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Educating Through Arts and Crafts
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An integrated approach to craft work
in Steiner Waldorf Schools

Edited by Michael Martin

English edition, by Martyn Rawson
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Steiner Schools Fellowship Publications

 without permission from the publisher

Waldorf Resource Books No.3

© Steiner Schools Fellowship Publications 1999

ISBN 1 900169 06 1

Steiner Waldorf Schools Fellowship

Kidbrooke Park

Forest Row

Sussex RH18 5JA

Telephone: 01342 822115 • Facsimile 01342 826004

E-mail: mail@waldorf.compulink.co.uk

Charity number 295104

Typeset in Tiepolo 11 point

Printed and bound in Great Britain by

Imprint· Crawley Down' Sussex RH 10 4LQ

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PART ONE: FROM PLAY TO WORK

Ernst Buhler
The transfonnation of play and learning processes during early childhood into joy in work.
The significance of the hands
Michael Martin
The age of "work maturity"

PART TWO: THE CRAITS IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

Michael Martin
Introduction
Johannes Geier
Work and activities preceding the teaching of crafts
Michael Martin
The shift of emphasis in the craft lessons during the 12th yeas
Walter Dielhenn . ~
Craft in the middle school
Liesel Gundrun Gienapp
The forestry main-lesson block in our Class 7
Mkhacl Martrn~- - .
___Some reflections on moveable !2}'s
Klaus Charisius
Investigating the nature of wood
Michael Martin
The artlstlc.-t!l!~!!!!~nts In the crafts
Michael Martin -------
Colour in the craft room

PART THREE: ARTS AND CRAITS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL

Michael Martin
Considerations arising from a knowledge of the human being
Michael Martin
The form-giving elements in the crafts and technology
Gerd von Steinencron
Pottery
Michael Martin
The pottery workshop and the modelling room
PART FOUR: THE FORMATIVE ARTISTIC LESSONS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL

Michael Martin
The tasks of the arts In the high school: reports from lessons in modelling and
shaded drawing 131
Anna-Sophia Gross
The Idea of metamorphosis in connection with the modelling lessons of the Waldorf school 148
Rainer Lechler
Working in stone 159
Winifred Stuhlmann
Stone carving in the high school 163
Uwe Bosse
Wood carving In Class 13
Description of a basic course 'Art' 180

PART FIVE: LOOKING AHEAD AND FUTURE TASKS "

Herbert Seufert
Work and rhythm 185
Michael Martin
Some thoughts concerning the methods in the formative lessons 189
Michael Martin
The Influence of work on thinking 194

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO CRAFfWORK IN RUDOLF STEINER SCHOOLS

Aonghus Gordon
From ancient technology to living technology 207

Ii
 in arts and crafts is to support the overall educa­
tional aims of the school.
This means helping the children and adolescents
to find themselves. This self-discovery comes about
in mysteriOUS ways through the fact that the chil­
dren, particularly by working in practical subjects.
by experiencing the shaping of substances, by im~
proving their manual dexterity and by expressing
the needs of the artist within each of them. also
progress a little in world experience.
With an anthroposophically deepened under­
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standing of the human being we may see how
craft-work helps the child develop. This approach
I recognises that learning directed to systematised
structures Is not a spiritual activity as such but
Ii merely a subsequent conservation of those pre­
determined structures. One of Rudolf Steiner's
!
discoveries was that active, living spirit can more
often be detected in the wisdom of practical activ­
ity than in mere reflection 1. For the latter. the brain
serves as the organ for thinking. In the former. how­
ever, it is the limbs themselves that become the
actual organs of knowledge. In manual activities
we think differently than tn our heads. There Is an
intelligence in doing that is important. even neces­
sary. for every occupation and for life Itself and
practical way can be said to work with the liv
spirit. Anthroposophy thus introduces a wh
new concept of spirit and is thereby able to m
it fruitful for life.
All the manual/practical subjects in Stei
Waldorf schools can be seen as eminent start
points for the spiritual development of the child
First doing - then knowing: first experiencin
afterwards reflecting; first meeting the crea
reality - then the distanced reflection. or e
even this will remain empty. Thus the handw
lessons. gardening. all practical experience
agriculture and forestry. as well as the meaning
movements of the limbs in eurythmy and phys
education support the lessons discussed in
book.
The Educational Research Institute welcom
this publication and wishes it positive echoe
the arts and craft lessons as well as all the ot
school subjects. It wishes to thank all the contri
tors. especially Michael Martin (Nurnberg)
co-ordinating and editing the articles. and Diet
Ester! (Stuttgart) for his assistance.
Wolfgang Sc
Stuttgart. April 1
I Steiner. R.. TI,e Foundations of Huma1l Experiellce (Stud
Man). Lecture 13. Anthroposophic Press (AP) , J 996.
make it available to English-speaking colleagues.
One day a hand-typed copy of a translation ar­
rived in the post. It had been done by Carl Hoffman
In New Zealand and the covering note made it avail­
able to us at no cost.
Despite this generosity it has not been easy. The
production costs seemed prohibitive. The market
was deemed too smaIl. The book price would be
too high for British Waldorf teachers. A book of
this scale and artistic merit could not simply be
edited and shortened without losing much of the
original concept. There was a high risk of distort­
ing the integrity of the original. The sheer costs
Involved have also proved daunting. not least for a
schools' movement with an acute lack of resources.
A further problem arose. one of a more cultural
nature. The Impression among many British col­
leagues I spoke to about this project was that the
Middle European relationship to crafts and to the
classical concept of master craftsman and appren­
tice which appeared in their view to characterise
much of the German Waldorf approach to these
subjects was inappropriate. I disagreed with this
perception. It is of course true that a lack of re­
sources has severely limited the development of
adequate craft provision in many Waldorf schools.
Most schools in the UK barely manage to provide
for gardening. elementary woodwork. pottery and
some textile work. Workshops are rudimentary and
many staff lack professional training. My feeling
was, however, that the problem lay elsewhere.
For historical and social reasons education in
Britain has always undervalued manual. practical
work. Vocational training - as practical subjects
were known - was for the non-academic pupil.
those not able to pass many exams. the dirnbos in
the cruel terminology of the pupils themselves. The
Waldorf version of this was far less SOCially divi­
sive but nonetheless subtly discriminating. Crafts
were seen as a healthy balance to intellectual work.
somewhat like fresh air and walking. good for you
but not essential. The British school exam system
and the recently introduced National Curriculum
show a touching concern for the wood, and the
natural environment as a whole.
Some may find these harsh words. I have said
them often enough to colleagues and parents that
my views will come as no surprise. The importance
of an integrated craft curriculum throughout the
school. beginning in kindergarten. is crucial to the
development of the faculties modern individuals
need. However much pleasure one may get from
weaving a basket, no one can pretend that
basket-making is a necessary (or even useful) skill
in the world today. However, tending the willow
beds. stripping the willow wands and weaving a
basket engages the whole human being in direct
contact with nature in an exemplary way. The skills
required develop not only manual dexterity and co­
ordination, but also cultivate a feel for the qualities
of the materials and a sense of form.
There is a wonderful organic objectivity about
working with natural materials. They have their
own laws which must be respected. Planning,
design and problem solving are natural parts of
the work process as is the review afterwards.
There is no more objective quality control than
whether an artefact meets the user's need. In
current terminology we are 'talking serious'
transferable skills which. along with common
sense (the art of evaluating the possible). flex­
ibility, creativity and the will to service, are the
keys to lifelong learning.
In contemporary terminology the crafts described
in this book would be listed under technology and
design. since they all involve both. Some of the crafts
belong to the oldest of human technologies (wood­
carving. ceramics, sculpture, leatherwork, all date
back to paleolithic times). Yet there are a number of
activities taught in Steiner Waldorf schools which
clearly come under the heading of technology and
design, but which are not described here. These in­
clude all the textile skills from spinning, weaving,
batik, dressmaking. tailoring and costume design,
as well as the range of electrical and mechanical
skills, including information technology.
the case. these subjects belong equally within the
curriculum. Detailed descriptions of the subjects
not described in this book can be found in the
relevant sections In The Educational Tasks and
Content of the Waldorf Curriculum, edited by M.
Rawson and T. Richter, SSF. 1999).
The work of the Hiram Trust in the UK has
done much to develop the concept of an
integrated crafts curriculum. The emphasis of
their work has been to help teachers develop new
skills and to encourage schools to integrate
their crafts and technology programmes into
a more holistic approach to the school's envi­
ronment, to discover the resources around them
and to develop the concept of the outdoor class­
room. To date. the Trust has worked with 17
schools and now regularly contributes to teacher
trainIng and annual teacher development courses
at their base at Ruskin Mill. Nailsworth. It would
Notes
Use of gender
The pronouns 'her', 'she', are usually used when
referring to a child. This is occasionally varied and
'he', 'him', also appear in the text.
Footnotes
Where possible the English edition of a Steiner
text is quoted. If this is not known. the date of the
lecture is given. Other authors quoted are only
referenced if their work is known to be published
in English translation.
Finally I would like to thank Michael Martin w
edited the original German book for his faith a
support in producing an English version. Inde
he and his craft colleagues in Germany dug i
their own pockets to make a contribution to
printing costs.
The team who produced this book were:
Carl Hoffmann main translation
Harlan Gilbert translator of the chapter
ceramics
Brien Masters - initial editing
Anne McNicol - typesetting, layout and mu
beSides
Wilma Rawson - final proofreading
Martyn Rawson - editing, research and cove
Martyn Raws
Forest R
August 19
Abbreviations used include:
AP Anthroposophic Press. Hudson. New Yo
GA Gesamptausgabe, German volume
Steiner's complete works. Given where
translation is known.
RSP Rudolf Steiner Press, London.
SSF Steiner Schools Fellowship Publication
Forest Row.
n.d. No date known.
 to work from the commitment of his or her per­ stimuli for further work. for transformation. for dis­
sonality. Each teacher will attempt to find his or covering new ways. They are to serve as examples
her way to an art of education. However great but do not claim to be general values applicable to
their differences may be, their educational intent all schools. or to be the last word on the subject.
is the same: to serve the education initiated by . We hope that this book will make it easier for
Rudolf Steiner. This common aim provided the the newcomer. It will allow him or her to build on
basis for this book. proven ground and gradually feel encouraged to
Anyone person could not have done it. It would find an individual approach. It is only through the
have meant decades of learning in order to master individual creative element that any educationa
all the subjects in the arts and crafts taught in Intention can succeed. What is merely traditiona
Waldorf schools. Whilst the specialist in carpen­ or copied cannot provide the spark that must con­
try may be called upon to learn pottery or the craft nect teacher and children.
of the blacksmith should his school demand it. or Every ideal that can be realised in a practica
the fully trained sculptor be asked to learn all about way will ultimately have to transform. to adapt. i
joinery. should this be required. he wilL however. it is not to remain tied to a ~ell thought-out bu
feel more secure In his own speCialised area and. yet abstract heaven. This applies especially to
therefore, probably teach it better. Because of this schemes that can provide a kind of thought struc­
It seemed to be sensible to ask many specialists to ture that allows for greater clarity. But they are no
contribute towards the great variety of the arts and more than that - structures that must be trans­
craft lessons practised In Waldorf schools. This lated into life! The teacher's sensitive observation
book is the result. . of his students and his educational intention can
Over and above the many different areas of arts never be replaced by schemes or structures, how­
and crafts is the pedagogical task. Why is a cer­ ever excellent they may be.
tain subject taught during anyone year? What An experienced teacher of the first Waldor
are the aims? The search for answers unites the school in Stuttgart expressed this as follows:
individual teachers. ButJoy in doing is not enough. "A curriculum has been worked out that does
The teacher must know the developmental stages not contain an iota of programming or dogmatism.
engendered by the work and how such stages can This applies also to the following indications for
be nurtured. the teaching of subjects in the various classes. They
Textbooks and encyclopaedias cannot provide should not be taken as dogma or rigid rules. The
answers. Instead we have the knowledge of the hu­ ideal curriculum must trace the ever changing piC­
man being given us by Rudolf Steiner. The many ture of the developing human being during the dif­
lecture cycles concentrate on the very kernel of all ferent ages. But, as each ideaL it is confronted by
educational efforts: the human being. Intensive the full reality of life. to which it must adapt. "I
work with this knowledge. applying it to the day to We wish to thank all those who contributed to
day school events. and getting the confirmation of this book. But also those who will read it with in­
its truth during lessons all result in a wealth offar­ terest and patience.
reaching discoveries of new knowledge on which
the school's further development rests. Michael Martin
The weekly teachers' meetings, as well as the Nurnberg, Summer. 1990

