sequence of channels used. Both transmitter
and receiver use the same code to tune into a sequence of channels in synchronization.
Frequency selection in FHSS

FHSS cycles

Bandwidth sharing
3-1 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Transmitter)

Figure above shows a typical block diagram for a frequency-hopping system. For transmission, binary data
are fed into a modulator using some digital-to-analog encoding scheme, such as frequency shift keying
(FSK) or binary phase shift keying (BPSK). The resulting signal sd(t) is centered on some base frequency. A
pseudo noise (PN), or pseudorandom number, source serves as an index into a table of frequencies; this is
the spreading code referred to previously. Each k bits of the PN source specifies one of the 2k carrier
frequencies. At each successive interval (each k PN bits), a new carrier frequency is selected. The
frequency synthesizer generates a constant-frequency tone whose frequency hops among a set of 2k
frequencies, with the hopping pattern determined by k bits from the PN sequence. This is known as
the spreading or chipping signal c(t). This is then modulated by the signal produced from the initial
modulator to produce a new signal with the same shape but now centered on the selected carrier frequency. A
bandpass filter is used to block the difference frequency and pass the sum frequency, yielding the final FHSS
signal s(t).
3-2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Receiver)

Figure 9.3 shows that the spread spectrum signal is demodulated using the same sequence of PN-derived frequencies and
then demodulated to produce the output data. At the receiver, a signal of the form s(t) defined on the previous slide, will
be received. This is multiplied by a replica of the spreading signal to yield a product signal. A bandpass filter is used to
block the sum frequency and pass the difference frequency, which is then demodulated to recover the binary data.
 IDEA OF FREQUENCY HOPPING SYSTEM

• The frequency synthesizer produces frequency hopping patterns determined

by time varying sequence specified by the output bits of the code generator.

• In the transmitter, the data modulated signal is mixed with the synthesizer output
pattern to produce the frequency hopping signal.

• The transmitted signal has the form

s(t)  Acos(2[( fc  f h ]t)

Where f c is the carrier frequency, and f h is a hopping frequency.

 4. Slow and Fast FHSS
• Frequency shifted every Tc (Th) seconds
• Duration of signal element is Ts seconds
• Slow FHSS has Tc  Ts
• Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
• Generally fast FHSS gives improved performance in noise (or jamming)
A common modulation technique used in conjunction with FHSS is multiple FSK (MFSK), which uses M = 2L different
frequencies to encode the digital input L bits at a time. For FHSS, the MFSK signal is translated to a new frequency every Tc
seconds by modulating the MFSK signal with the FHSS carrier signal. For a data rate of R, the duration of a bit is T = 1/R
seconds and the duration of a signal element is Ts = LT seconds. If Tc is greater than or equal to Ts, the spreading modulation is
referred to as slow-frequency-hop spread spectrum; otherwise it is known as fast-frequency-hop spread spectrum.
Typically, a large number of frequencies is used in FHSS so that bandwidth of the FHSS signal is much larger than that of the
original MFSK signal. One benefit of this is that a large value of k results in a system that is quite resistant to jamming. If
frequency hopping is used, the jammer must jam all 2k frequencies. With a fixed power, this reduces the jamming power in any
one frequency band to Sj/2k. In general, fast FHSS provides improved performance compared to slow FHSS in the face of noise
or jamming.
Slow and Fast FHSS

In general

• Commonly use multiple FSK (MFSK).

• Have frequency shifted every Tc seconds.

• Duration of signal element is Ts seconds.

• Slow FHSS has Tc ≥Ts & Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts.

• FHSS quit resistant to noise or jamming.