I Heydebrand. C. von, The Curriculum of the Wald()rf School.

SSE 1989.

rr--'" If
that expresses the gUiding principle for his striving: stands everything thoroughly. The little bit of w
"He who wishes to solve natural-scientific questions easily negates itself. and everything fades into -
without the aid of mathematics undertakes some­ the words of musicians - conciliatory harmonies ..
thing that cannot be done. One has to measure what The Ministry of Culture is today (1989) discus
can be measured, and make measurable what can ing the introduction of a fourth cultural techniqu
as yet not be measured." - besides reading. writing and arithmetic (th
Translated into the language of the 20th century three R's) - into Classes 7 - 10 in all schools: th
we get: "Only when we have first gained insight teaching of the basics of information technolog
into the methods of natural-scientific thinking Education here becomes primarily head develo
and an understanding of mathematical structures ment that runs the danger of either atrophyin
can we solve the problems confronting us in our feeling and will or. should these be strong
modern, rationalised world." enough present to allow them to unfold unco
This quote comes from the decree of the Ger­ trolled in the child and turn into primitive instinc
man Minister of Culture (1969) that introduced that terrorise the individual himself. leading
'Modern maths' into the lower primary classes. uncontrolled excesses of the will. Will and feelin
It continues: "The schools are given the task of here no longer interweave harmoniously.
mediating a basic knowledge. a foundation that Those lacking the necessary faculties for suc
leads to a comprehension of a mathematical an 'education' will leave school prematurely an
understanding of the reality in which we live." enter an apprenticeship. A career in a trade or craf
What was, in the 16th century. limited to natu­ is for the less intelligent. Manual work - crafts,
ral-scientific problems. is today demanded for trade is still looked upon as inferior. as lacking
the quite general and correct 'comprehension of intelligence.
the reality in which we live'; the handling of It is here where the Waldorf school intelVene
mathematical structures and insights into the Rudolf Steiner sees the human being as a threefo
natural-scientific modes of thinking. being with head. heart and hands. He points to th
We can see this view growing ever stronger many relations between them, to their reciproc
during the centuries. The German humorist influences, to the way they engender each other o
Wilhelm Busch (1832-1906) characterises the if the balance is disturbed, to the way they obstru
situation in this way: development. He traces the gradual developme
"Darwin said. 'Evolution exists'. Let's assume: of these three systems during the years and show
from minus X via 0 to plus X. The human being how each of them contributes its part irreplaceab
would here be our O. while the monkey is still climb­ towards the unfolding of the individual.
ing about on minus X. The progress from minus 1. It is a fatal mistake to believe that an individual
to 0 is obvious. Is it possible our world might be a strength develops through a merely intellectu
mistake? ... All right - in the meantime all life that education or simply by itself. We cannot asses
used to be on 0 becomes extinct. is absorbed into the individuality with average good grades o
plus 1 where. il) the light of the new intellect it IQs. Only an education that addresses the who
immediately resumes its ancient inheritance ... for­ being. that stimulates and permeates, may dare ca
ward! - We are already at plus 10 million - much itself an education, i.e. an education of the who
head. little body ... food: vegetables. Procreation as human being.
before. The swollen head cannot as yet infuse sense This is the reason why Waldorf schools pay a
and reason into the thin body. On we go! Plus 10 . much attention to the development of feeling an
billion. Food: air. Procreation by means of phleg­ will that allows a healthy and living intelligence t
matic bud formation. The human being on 0 has unfold and lead to the awakening and maturing o
long been forgotten. End. Plus X. Nothing but the the individual.
The transformation of play and learning processes
during early childhood into joy in work.
The significance of the hands

The human being's deeply anchored need to free develops from the movements of the limbs. from
himself from the weight of gravity begins to stir dexterity and skills. the better it will be!".
already soon after birth. During the first year, In "If we occupy the children with the arts an
ever new efforts. the child gradually raises himself crafts in the right way. we shall do more for th
from the horizontal to the vertical position. The spirit than by teaching those things considered t
hands are now able to move more freely. During be spiritual and cultural. "I
the weeks immediately after birth they remain The hand is insatiably hungry for experiences.
closed in little fists. as though enveloped in sleep. is not content with merely touching and graspin
Slowly they begin to open; the delicately shaped -objects. It wants to become skilled. to develo
fingers making their first tentative movements. faculties. to learn to do things with the object
These are not as yet guided by any purposeful grasps. Think of the significance of the child's jo
Intentions. They move solely from the need for when it has learnt to hold a spoon correctly. to tak
the will to express itself by doing. Only after it to its mouth. or when It has learnt to raise a cu
several months do the fingers begin to move in a of milk to its lips. tilting it at just the right angle i
co-ordinated way in order to grasp objects In the order to get the required amount into Its mouth.
immediate environment. all happens from the intelligence contained in th
These are learning processes which the child. activity itself. This led Kant to assert that the han
driven by an innate urge. pursues by himself. Dur­ is the .outer brain' of the human being.
Ing this time his hands become ever more skilled
'instruments'. This comes about without any re­ IMITATION
flections on the actual movements; doing and
thinking are as one. Only gradually does thinking The strong union between thinking and doin
develop from this oneness and ultimately leads affects all learning processes of the little child. It
to the duality of doing and thinking. the basis for active also in what we call imitation. Imitation rest
all adult actions. The gradual awakening of think­ on an intensity of perception that makes It possibl
ing in the head thus appears to express itself quite - for the child to connect. without any reservation
early. though unconsciously. in the skills of the with its environment. lets it grow together with it a
hands. It may well be the reason why the child part of it. as oneness. Knowledge of anything is no
wishes so strongly to touch everything that is enough for the child. It feels the need to become a
touchable and to hold it in his hands. What the one with the objects without. feels it so strongly tha
hand touches and grasps is. in time. taken in by it becomes itself an object. This is the strongest form
the heart and. ultimately. grasped also by the of perception - not merely to perceive the objec
head. In the Basel lecture cycle Rudolf Steiner said: but to become an object oneself. Information thu
"The more we take into account ... that intellect intenSifies to identification. The urge to imitate is s
 out are too powerful as in today's loud and sen­
sation-overloaded world - excessive stimulations
will be evident, that negatively affect the healthy
development of the natural urge for doing.
FROM IMITATION TO WORK
This wonderful urge to imitate includes the child's
readiness to copy the grown-ups at work. Since.
however, today's work is generally outside the
child's sphere of experiences, we must endeavour
to compensate by introducing work through which
the child's imitation may overcome the excessive
mechanisation and threatening passivity prevalent
In our time,
The Importance for the child of imitating work
lies in the fact that this does not allow her to act
merely out of its spontaneous Inclinations. It must
occaSionally even learn to adapt to the move­
ments demanded by a specific activity. This
counters the prevalent Instability In our culture by
lending strength and decisiveness to the child's
soul. And, though the old fashioned activities on
farms or in the home have more or less been done
away with. they can be brought to the child's ex­
perience. even in high-rise apartments.
The kitchen comes to mind. Here the child may
experience the stages that lead to a meal. To par­
ticipate not only In eating but also in preparing
food Is of tremendous benefit for the child,
As soon as one sees the significance of the child's
participation. one will also find opportunities, such
as cutting up carrots or potatoes on the child's very
own board. Baking a cake will especially delight
small children. To begin with, mere watching will
provide strong feelings and impressions. Watch­
ing the mother or father beat the butter. knead
the dough. stiJ Is the child's hunger for experiences.
And If she be allowed to prepare her own little cake,
the joy is complete. Co-operating in the making of
an apple cake. slicing the apples and placing them
neatly on the dough. starting at the periphery and
working in ever diminishing circles towards the
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shapes, putting the tray Into the oven. watching
the rising and colouring of the biscuits. smelling
them as they bake, the excitement when mother at
last takes them out, the impatient waiting for them
to cool enough. until mother lets her try one - are
experiences no child should be allowed to miss.
But even the more prosaic chores, such as wash­
ing and drying the dishes. cleaning and dusting,
are activities the little child will delight in if the
adult empathises with her and directs her urge for
imitation to meaningful smaller jobs. Devastating
boredom is prevented and the child's urge to be
active is directed into healthy channels.
There are numerous activities around the
home that provide opportunities for bringing
meaningful work to the child. These help her gain
confidence. and develop co-ordination and self
control. Order and diSCipline enter soul and body.
countering today's alarming increase of behav­
Iour disturbances, permissiveness and greed.
Our consumer orientated society ought to look
at the value of work for education anew. There
is nothing that is more destructive for a child
than merely to consume and to rely solely on the
TV screen and all the excesses of a questionable
affluence for satisfying her needs. The child is by
nature predestined to activity, to exploration of the
world and not to passivity.
PLAY
Already early on. something begins to stir in the
child that cannot be satisfied by mere imitation. She
no longer wishes only to copy but to transform what
she copies. Creative energies, imagination come
into their own - a wish to permeate the imitated
activities and create something from them. Goethe
expressed it thus: "Forming transforming - eternal
maintenance of the eternal senses." As a result of
these energies that come into movement through
play. the child acts out of the individual core of her
being whilst. at the same time. remaining connected
with what is generally held valid.
the cold when they are wet through after splash­
ing about In a river or pool. They especially enjoy
the densified water in snow and ice.
Experiencing the earth is just as impressive. be
it sand. mud or clay. They never tire of playing in
the sand box. where mountains. caves. tunnels and
canals can be built. cakes and puddings shaped.
The child's most precious thing is sand.
No shortage of this substance ever;
It flows on like a powdered river.
So tenderly through the outstretched hand.
(Ringelnatz)
Children experience the air by watching the slow, or
rapid motion of little hand-held propellers. by
blowing soap bubbles, by throwing paper birds and
flying kites. Blowing the seed-head off a dandelion
and watching the tiny white 'parachutes' glide away
provides an espeCially delicate experience of air.
The most faSCinating, albeit dangerous playmate
among the elements Is fire. Caution and safety
must, of course, prevail here. The experience of fire
begins with the burning candles on the Christmas
tree or birthday cake. The celebration of festivals
with candle-held processions are occasions that
will never be forgotten. When they are older the
children might gather enough fire-wood for a St.
John's fire. Here they can experience this element
to the full. In the dying ashes. they might cook a
pot of soup. bake potatoes, sausages or apples and
allow their stomachs to get their fair share.
There is not enough awareness of the signifi­
cance of play for the development of the child's
individuality in later life. The memory of a child­
hood experience of long ago may demonstrate
the formative effect of a game that is no longer
of the silent vow to get the hoop to its destinati
without any misadventure. The challenge to ov
come all the unpredictable obstacles, the care a
skills necessary for the successful execution c
hardly be described. But the attentive gUiding o
circle, rolling along in the vertical. had a deep a
long-lasting effect on the child, that continued in
the future to assume an almost symbolic meani
of life. It would be good if such children's gam
could again be encouraged - in pedestrian zon
or parks for the benefit of our children.
PLAY AS BASIS FOR LEARNING
The work the child must apply to the differe
school subjects also has a decisive intluence
her life. Here. the same strength should be dev
oped as during play. Schiller refers to music
play: actors also refer to their art as play. We c
now perhaps understand the demand for an art
tic structuring of lessons. What this implies
the attempt to overcome matter through for
to connect with the energies active in all obje
and to let them shine through during the learni
process. Accordingly Rudolf Steiner asks the teac
ers to "conduct all lessons in such a way that t
child may everywhere have the feeling that t
phySical is a manifestation of the spirit « 2
Learning must never be limited to an outward
reflective, merely rational activity. It must becom
a formative process that works out of the sam
centre that provides the creative forces in pla
We do not here refer to the questionable 'play
learning'. Learning must not be allowed to tu
into playing: rather, the energies active in the f
earnestness of children's play should become t
basis for learning.
I Steiner. R.. The Renewal of Education. SSF. 1981.
2 Steiner. R.. A Modem Arc of Education. RSP. 1981.

 an unmistakably Individual character to the work of children.

in hand. It is well known today that a human As far as the teaching of crafts is concerned
friendly structure in the environment has a healthy Rudolf Steiner gave only indications and did no
effect on people. The teaching of arts and crafts detail a curriculum for specific age levels. He in­
can. therefore. have only one purpose and goal: to dicated to the craft teacher Max Wolffhugel in a
help the children mature into healthy individuals number of conversations what should be done.
who are able to shape their environment In a The craft lessons began in Class 6. The children
health-giving way. were introduced to practical work in wood, pro­
It is now our task to look at the different arts and ducing simple. practical objects. The making o
crafts subjects taught in specific classes in Waldorf moveable toys was added in Classes 7 and 8. There
schools. to describe their structure. to give reasons are several indications, in a number of lectures
for their Inclusion and to show their effects. We prin­ given at different places,2 from which it can be seen
cipally differentiate lessons taught in the Lower what Rudolf Steiner's aims for these lessons were.
School from those tn the High School (Classes 9 He always carried samples from the Stuttgart
12). Between the two we have a decisive turning school's handwork lessons with him and referred
point: the class teacher who had led his class for to them during his talks. Other references can
eight years hands the children over to specialist be found In the meetings (Konferenzen) with
teachers who now care for them differently from the Stuttgart teachers. 3
the way he had gUided them. This incisive point is All these beginnings are essential. but need to
In the middle of puberty. We shall. to begin with. be freed from the taste and conditions prevalent at
concentrate on the preceding school years. the time: and they have to be further developed
During the primary school it is the class teacher and adapted to the various age levels of today's
who Is responsible for the teaching of arts and crafts. children.
As far as possible. he or she incorporates them into To do this we must have a thorough understand­
the lessons. We correctly assume that there must ing of the rhythms within which the children's
be a reason for Introducing craft lessons per se only development unfolds during their school life. Of
In Class 5; and for the strongly differentiated artis­ special significance is the transition from the sec­
tic and craft disciplines that are experienced ond seven-year period to the third. a crucial time.
throughout the High School. There are ObViously indeed. that Is concentrated on the 14th year.
crucial points to consider. conditioned by the chil­ Commonly referred to as puberty. Rudolf Steiner
dren's developmental stages. frequently called it "earth-maturity". The sexual ma­
This is indeed the case. It does not mean that be­ turity the child now has to experience is its most
fore this age the children should not work with tools. striking symptom. But in actual fact this is no more
Rudolf Steiner wanted to introduce crafts as early as than a fraction of a comprehensive process that takes
Class 3. 1 but certainly from different pedagogical hold of the whole being of the young person and
aspects. The circumstances at the time did not allow transforms it.
this. What is essential is that a subject should not be Rudolf Steiner used quite drastic words when
taught merely because the children are enthusiastic characterising this age. He speaks of the young as
about It or that the work done is beautiful. A new being "thrown out from the world of spirit and
subject is only introduced because the children's soul ... thrown out from the cosmic life of soul and
development demands it. In other words. because spirit and plunged into the external world ... ".4
the confrontation with a certain activity supports the These words connect with the Old Testament
necessary stage in the children's development. This story of the expulsion from Paradise. Pictures from
THE ARTS AND CRAFTS
Through their 'falling into sin'. Adam and Eve
gained a new relation to the world: they became
aware of their own bodies. They perceived their
lack of covering, and hid "during the cold of the
day under trees". They took a further step in this
separation process by weaving clothes from the
leaves of trees and they dressed themselves with
them. To clothe oneself means to separate. to draw
boundaries, Their bodies have become needy,
defenceless; this marks the beginning of the crafts:
weaving, Adam and Eve and their descendants.
dismissed from their Creator's loving care. now
produce their own protective covering in shelter
and clothing and, in order to maintain their lives.
must employ their very own will forces and prove
themselves. Handwork and craft are the logical
consequence of the separation from the sheaths of
soul and spirit. of having to settle on an earth that
demands effort and pain of human life. Its positive
side Is the possibility of an emerging independent
Individuality: only by separating from the natural
environment. by withdrawing into its very owry
sheaths. can an inner sphere be established; the
forming of an inner space demands the forming of
protective sheaths through the medium of the
crafts! This Is the reason why most of the original
crafts are directly or indirectly concerned with pro­
viding cpvering. shelter sheaths. During their
progressive individuation process, Adam a.nd Eve'
became the first 'craftspeople '. Ma.ster Bertram
(ca. 1355 1415) depicted this impressively on
one of the wings of the altar in the Church of
Grabow: Eve. spinning on a distaff that, as a re­
sult of its own gravity during the turning. pOints
to the centre of the earth. Adam tills the soil that
had become too hard and, therefore, unproduc­
tive. He, Similarly. lets the hoe follow the force of
gravity and literally fall into the earth,
Hoe and distaff are true pictures for 1\.lan's ac­
tivities on earth. The cultivated field spreading
across the earth and the graVity rising from the
earth's centre meet in the human belng in the
Adam and Eve. Woodcur (roIll
Mirror of Human Behaviour. Basel 1476
form of a cross. The cross symbolises Man's ta
on earth: the human being descended from th
sphere of Paradise in order to bear the cross. On
through this can the individuality develop,
The symbolic power in such representatio
appealed to the people during the Middle Age
Many such works of art exist. Including the woo
relief in Basel (1476) that is almost Identical wi
Bertram's picture in North Germany.
So far we have discussed the outer physical a
pect of this phase in evolution. Hand in glove wi
this. is another process taking place within. strong
affecting and changing the life of the soul: byea
ing the forbidden apple. Adam and Eve also fill the
soul with desire, with the strong instinctive driv
for pleasure. In Paradi~e the pure mirror of the
soul was turned to God the Father. It contained n
egotistical wishes. The experience of tasting. th
sets the metabolic processes in motion. now b
comes a matter of the heart. The soul. enjoyin
pleasure, becomes dependent on the body. The li
of will is permeated by a desiring. greed-like el
ment that can intensify to passion. The immed
ately following chapter of Genesis (Book 1. Mose
4) tells of Cain's unbridled, untamed will forces th
led him to the rage during which he kills his broth
Abel.
The 'fall into sin' has shown us two sides: o
[he one hand. the soul connects with the bod
through desire that can fill it with passion: th
describes the child's stages of descent to earth. ocean of the soul with their actual realisation in th
Our own observation can confirm it. A nadir, pre­ external world.

pared during the preceding two years. is reached What we refer to as 'earth-maturity' is thus no
at the age of 14 and fades away two years later. It only the separation from a paradisiacal state o
is only now that the young person has 'arrived' protection. but also the progress of the young from
on earth. He experiences himself within an outer. chil.dhood to a stage that bears the characteristi
terrestrial world whose logic he begins to com­ of self-will.