• Fast FHSS giving better performance than slow FHSS

Slow Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)
Figure above shows an example of slow FHSS, using the
MFSK. Here we have M = 4, which means that four different
frequencies are used to encode the data input 2 bits at a time.
Each signal element is a discrete frequency tone, and the total
MFSK bandwidth is Wd = Mfd. We use an FHSS scheme with k
= 2. That is, there are 4 = 2k different channels, each of width
Wd. The total FHSS bandwidth is Ws = 2kWd. Each 2 bits of
the PN sequence is used to select one of the four channels. That
channel is held for a duration of two signal elements, or four bits
(Tc (Th) = 2Ts = 4T).
Fast Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)
Figure above shows an example of fast FHSS, using the same
MFSK example. Again, M = 4 and k = 2. In this case, however,
each signal element is represented by two frequency tones. Again,
Wd = Mfd and Ws = 2kWd. In this example Ts = 2Tc (Th) = 2T. In
general, fast FHSS provides improved performance compared to
slow FHSS in the face of noise or jamming. For example, if three
or more frequencies (chips) are used for each signal element, the
receiver can decide which signal element was sent on the basis of
a majority of the chips being correct.
5. APPLICATION OF FREQUENCY HOPPING

• IEEE 802.11 is the standard defining WLAN operation uses FH system.

FHSS is defined (in IEEE 802.11) in the 2.4 GHz band as operating over
79 frequencies ranging from 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz. Each of the
frequencies is GFSK modulated, with a channel width of 1 MHz.

Example:
• Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard for exchanging data
over short distances from fixed and mobile devices. Bluetooth has been
designed to operate in noisy radio frequency environments, and uses a
frequency-hopping scheme to make the link robust, communication-wise.

• Bluetooth radio modules avoid interference from other signals by

hopping to a new frequency after transmitting or receiving a packet.

• Compared with other systems operating in the same frequency band, the
Bluetooth radio typically hops faster and uses shorter packets. This is
because short packages and fast hopping limit the impact of sources of
disturbances.

• Use of Forward Error Correction (FEC) limits the impact of

random noise on long-distance links.
Example 1:

What is the minimum number of bits in a PN sequence if we use FHSS with a channel bandwidth
of W = 4KHz and Ws = 100 KHz?
Sol: Number of hops = 100 KHz / 4 KHz = 25.
Minimum number of bits required in the PN sequence = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 25 = 4.64 = 5.

Example 2:

An FHSS systems uses a 4-bit PN sequence. If the bit rate of the PN is 64 bits per second.
1. What is the total number of possible hops?
2. What is number of finished cycles per time of PN?

Sol: 1- Number of hops = 24 = 16.

2- Number of cycle = (64 bits / s)/ 4 bits = 16 cycles/s
Example 3:

Example 4:
Example 5:
FREQUENCY HOPPING SYSTEM USING M-ARY FSK MODULATION

si (t)  Acos(2[( fo  (2i 1 M ) f d  f h ]t) 1 i  M

At the Transmitter:
FREQUENCY HOPPING SYSTEM USING BINARY FSK MODULATION

yi (t)  Acos(2[(f o  (2i  3) f d ]t)  n(t) 1 i  2

At the receiver:

yi (t)

COMM907 Spread Spectrum Communications

FREQUENCY HOPPING SYSTEM USING M-ARY FSK MODULATION
yi (t)  Acos(2[( f o  (2i 1 M ) f d ]t)  n(t) 1 i  M

d El-Mahdy
 6. COMPARISON BETWEEN DS AND FH

• FH is applicable in environments where there exist tone interferences that can be overcame by avoiding hopping on

those frequencies.

• DS is applicable for multiple access (DS-CDMA) . Also, FH is applicable for multiple access (FH-MA) .

• FH applies usually non-coherent modulation due to carrier synchronization . DS applies coherent modulations

which has better performance.

• FH is an avoidance system: does not suffer near-far effect!

• Both methods can overcome the multipath fading (In DS, multiplying by code, returned back the synchronized replica

from multipath replicas).

• By using hybrid systems some benefits can be combined: The system can have a low probability of interception and

negligible near-far effect at the same time.

6-1 HYBRID DSS/FH SYSTEM

Transmitter

Receiver
 HYBRID DSS/FH SYSTEM

• A hybrid system uses both the DS and FH spread-spectrum

• schemes to combine the advantages of both schesmes.

• Two code sequences are employed in this system. First code sequence is used to generate the DS-SS signal as described

previously. The resulting signal is modulated on a hopping carrier frequency generated by a frequency synthesizer

according to the second code sequence.

• A replica of the hopping carrier is generated locally at the receiver using a coherent hopping code sequence.

• In the receiver, the received signal is filtered and mixed with the hopping frequency and the output of the mixer is de-

spread using the DS code.

THANK YOU FOR ALL