prehend. 6 He looks back to the lost Paradise of Everything we have touched upon so far - leav
childhood and gradually discovers his connection ing Paradise. descending to earth. taking hold of th
with the outer facts surrounding him. earth through work - are no more than the oute
At the same time new, germinatlng energies are tn~cks of inner processes of metamorphosis. Even
beginning to stir within. energies he must live with the appearance of IndiVidually coloured inclination
on earth. his home. This can only come about If It is - wishes. joys, needs and pain - in this new sou
not merely the head learning about the world. but if space, are no more than outer symptoms of deepl
he becomes active in it. The head by itself is not able penetrating Inner events. It Is the emergence of
to really understand this earth; he can perceive things . new soul quality of a will nature. as yet unknown to
through his senses. but cannot connect with them the young. that wishes to transform and claim th
inwardly. The appropriate means for this are the will body. What was up to now protected. as by th
activity of the limbs. of the whole body. In the proc­ mother's womb. now emerges Into daylight like a
ess of grasping. In work and transforming matter. wild. incredibly excitable. colourfully moving energy
the human being becomes as one with the world in field or the soul - frequently dramatically tense
which he lives. In becoming aware of the outer world cooled and warmed through by contradictory ex
through perception and thinking. we at first distance pressions - from which an individual relation to the
ourselves from It. This we overcome only through world wishes to develop. Because the external world
being active in it. If the young person resists such is now perceived in its distance to the individua
activity. his relation to the world will remain theo­ life. it is judged anew. perhaps more soberly.

retical. conscious but not experienced. It is decisive We may speak of a renaissance within the soul
for the enUre later life how the human being "pushes' an awakening to the world and to oneself. Rudol
himself into the physical world through adapting to Steiner calls it the "birth of the soul body" in the
the environment. the outer laws. with the organs of sense of faculties that enable the indiVidual to
his feelings and will. "7 These organs of feelings and develop to the extent that it makes use or these
will are, in fact. his hands and feet. faculties. improves them further and thus real
It is because of this that the speciality subjects ises its own potential. 8
are Introduced between the 12th and 16th years: This means the loss of the previous joy of move
in Class 6 the direct work with the soil. gardening. ment. grace and ease that characterised everything
and also the work with wood at the work bench. the child did. No longer the magic of childhood: in
Finally. spinning and weaving in Class 10. and a its place a clumsiness and heaviness; effort is needed
wealth of working techniques to stimulate the to do something with the Impulses of movement, to
youngsters in different ways. to unfold and prove let the body be permeated and moulded by them.
their worth during this time of their lives. Al! these efforts and struggles gradually allow the
Whereas up to Class 8 the subjects of painting. T to emerge during the third seven years period.
form drawing and drawing were included in the the T that is. seed-like. still asleep in the soul. Ef­

class teacher's lessons and not taught separately by fort is ego activity: to unfold it is one of the essential
yet spontaneous expressions of its feelings. Its but qualities of the soul. A bright fellow is a clea
bodily movements express the inner life. Soul and bright thinker. What he says makes sense an
physical movements are as one. We can read in illumines something in me; I can understand wh
their outer forms of expression every nuance of he says. A lightning (striking) thought can clari
the soul as she reacts to the environment: joy. cu­ everything. make it as clear as sunlight. A sens
riosity, rage, terror, etc. . tive observer will easily experience thinking
After the change of teeth. the child's movements a light process. Words and phrases like lucidit
depend more on the rhythm in breathing and blood elucidate. as clear as the light of day point to thi
circulation. The child feels good when it can direct its By contrast. our will remains vague. indefinit
movements to rhytlunic speech and play. This ten­ dark. It pushes upwards from the unconscio
dency is taken up by eurythmy, a subject introduced regions i.e. the not clear. the not light. God th
in Class 1. Eurythmy is visible speech. that is, the Father in Goethe's Faust says: "An upright ma
structure of the respiratory processes is made ViSible. however darkly driven. is well aware of his pr
It is penneated with life dUMg the process in which destined path," or "Man's doomed to err during h
breathing affects the circulation of the blood. 9 striving; ~ - that is, as long as he attempts to find h
Eurythmy is, therefore, taught as a subject be­ way without having a clear knowledge of it. An
cause of the child's readiness to practise and learn he is even more at the mercy of his will when su
such eurythmic movements. It is lmpllcit in child jected to a blind rage riSing up within him.
development. This changes at about the ninth year~ Ifwe consider that both these soul forces, thinkin
the blood begins to work more strongly into the and willing. produce their field of attion in the phys
muscles. The movements gradually lose something cal organiSation we can understand how the huma
of the ease and lightness characteristic of breath­ being in his totality was fundamentally formed out
ing. Instead, they become heartier. more flowing these primal energies or forces. Both thinking an
and flexible. Because of this physical education is willing develop In several stages. and only gradual
now introduced - a subject in which muscles are make themselves felt. The forces working in intel
strengthened and made more flexible, gence. previously still active within the phySical o
A further important stage between the 11 th and ganism. fonning and structuring the internal organ
12th years leads to a closer connection between awaken at about the seventh year. ready to be use
muscles and bones. This makes the movements for the forming and structuring of thoughts. The chi
heavier and more mechanical. because now the is now ready to learn. to go to school.
heaviest. hardest and densest system Is reached. that During the second seven-year period. the w
allows the human being to stand firmly on the earth. 10 forces that previously expressed themselves direct
There are consolidation processes in the child in the bodily movements begin to stir, become mo
leading from airy, light conditions via the watery/ and more independent and help the child to pursu
stretchable to the ever more hardening, the bony individual aims. A decisive stage occurs at abo
sphere. . the 12th year. We have already referred to it fro
They influence the child's movements, and their another aspect. As the child grows into Its bony sy
development calls for new subjects. Handwork and tem and experiences its body as heavy and clums
the crafts can support and care for this clumsy com­ the indiVidually tinged will forces awaken into a
plex of movements conditioned by the bony system. urge to assert themselves. to become active. We no
As the earth forces come into their own, activities see a veritable battle taking place between the pow
corresponding to the children's physical development ers of light and darkness. the bright. clear forces
are now called for. By taking material and substances intelligence and the dark Will-forces that now mee
from the environment and working with them. the locked in the struggle for a new union.
 The children experience this in a subtle way dur­ of capitulating. It just stayed where it was.
ing their lessons on shadows where both eyes and But then Mr. D. arrived and said: 'Dear child
hands. representing light as well as will. are equally this shadow is wrong. Draw it on the other side
participating. They experience themselves placed But the shadow refused to be budged. It clung eve
between light and shadow as they draw a sphere more strongly to its place. The light then took pit
in charcoal, in broad, short strokes. At first it is no on it and went to another corner. Since then th
more than a delicately produced plain. Only by the two have become great and inseparable friends."
intensified darkening of one side does the two-di­ Can this struggle between the impish. light intel
mensional drawillg appear to curve and turn into ligence and the dark wilfulness be better described
a sphere. If the background of the light side of the The happy ending is most satisfying. It could onl
ball Is then drawn still darker. it frees itself from its come about because of the stirring of a new facult
connection to the plain and seems to glide freely that allows these polarities to be overcome by con
in space. Only when the shadow, cast by the ball's trolling them. by putting them Into the service of th
physical density on the ground, is added can one child: the T that. as yet safe in the soul's womb. I
see the way the ball actually lies on the ground now able to emerge through the work of the limbs
and connects with it. We can here clearly see the Rudolf Steiner calls it the "element of gravity" t
same process reflected in a similar way to that which the young must now find his or her way.
happening at the work bench, which will be de­ The following verse. written by another girl i
scribed later: on the one hand. the process of . Class 6. indicates. through her subconscious feel
becoming independent, of establishing boundaries. ings. that it is up to everybody to develop thes
of coming into its own in the form of the ball; on central forces:
the other hand. the interweaving with the outer In light and dark we clearly see

world. the environment - here achieved by the Elements that mysteriously

shadow. The excitement and tensions these proc­ Can create fine paintings.
esses produce in the children may be illustrated by As light and shadow they are known,
a story a girl in Class 6 wrote at the end of a main­ But each one tends to live alone

lesson block on shadows: "Once upon a time there And to shun a meeting.

was a shadow that decided to disobey the light. Only he who likes to paint

The light had teased the shadow by hopping Could perhaps combine

about the ball and forcing it to lie at the right Their polarities so quaint

places. This exhausted the shadow to the point Make them intertwine.

______________________
 once again been made aware of the important step
T into gravity. the darkness and firmness of the earth.
There are no such clear directions for the teaching
of crafts. We can, however. work out a curriculum
I by making use of such indications as those given
for the teaching of shadows.
The craft teacher must absorb these processes
into his observations, because only by doing so
can the inner picture of a 12 yenr-old be rounded
and completed. He may, if the situation demands
it, have to teach the shadow lessons himself. if the
class teacher has not taught this.
With this inner picture of the awakening will, we
now take another look at the teaching of crafts. What­
ever the child is producing at this age manifests the
character of the T, active within its body. We can
thus understand what Rudolf Steiner means when he
says that "the children who are. in our schools, al­
:J lowed to work so very freely. to be inventive, may
express again in plastic forms. in free, creative activ­
ity and not by slavishly imitating. the structure of
one or the other limb developing in their bodies ... ".
If the teacher Insists on a definite piece of work
to be done, the child cannot work from his own
forces and self. He cannot take what is living in
f him and wishes to assume form into the world
outside. He may become a good and skilled person
who willingly carries out instructions. But his own'
L
only have ideas in their heads. but feel them in t
hearts. that the heart warms from the enthusi
for their lessons. The idea then assumes an in
form, becomes a life-filled form the child unc
sciously produces within like a sculpture expr
ing life and movement. If the inner experiences
extremely powerful they push the child into c
tive. will-filled doing.
In the workshop the child produces someth
his inner life urges him to do. He is not motiv
by a cool. factual picture he had somewhere se
What he creates will not be in an airless, abst
space. but will be imimately related to the fo
of form, active and creative within him. In this w
the ideas developed by the teacher during a pr
ous lesson assume a creative energy that po
out into the activities in the worksl)op. "The c
actually learns also to do what he learn
think." All the craft teacher must do is to give
right directions.
Rudolf Steiner here pointed to a lofty aim
the teacher makes the effort. he will find the me
of helping the children to express themselve
two- or three-dimensional form without determ
ing the results, It is the individual will, the d
element in the human body that places the
into the physical organisation. Because of t
help must be given for its development.
Steiner, R.. Tile SpififUdi Growul of Etlucalioll. Garber P
cations. n.d.
2
3
4
5
6 Sleiller. R.. Soul Ec..m cn:yaml Waldorf Educarioll. AP. 1
7 Steiner. R., Balance ill Teachillg, Mercury Press. 1982,
S Rudolf Steiner spoke about these processes in most o
lectures to ttaCh~!'5. Basic materia! can be found in
Educacioll of [he Child. ,-\P. 1996.
9 Heydebrand. C ..:':t' Curricilium of rhe Vy'aldorf Sc
SSF. 1981.
10 Soul [coIlLn:,'. '"J.e! ',\,,:,:.';( EducatioIl. Till' Spiritual Grou
bluciJliJIi. S"" ,,[;(;\(;
 MICHAEL MARTIN

Introduction

I
L Our presentations. so far, were Intended to pro­
vide the basis for an understanding or the follow­
It will. in times to corne, be ever more import
for city children to know where the material th
Ing articles in which several experienced craft work with is coming from. I do not mean an abstr
teachers tell of their teaching experiences. With­ knowledge, but an experience the child can relate
out the effort of studying and observing the chil­ The ever Increasing offerings of plastic build
dren's developmental stages the arts and crafts blocks, such as 'Lego' that can only be joined
lessons might appear to be no more than gim­ gether. are materials with which the child can
I micks. arbitrarily chosen extras in the curriculum. inwardly connect. Even our hobby shops are sell
What any teacher decides to do will always de­ mostly pre-cut and shaped pieces of wood or plas
pend on his or her Individual abilities, on local that do not allow for experiencing their connect
circumstances and, above all, on the chtldren with nature. The inclusion of a 'forest maln-Iess
themselves. There are schools today that. by con­ would give the children the opportunity of expe
tinuing the practice of the original Waldorf School. encing different trees In nature and thus provid
Introduce the craft lessons in Class 6, These les­ strong basis for all the subsequent craft lessons. Sa
sons should. however. be taught sooner. Clrcum- . ing and splitting the wood in readiness for carv
stances In 1919 did not allow this. It would be will then have a different. healthier quality.
gQ..od to include woo~. plasticine mode1­ Wood is, as it were, nature's gIft to us. Its m
l.!!!g and other manual activttfes~s important substances are the result of the Int
WOiJRffieTp to strengthen the cmrdren's hands and action of light, air and warmth. Shape and oth
make them more subtle and skilled. characteristic features of a tree point to its relati
All manual dexterity activities - besides hand­ to the cosmos. Knowledge of the connections b
work - including the making of candles during Ad­ tween earth and cosmos. the planetary forces. w
vent in Class 1 or the activities connected with the still very much alive at the beginning of the mo
house-building block In Class 3. are taught by the ern age. Scientists today are trying to rediscov
class teacher, supported by the craft specialists. A these connections in quite different ways.
premature experience of the first actual craft lesson Working with wo,od stimulates the heart forc
In Its proper setting, the workshop. is not advisable. (Gemut). It Is in keeping with the children's age th
The following reports should be taken as indica­ their heart forces should have a share in the pr
tions only and not as dogma. The work with duction of practical articles in the workshop. The
plasticine in the pre-craft lessons in a holding class is as much room for joy, astonishment and wond
is thus only mentioned. It will be more thoroughly as for humour and liveliness. They provide the rig
treated in Part Five in connection with the teaching mood for work. The follOWing articles bear w
of modelling in general. ness to this.

L
ception has become one of the most important
tasks of education in a world where the excessive
onslaught on the senses is threatening their
healthy function. We are, therefore, endeavour­
ing to help the children in our schools to discover
ever new worlds in which they may take an ac­
tive. Independent part, show initiative and sensi­
tivity. and develop their skills. Every season of­
fers a variety of opportunities for this.
During autumn and winter the children in our
younger classes produce smaller objects. We do
some modelling or make simple humming toys.
But. although they are little more than toys. they
are serious business for the children In the lower
classes. They discover ever new variations on
the theme.
It Is the children's ears that are the greatest vic­
tims of the attacks on the senses. Attentive lis­
tening can no longer be taken for granted. It must Humming fays
be cultivated. In order to learn to hear delicate
sounds, in othe:r words, to activate the childre:n' s
faculty of perception. we make humming bones Humming apples or potatoes are made by push
or humming buttons. The rotating humming tops ing a 35 cm long haze:lnut twig through the: centre
produce soft buzzing and whirring sounds. These . A, wooden ball or disc may be used instead. Th
first primitive attempts will later be further devel­ two necessary holes will be made by carefully
oped in the workshops. grinding or filing the top and bottom ends of a larg
The children can be asked to clean the upper hazelnut or walnut. Grinding the opposite side
thighbones, after a chicken dinner. and to bring will result in a wide enough opening for the kerne
them to school. The bones will then be soaked in to be removed. A short rod or stick is then pushed
hydrogen perOXide for a day. Alternatively, they length-wise through the nut. A length of string i
could be left lying outside for a few months. The tied to the rod inside the nut and wound up.
bones are bleached out and brilliantly white. Two Putting the rod vertically on the table and hold
holes are then drilled exactly in the centre between ing the nut firmly in one hand. the child then
the two ends. A thin string is pulled through the pulls the string with a fast movement. The apple
holes and tied together. Holding the string in both (potato, wooden ball or diSC) starts rotating like
hands the child stretches it and rotates the bone. ' a top. and produces a humming sound. The string
The resulting delicate humming sound never fails rewinds itself inside the nut, ready to be pulled
to astonish the child and to induce it to listen most out again.
carefully. almost to the pOint of awe. The next project is the making of wooden hum
The humming button is even easier to make, ming objects. An archaeological discovery tells us
because of the already existing holes. Different that this was known as far back as the 13th cen­
Sized buttons produce different sounds and make tury. It consists of an approXimately 20cm long
experimenting really exciting. oblong or oval shaped piece of hard wood. The
 ,,'
.I!, . .
More liumming lOys. alsD knDwn as bull-roarers
sides are occasionally notched. A hole is drilled at
one end and a length of string fastened to it. Ro­
tating the wood around an axis produces rough.
howling sounds. Pitch and volume depend on the
size of the object and the speed of rotation. The
humming wood belongs to the family of
aerophones. It was widely carried by shepherds in
Czechoslovakia who used it as magical protection
against the possible ravages created by thunder­
storms. Its name was 'Ide burka. voztacaJmy
desdce' 'A thunderstorm Is close. let's get the
humming wood going'.
Human beings can also produce sounds through
exhaling. A single breath can result in a variety of
sounds, be it the singing of a song or the giving of
a signal. Only a little effort and skill are'required
for the making of a simple, yet effective musical
'instrument'. The following are but a few sugges­
tions suitable for spring and summer and open air
activities. A simple shepherd's pIpe made from soft,
hollow reeds or bamboo; blOWing on the tops of
acorns, across a blade of grass Or the stem of a
dandelion.
The reed flute is a single length instrument. Hard,
dry reeds are best. The reed is cut off just beneath
one of its knots. Immediately above the knot the
reed is cut off at an acute angle; a clear-cut notch
is essential. The top end of the cut is flattened out
and slightly rounded. Should there be no knot. the
finger can be used to cover it. This allows the sound
to be varied. The sounds that can be produced in
. '\
\
different ways demand great sensitivity as well a
skilled fingers from the children in the lower classe
During walks across fields. or through a wood. the
will discover all sorrs of things capable of produ
ing sounds.
When the formal teaching of crafts i.e. manu
dexterity. begins in Class 5. these earlier exper
ences are taken further. Flutes made of willow reed
are just one example. They are more complicate
and precise than the earlier reed pipes, A subse
quent chapter ~ on the crafts in Class 5 will de
scribe how they are made.
THE FIRST CRAFT LESSONS
Well prepared for their first day in the workshop
the children are waiting ourside the closed doo
Their stiffly starched aprons look like knights' a
mour. The name of each child is brightly imprinte
on its apron.
The door is opened and they are at last allowe
to enter the room. Their senses are given free play
they touch, feel. smell; they look at the variety o
wood, read their names and place of origin. The
admire the sculptures of the older children, let the
hands glide over the carved animals and deepl
breathe in the rich resin scent of the wood.
We leave the room and go outside into a littl
forest of willow trees; recently felled trees ar
waiting to be sawn and split. An old-fashione
hand saw is used, with a child at each end: pul
 Reed flures
let go - pull, Jet go! The saw sways, like a boat,
and must be kept as steady as possible. The shoul­
ders adapt to the harmonious movements. The
sawdust drops rhythmically to the dark ground.
Every child gets a turn. No questions are asked
about the purpose of the work - the movements
during the work completely occupy and satisfy
the children.
The next task is the splitting of the metre long
logs. The wedge drives out the sap which the chil­
dren taste; some bitter. some sweet. The axe has
to be carefully guided in order to hit the right spot.
There Is a crackling sound as the split widens until
the log falls apart. Fresh scent rises from the in­
ner part of the wood which is now exposed to the
light of day.
During the following deserved short break. the
children are told about the meaning and purpose
of their activity. I.e. that the wood must now be
neatly stacked and allowed to dry slowly so that,
later, precious things may be made from it. This
process could take years, the wood might not be
ready for use by the time they leave school. They
learn about the forester's care of the trees, in spite
of the fact that he may not be able to sell any of
them to a violin maker during his life time, And
that the violin maker himself would have to pre­
pare the wood carefully to be used by, perhaps,
his grandchildren.
The split logs are then stacked neatly with
their bark always turned to the earth, The stack is
Two· handed saw
protected from the rain with a suitable cover. Ou
lit~le forest proves to be an Ideal place for the dryin
and stacking of wood. The near-by creek allows fo
the necessary moisture. because the drying proces
must neither be too fast nor too slow.
At the end of the first lesson the tools must b
tidied away. each to its allotted place, The chil
dren line up to be dismissed with a handshake. A
moment of necessary silence precedes this - i
which one can hear a pin drop,
For the subsequent lessons, the children ar
asked to bring their pocket knives, I They are told
to cut a 20cm length from a lime tree branch
using a special tool for cutting shingle,2 The chil
dren's fascination, as they watch the curling
shavings {'angels' curls'}, reaches a point wher
complete silence ensues. All one hears are th
cutting noises and the shavings dropping to th
floor. Before this exercise the children are taugh
the handling of both knife and wood.
Nothing else is done to begin with besides thi
exercise. The shavings produced by the children
are as different as their handwriting. They dis
cover that the shavings cut off edges are the easi
est to produce.
I." The pocket knife must be very sharp, Cutting with blun
blades is both dangerous and pedagogically unsound
Handling carving toots demands greatest caution and
responsibmty of the teacher.
2, 'Frow'; used especially as a splitting tool in th
manufacture of shingle,
 branch with one of the tools. The inside is th
hollowed out.
At the time when the sap is at the heig
of its activity, the children learn to make flut
from willow branches. On these instruments
progression from the Simpler reed flutes re
tunes with a range of up to two octaves can
played. A considerable amount of skill is need
in blowing. as every tone is produced by t
accurate moving of the core piece.
lime wood is the most suitable because
1­ bark is easily removed and the cut off branc
qUickly grows again. The children look for a
approximately 20 25cm length. free of knot
.
"
'
They then cut a semicircular notch into th
'E bark (see illustration) 10 - 20cm away fro
the upper end. while 3 - 4cm from below th

f•

\
bark is cut around the stem. The whole of th
bark is then carefully tapped with the hand
of the knife. Careful rapping is essential
I
, avoid the splitting of the bark. The bark mu
then be slid off in its entirety. Country childre
used to sing a little rhyme - lhe 'loosening
the bark' verse - said to facili[a[e (he process

The willow's sap is rising. see ­

The flute is made and ready now.

MalJer Let's cut a flute for you and me.

Let's jump for Joy and dance and bow.

Tap, tap, peel its bark and hear

Tap. tap. peel its bark and hear

How my flute is singing.

How my flute is singing.

I now can playa merry tune

As I cross field and vale and dune.

Tap. lap. peel its bark and hear

How my flute is singing.

Curving /oo/s Provided everything has gone according

plan. the rod can be cut off the rest of th
stick and flattened vertically. at a width
about 1 - 2cm. This is again cut off. providing th
Small baat carved fram Itme wood

Make a thin
slit for airway
and Insert from
above

Playable flute

May flutes

- -_______
and assign to them their special tasks. The fol­
lowing will deal with some of the more general
phenomena that characterise both subjects.
In both subjects are to be found many purely
mechanical processes. such as digging. hoeing.
pushing wheelbarrows. sawing. splitting and ham­
mering - work that could be done by machines.
Rudolf Steiner tells us that there is no difference
between what a human being does with his bony
system and that carried out by a machine. Both
have the same result. "Mechanics. dynamics. In­
dependent of the human being. enter the skeleton.
We must get used to thinking of the skeleton as
though it were objective. as though It were not part
of the human being", ",I By working mechanically
we become as one with the world around us. ab­
sorbing something from it. Other types of work will
depend on the sensitivity and dexterity of the hands
- such as working with plants or carving with
knives. In these activities. something from our
hands streams out into the world. The children
experience this Interaction through these subjects.
Typical for gardening is the posture - the
body is bent towards the earth. This is necessary
for much of the work. the earth demands this
bending. kneeling down to the plants. The most
important work for the preparation of the soil Is
done with the body's strength. The placement of
the feet plays a decisive role in It. Unconsciously.
the child experiences the onset of this force in the
Earth maturity
School readiness Class 6
-@-- --~O-- ---{~::
7 years gi/3
pre-craft
~
:.---------)0­
activities ~--__l.a..;:
: woodwork
ing in the earth. This delicate feeling meets wit
little understanding in our time where the fores
are dying and the nature forces are weakening
Last. but not least. the children may also uncon
sciously have the consoling realisation tha
although the paradise of childhood must be le
behind, the human being has the possibility o
creating a new paradise from the insignifican
seeds if he invokes the help of soil. sun. warmt
and rain and gUides the growth processes wit
care and protection.
Work in the workshop adds new and differen
impulses. The material used Is taken from Its natu
ral connections. The wood is elevated to a positio
where the hands. within the sphere of feelings. ma
now work with It. There Is a more direct relatio
between the human being and the material than i
gardening. The human being is preoccupied wit
a particular project. Gardening is group work. I
the workshop the working energy meets the re
sistance of the floor that. in contrast to the earth
Is an absolutely horizontal plane. We can see
separation from what is natural. The children now
begin to have an "inwardly experienced under
standing of cause and effect. of stren~th. and o
what Is felt as vertical and horizontaL"
It Is essential for the child to have a firm stance
not only when sawing and splitting wood. but als
during the delicate processes in carving if the cut
are to be accurate. The teacher must make th
Class 8 Class \0 End of Schoo!
.. 0­
14 16 1/ 3 21 years
subjects
in drtS and crafLS
 moving. plastic nature. Modelling meets this pre­ work processes force the children to find a balance
disposition. The hand-made forms are still fully between them. These processes are characteristics
embedded In this self-enclosed rhythmic system: of puberty that begins at this time.
both hands enclose and shape the clay. establish­ The children are now given either larger pieces
ing a heart-felt inner space between body and arms. of wood or wood so hard that it can no longer be
It is only when the clay is put on the firm surface carved with the knife. The hands by themselves
of a board. to be worked With. that a new up/down are not strong enough. The human being made
relation. determined from Without. comes about. himself the necessary 'helpers' - just as the blade
Simple carving also fully corresponds to the for. the earlier stage of whittling can be seen as a
child's constitution before the 12th year. especially stronger. sharper finger nail. so. now. there are
if the delicate movements are made towards the further tools: the vice that holds the wood in place
body. This gesture indicates the taking in of the and the chisel and mallet that allow greater force
outer world that gave us the material for our work. to be exerted. When driving the chisel through
Cutting away from the body is a quite different ex­ the wood the child feels: my whole self is in the
perience. The will here braces itself against the right hand! I am ex.periencing the whole process
material. going on between myself and the work bench tha
Woodcarving allows us to observe a new ele­ has become part of me. Work bench and I are
ment connected with this stage of development; . melting into one another. Into the active. trans­
the wood resists the hand. None of the material forming. creating process on the one hand and
used before was as hard and unyielding to the into the passively holding part on the other. The
knife. The amount of strength ex.erted by the right power relation between the left and right sides
hand must be met by the left holding the wood. within the domain of the human being during hand
This produces In the Inner relation of forces in carving now undergoes such a decisive change
the muscles a complete symmetry that must. where the power symmetry between active and
however. now be evoked through the use of the passive now Includes the work bench. The worker
opposing employment of energies - else the work here becomes united with the world. becomes one
cannot be carried out. The hands are working a­ with it. His own activity. the employment of his
symmetrically. each has a task diametrically phYSical energies are supported and sustained
opposed to the other: the one holds back. binds. by the resistance of the earth; the work bench
determines: the other presses. urges. moves. The and the vice that holds the piece of wood are also
children connect with these processes in an in­ supported by the floor representing the earth.
tensive way. Earth. bench. working material and I myself com­
Other subjects correspond to this experience, as, bine in a unit. a oneness.

Steiner. R.. The Spiritual Ground of Educalion. lecture of

22.8.1922. Garber Publications. n.d. C.f. also ParI Three:
Working with ,",[elals.
2 ibid.
3 Steiner. R., Soul Economy and Waldorf Educatioll, lecture of
2.1.1922. AP. 1986. ~

"" tn.·
 children. This is difficult to achieve in our large
schools. The craft teachers have. however. many
possibilities of meeting this challenge.
Children in the Kindergarten often accompany
their teacher to the workshop when a broken toy
.; l is in need of being mended. And at least once a
year they pay us a visit to watch the planing of a
rough piece of board. They soon become familiar
with the woodwork teacher and the place in which
he works. Such visits are for me very special events
because of the youngsters' ability to show genu­
ine wonder and amazement. They almost jump
for joy when the shavings drop like curls to the
floor. Each child picks up a handful and takes it
home to show mother.
Dur:ng Advent the children of the lower three
classes are making beeswax candles in the work,­
shop. This has become a tradition in our school.
The entire school community collects the wax
during the year and deposits it in the workshop.
In this way the children are already very much at
home 1n the workshop long before the actual
woodwork lessons begin in Class 5. They fre­
quently visit during break, look at everything and
dream about the things they will one day make cabinets. They see the older children's work
there. They gaze in awe at the many tools neatly the tables: a lion in a cave watched by a giraf
arranged on shelves behind the glass doors of the horses feeding on acorns. gnomes in front of
cave, little dwarfs and their homes. the worki
model of a crane. a real functioning crane.
complete town with medieval half-timber
houses. And along the shelves many beautif
pieces of wood with their great variety of co
our and grains. and bfJnches with the
characteristic curved shapes. At the other en
of the room are raihvays and an articulated s
wheeler! Most beautiful of all. however, is t
large cabinet holding sLlch treasures as bits
bark and roots, little lIlen that move when th
are poked. spoons. bowls. wooden fruit an
corws. nutcrackers ami BII ::.ons of nuts.
dOl Ikt:y can and real SCil all made of woo
. t'~\r tou lllUl.h to be taken ill all <It unce. A
cvervtflillg \\:lS Illade the 'big' be)ys ;lIld gir
One . lllt,V lu,) \'.ill 10a[[1 [c) I1ldkt' [itell1.
The bricks. stacked on drying racks, are finally
stamped with the logo of the class.
The bricks can afterwards be baked in the wood­
burning kilns made by pupils of Class 10, a delight
shared equally by the teacher and the children.
The finished bricks can then be used in the build­
Ing of a wall, the foundation for garden seats or
even for the making of an oven for bread baking.
Supervised and directed by the craft teachers. all
these achievements will have a 'professional' touch
about them.
snail and snake drill bUs
------------------
IT ALL BEGINS IN CLASS 5
There is thus great joy and expectation amongs
the children when at last the word 'WOOD­
WORK' is included in the timetable. At last they
will not merely visit. but actually v\fork on a
regular basis in the room and with the teacher
they already know so well.
The stories told in Class 4, at least in Euro­
pean schools. include the Nibelung Saga in
which Mimir forges Siegfried's sword. The
sword's blade was so sharp that it split a thread
of wool that was thrown into a river. Now the
children can use an equally sharp knife. no
unlike a pocket knife. but \Nith a short blade
ami a simple handle. With it they can easily
cut through a vertically held page from a news­
paper. It is not all that easy to introduce the
children to the handling of such sharp tools.
They are sitting in a circle, the benches pushed
against the walls. The knife is drawn with a
sharp, yet careful, movement.
Elbows at the body, the left hand holding a
length of pine branch previously cut to exactly
30cl11 , we begin carving carefully towards the
body Clit aftf'r cut. The wood graductlly be­
comes clean. the hands gaining in skill. The
fresh scent of resin wafts through the room.
Complete. ultN silence. After a \vhile we put
the knives <'lWCl!' ()nc] wke a good look at the
wood. \Vf: see its rings. Til!' tr'()cl\rr tells how
Ireps g[(l\\. hmv t'W['y ye;:11 ,HI ,lddiliunai ring

appears. Counting the rings we discover that the
branches we are holding are older than the chil­
dren. The amazement at this discovery is as great
as that years ago when the children marvelled at
the 'curls', the shavings they saw dropping to
the ground. This amazement continues into the
following lessons. when the carving gains in skil­
fulness and the children hear wonderful things
about this beautiful material, its great variety
of colour, smell, hardness and rate of growth.
the strong scent of pine. the delicate grains of
juniper. the beautiful dark brown wood of the
nut-tree. the strong. bright shining colour of the
plum-tree. the wood of the lilac almost as purple
as its blossoms ... And the difference in weight
between two identical sizes of different woods!
Between that of balsa and oak the former light
as cork. the latter so dense that it sinks in water.
\i
ferent tools. each one for a specific task.
Our first projects are rungs for a rop
ladder made from pine branches. The rung
must be of the same length. their hole
drilled in exactly similar places. pointin
in the same direction. Mutual help is her
essential: one child does the drilling watched b
another who makes sure the drill is held abso
lutely vertical- this can be better determined from
a distance. The finished rope ladders are ver
popular items at our Christmas bazaar. The chil
dren are justifiably proud of their work and ar
allowed to carve their names on their rungs,
The next project takes their experience further
A piece of poplar wood is split and its edge
rounded and some parts hollowed out. Out of thi
transformed piece. the children may carve an ani
mal. a human form, perhaps a shepherd ..' The
already think of the recipient of their creation:
younger brother or sister. mother or father, mayb
.a neighbour's child. It is important for the chil
dren to know that their work is useful. that thei
hard and diligent efforts are worthwhile,
We try to make the children use both thei
hands at this time. They complement eac
other: one holds. the other carves. Will i
added to feeling the countering force of th
hand holding the wood is essential for loos
ening the shavings, The entire work is stil
carried out within the sphere of the heart and
breathing. Muscles and rhythm complemen
each other.
_
..........-----_.. . -....-'-,,---­
(THETRANSITr~_N rNT9_~_:.~~~~~)
A new different - child meets us in Clas
6. The ease and grace of movement. stil
occasionally noticeable in Class 5. now suc
cumbs to the earth's forces of gravity. Th
muscles. aligning themselves to the bones
are losing their previous rhythm and grace.
The project made at the joiner's bench
will serve as an example for the introduc
tion of the curved chiseL A wooden spoon
them to observe the effect of the blade. The
wooden spoon must not be too cumbersome and
yet strong enough to stir even the firmest of
doughs. Handle and hollowed out end should be
beautifully balanced. The hand with which we
knead the bread dough serves as model. Slowly,
cautiously the right form is found, eyes and hands
senSitively gUiding the tool. The rough parts are'
carefully evened out, first with a rasp, finally with
emery paper. The surface must be smooth. per­
fect if mother is to be satisfied.
Think of the child's JoY when his mother tells
him; "This Is my favourite wooden spoon. It is far
better than all the others!" Many a parent must
be encouraged to use the wooden spoon. They
are so proud of their children's achievement that
they keep it along with other treasures on a shelf.
They show it to their friends: "Just look our
Sophie made this at school!"
The spoon is merely one example.
Another, related project might be a mallet the
children will use In all the subsequent carving
projects. The method employed is similar to that
of making the wooden spoon. But the mallet is
heavier and more rounded and demands greater
strength and perseverance. The ideal material is
beech-wood. All our mallets were made in this way.
big and smaller ones. Mallets that have deterio­
rated from much use are smoothed down to a
smaller size and used for more delicate work. The
most Important feature of these mallets is the
shaped handle allowing for Just the right grip.
Even a student in Class 11 or 12 will always
look for his very own mallet during a woodcarv­
ing block. Years of constant use have left their
mark, and they smile warmly at the 'younger
generation' who handled their mallets during all
these years.
The different skills of the children must be taken
Into account. Some finish their project long
before the slower ones and should be given addi­
tional. similar ones to do before a new technique
is introduced to the whole class. Another ladle may
 otherwise have been used for firewood.
They present a wonderful opportunity f
learning new skills: shaping and neatly carvin
surfaces. a skill that is necessary for artisti
sculptural work later on. From these off-cuts w
carve traditional Nuremberg houses. During the
work the children can use their imagination
the full. The piece of wood will itself suggest siz
and shape of the little house. each different but
the same style.
One house may be beautiful. but it takes
number ef them te make a toy town for childre
to play with. We keep supplying Waldorf Kinde
gartens all over the world with such toy town
Naturally, our Class 6 children do not find It eas
to part with them. However. the many letters
appreciation and gratitude soon compensate f
[heir less:
"near Children of Class 6.
Thank you so much for your gift. You shou
have heard the shouts ofjoy as our children too
the houses from the box. all different! We hav
a longish table along the windows and we p
your houses on it. a whole town. The childre
got me to make lots of people from beeswax wh
are now walking abeut en the streets. A girl calle
Freya wanted a bride and brldegrcem for th
church. And Nicele didn't wish to join us fo
I: snack - she couldn't tear herself away from th
town."
Other exercises may include the hollowing ou
of the split logs Into caves or houses for dwarf
The latter necessitates the gluing together of rw
parts after each of them has been neatly finished
Door and lock are important for the comfon an
safety of the residents, The hinges are made from
strips of leather. The actually working latch is a
ready a forerunner of our subsequent projec
moveable toys in Class 7.
Related to our working methods during the mak
ing of caves is the production of scoops of flou
sugar and salt. Again. our hand is the model fo
I, [hem. The final shape of the scoop determines th
selection of a suitable plece of wood.
r- - !
;'. THE NEW THEME IN CLASS 7: 'I forV11~
\ THE CONCAVE FORM Ci>ht:: ,?ve
Let us now take a oak at Class 7. Rhythm and
gra<;e of movement are noticeably waning. The
children withdraw more and more into themselves.
'Inner space' becomes Important. We try to pro~
duce such an Inner space that is. however. still
open to the top: a bowl. We carve such bowls in
Class 7 from different wood and In different sizes,
but all of them for a specific purpose and use.
"What will be put into my bowl?" At the very
beginning. before the first cut is made. the chil­
dren know the recipient of their gift. They may have
discussed with their parents what kind of bowl was
still needed in the house. Here. too. we use only
split wood and not finished boards. Wood that still
contains the nature of the original tree. Each piece.
therefore, looks different. none are Identical. The
creative work begins at the point of selection:
Which is the piece 1 can connect with? Can I al~
ready 'see' the finished product in it?
Again we fasten a piece of semi-round wood
into the vice. curved side uppermost, and with­
out any previous drawing begin our tentative
carving towards the centre. We pay attention to
the shape. gradually enlarging and deepening the
prototype. The children must be fully awake.
must carefully guide the chisel. Each new cut
must leave the shape beautiful and harmonious.
When given the choice between softer and
harder wood the children will opt for the former.
They always prefer darker to lighter wood. Indeed.
heartwood is especially suited to the carving of
bowls; its rich range of colouring. from the light
4 sapwood to the darker heartwood at the centre is
far more attra<;tive than bowls made from wood
of one colour only, The pattern of the concentric
annual rings and the light edge - the result o
working from the outside In - is espeCially strik­
ing. In my experience I have only rarely known
children in Class 7 who were able to give an indi­
vidual character to a bowl. The actual artistic
forces have not as yet corne into their own. A
bowl made from a board wilt always show its
origin. The shape of the stem, if used in the
way described, will almost by itself determine
the harmonious curves of the bowl's rim.
The rim is especially important: its task is to re­
late the inner to the outer form, to unite the two
and not to separate them. I always give the chil­
dren a choice of three possibilities: to round off on
both sides, to round off on the outSide, to round of
the inside. In the two latter instances the result
will always be an edge between in- and outside.
All these exercises in shaping different rims can
easily be carried out by all the children in Class 7,
During my reflections on this project bowls,
for which the human hand serves as prime model
- I remembered a saying by the Chinese sage. Lao­
tse (3rd or 4th century BC): .. Pots are made from
clay. And yet it is the empty space that is essential
for them,"
Because of this I always make the children begin
with the inner form. the essential. This has to be
smoothly carved and finished. Working from the rim.
the shape is formed - because of the rim's dual role
of defining the beginning and end of the inner space.
Once this inner space has been formed and neatly
finished (we had practised this perceiving, senSing
 by touch and delicate carving during our work on
the Nuremberg houses and dwarfs' cottages in Class
6) the outer form wil! be shaped in correspondence
with the inner form. Finally, the rim will be finished
in the way described.
We complete our project. a useful article that
gives joy again and again because of Us beauty
and usefulness. The effort was well worth it even
though the initial enthusiasm may have occasion­
ally ebbed a little. Hard wood makes tremendous
demands! But the teacher was quite right when he
jokingly saiL! in encouragement: "There is no such
thing as hard wood, only too large shaVings'" The
success at the end lets us forget all Our troubles
and pains This, the teacher thought, will be a fre­
quent experience of life.

MOVEABLE TOYS

Rudolf Steiner frequently mentioned the value

of moveable toys in his lectures to teachers. It is
included in the Class 7 curriculum. Clear think­
ing in planning and the application of simple
mechanics are essential. Rudolf Steiner always
meant movements of people and animals. Be­
cause of its humorous aspects it is admirably

I
suited to children of that age. But it is not at all
easy to translate such characteristic movements
!
into wood and string. \Ne can use the many tra­
I ditional toys as examples and stimulation. There
I are simple mechanical laws that can be applied
in the process.

I
The use of levers plays all important pan in the
making of hammering or sawing men or in fighting this they could never have been created from
animals as they approach and move away from boards' There is no base for a turning crane. how­
each O£her. The lever action In scissors opens up a ever beautiful. that can compare with that made
variety of pOSSibilities, especially suited to group from the root of a fir tree. and no ready made hook
work. A shepherdess, for example, who drives a can be as beautiful and as strong as that carved
flock of geese before her; the Three Kings of Orient from the natural fork of a branch from a birch.
with their retinue and camels going to the manger. Such work allows the children to take a good
Then there is the simple turning technique by which look at the nature processes and experience how
a great variety of to-and-fro movements can be their creative forces in roots, branches and twigs
produced, such as 'cat and mouse' in which the can also adapt to technological tasks, Byattempt­
mouse always just gets away from the cat. Move­ ing the production of mechanical objects in this
ments between two people, between man and ani­ original way, we combine technology with beauty;
mal or between two animals can be produced in we prepare the children for the understanding o
this way. Especially effective are movements that simple. basic mechanical principles of which they
are horizontal to the vertically turning wheels such are made aware in Class 7 and which will later
as dancing dolls turning around their own axis. . lead to an understanding of machines.
The use of the pendulum offers other possibili­
ties. be it an animal balancing on the edge of a PROJECTS FOR THE COMMUNITY
shelf or a bird moving its head and tail in alternat­
1ng movements. As we have already said. the children are not al­
The tautening and loosening of a string results lowed to keep all the things they make, The rope­
In a little man climbing as high as to the ceiling. ladder and the toy town are the result of group work
Simple mechanics can be applied to the making and either sold or given away. In Class 8. also. the
of more sophisticated toys in Class 8. A train. for children will not work for themselves when. shortly
example. demands the precise drilling of parallel before the end of the school year. time does not al­
holes for the axles. something we had already prac­ low for a new project to be started. In this way we
tised when we made rope-ladders. accumulate a great number of cranes. castles. ani­
The children especially enjoy building a fully mals and other things for the school community and
functioning crane. A great variety of models are our workshop. as suggestions for further work. It is
suggested by the nature of branches and branch just as important. however. that the children choose
forks used for the project. because of our remain­ to give some of their work away The precious things
ing faithful to our principle not to work with 'ready­ they do keep they often treasure throughout their
made' boards. The beautiful results seem to justify lives.
 I! I'" Vc', """ ' ,i 'r
, ':
I Working for the annu:l Ad~vent bazaar i~ 'espe- / f

I ,~i~J1ortagt:ReaI group work 15 practised here', 1

Everybody participates in making It a success, The

craft teachers nor only work extra, hours.f)ilt

E~~:~~~~~ir~~~~~d~~fkt;~~~~~~H~~
~~lj!,l_~01:~,s,31Il,d we cor:~e!ltr(ite b}linoveable

t~ys~.9f1Jrain~~,~ mad~ from hazelnut branches.

on climbing men or balancing animals:'on'Ntirem­

berg houses, on jumping jacks or on actually

working scales. with weights made from baked clay.

) for a toy grocery shop.

Contrary to our usual prinCiple. the craft

teachers have already prepared the baSis on the

machine. The single parts for the articles are on

the benches. with the corresponding tools next

"~ ...--­
;'-"
to them. The teacher distributes the work. ex­

plains the methods to be employed - often quite

new for the children, And then the work begins ­

'mass-produced' articles. repetitive individual

work. each child responsible for a part for the

benefit of the whole,

For example. the children take an already roughly

cut out object and add the finer touches. This is

done at the expense of the Individuality of the work.

that characterised the previous projects, However.

it is amply compensated by the children's selfless

 :::~ upwards

I
~---
l:iw ,~
 devotion to the common good, seeing that more too. They become aware of the difference between
things can be produced in this way and the school mass-produced animals. made by machines. and
community benefit from it. their own hand-crafted products. The teache
Indeed, the children are enjoying it. They occasionally showed them toys sold in shops, and
become masters of the particular detail they they judiciously studied them and perceived th
contribute. In the production of an animal and difference in quality and originality.
cart set, one might be carving the cart, another They experience hm\ a common. comprehen
an ox, another a donkey and still another a sive project can be realised through combined
horse. Joining them together is the task of yet commitment. At the same time they Jearn to
another one in the group, appreciate the hardship and problems of th
In the production of the jumping jack thati millions of people earning their living in this way
( proves to be espesially popular at the bazaar. the Our community work for the bazaar served it
'I children in Class 5 sUQQlied the fr<;!'D1e, the chil- ~ purpose if. apart from their direct practical experi
.. \ dren in ~Ia~s 6..l!:te. aI:'ms. Class 7 tDJL legs and. I ences, the children will look at their watches
'< ~!he.Jmdie§.::: quite a new experience for 'shoes or books with differenl eyes. All the many
\ \l.3!I.,Of them. bec_al,lse all the single parts, hav~ to)) objects in our daily use were made by numerou
1\ .Ii!~ Tfiey
-arse have to be completed at the same people working in a similar way, each responsible
time to avoid delay. Everything depends on the for one part only.
, commitment, skills and diligence of each one., After this interlude the children resume thei
The same applies to the making of a train-set. own individual \-\lork with even greater joy and
The single parts include the carriages, the engine enthusiasm - an ever astonishing experience fo
and wheels. So that they fit. the children use tem- the teacher.
plates made by the teacher.
The children are justifiably proud of their work. EACH PIECE OF \VORK NEEDS ITS OWN 'SKIN'
At the bazaar they watch the buyers as they
examine, try the mechanism, select and. finally sat­ Every usable object [haL is held by the hand - i
isfied and happy, buy the chosen article and 'handled' will need a surface protection in orde
take it away. They are aware of the fact that to be, and remain to be. useful. This applies espe
such beautiful. hand-crafted toys are not available cially to wooden toys rr~ey l1t:l,d protection, a kind
anywhere else. The children themselves know Lhis, of 'skin' which. hU\'.e'.·~r ddl~S !lot separate the
 raw linseed oil. All these ingredients are mixed in'.'''':~~~:'''~-' , -~.
the right proportion. Balsam turpentine oil is
added and the whole melted together In a hot
water bath. Children and visitors respond by say­
ing: "It always smells so good in the workshop!"
This, our 'Nuremberg wax'. has proved itself not
only in the making of toys but In many other useful
articles. such as candlesticks, bowls. letter open­
ers. even clay sculptures. The latter regain their
original shine, which they lose in the drying
process, when, after drying, they are generously ~
rubbed with this substance and the excess moisture ~ CLASS ~/
later wiped off with a soft cloth. They are then pol­ ' "_~"'T".---""
ished to a fine finish. The children in Class 8 are given a choic
The wooden spoon is the exception. The wax . from a variety of projects. Musically gifte
would melt in hot liquid and taint the food. It is students oftenm9..ecide on making a xylophon
finished with the 'magic wand', a rounded piece and they make the 5est use of the latent music
of hardwood that is rubbed across the smoothed quality in the available types of wood. To beg
surface, producing a really magical. delicate shine with. the sounding slats are cut off the prepare
bits of hardwood in different lengths and fine
tuned by ear Our experimenting tells us that th
fullest sound is produced by a piece of woo
placed on a hollowed-out sound box with
strip of felt between. Further experiments with di
ferent wood lead us to the selection of the be
material for the hammer which is then carved in
the appropriate shape. Finally. corresponding
5<1.; "(H: "" ~ the sounding slats. the open-ended bowl-shape
~

! (;"
fA> d,,"1\. • sound box is carved.
Jj
 if Sc012 Cc la fIl..<..:>c, ~ II
'\ Nut-crackers ~ another fa'iQurite. EspeciallY/!! carved again, but in greater detail. as preparation
those made from a log and carved in the shape of for the artistic woodwork in Class 1l.
a gnome who cracks the nuts in his mouth. Or a Transformed into faculties. the students can now
\,I bowl-shaped nut-cracker where the work of the apply the experience gained during the three years
previous year is repeated in a more exacting way. to their individual possibilities.!..I~~Jjev~ choic~J9
The making of a candlestick needs practical con- )i~~Q.~rtaQt at this ag~. __b.~c::ay.s.g gfJ.hE!.rnarked
(( sideration: a firm base is !.ssential. The shape is mdividuaJ~f!~rences. lne.clI[fg~gr},t.. incliIl!jtiOn~j!.nd
directed upwaros, to the canale. Acopper tray with rejections ~,h.~s.m~yJlDd.~~n.J.tuhe•.Y!!'l,)rk
a screwed-in spike for holding the candle and catch­ SIloe. 1his results in a stimulating variety of work
ing the drips of wax Is needed. The spike Is filed and demands of the teacher great flexibility and
from a brass screw that harmonises well with the versatility if he wishes to do justice to all of his
finely carved wood. Yet other students choose to students and their projects.
make salad servers made from precious wood. This It is not only the students who, In the face of the
work is a progression from the wooden spoon in magnitude of their tasks, are covered in perspira­
Class 6 -:.~ill!ires great skill and perseve~Clf1(;e. t'I lion: the teacher, too, must set an example with
Making a complicated castle appeals to quite a his never waning enthusiasm and his joy in the ac
number of students. The skills they acquired dur­ of creating, in order to lift his students' spirits
ing their work on the Nuremberg houses are now should they become lazy or lax. He is. however,
I further developed. towers. bowers. oriels, battle­ richly rewarded as he watches their progress and.
I .. ments, even a working drawbridge are included in! if he succeeds in reaching them with a sense o
! this ambitious undertaking. ,I humour, enthusiasm and praise. the joyous work­
i
The shepherds and animals of Class 5 are now ing mood will be restored and maintained.
,-Making, a b9a~.~,J...9_eJJ~~e~t!!~,l!~~t I2rqject~\
this a.ge. Surpr1si!lgly~ man..y.s.tudent~.Ql?..tJor this.
1 Think of aJ:~9..x or,..&l[U1l(lass.8 ...claimed by the
earth's gravity. lounging about, always looking for
/
a prop - a stage through which she sooner or
!
later passes. Aboat with its _~1!f11etl:!cal sh~~
~;::~;;==II~ demands constarlfiiffention to the vertical. to the
~.' " accurate-c6i11paMson het\veeriieh and'ifght-in
order 'to achieve the required balancE'. The mast
must be inserted vertically. [OwarJs the top andI
(V{'d£ v",? l1?VI/'l41 o Au' ,,,,-,,,'f •'v! i,,4v!' y (/t'it fA
the keel vertically to the bottom. The student must centre. Exactly underneath the deck's centre lin
place himself into a right angle axis if he wishes is the keeL The height of the mast (and thus th
to succeed In this. Only by standing in the verti­ size of the sail) and the length and weight of th
cal can one see if a picture is hanging straight. As keel complement each other. Should mast and sa
soon as the head is even only slightly inclined be too big for the keel, the boat will capsize. To
one will lose one's horizontal and vertical orien­ small a mast in relation to the keel will slow th
tation. Drilling the hole for the mast is. therefore. speed. The keel is the picture for the point of grav
always a tense time: the deck must be absolutely ity which the teenager must discover in himself
horizontal. Another student watches intently as he is to prove himself in the elements of wind an
the hole ls drilled. correcting the angle if neces­ waves. Lightness and heaviness must be well bal
sary. Finding his orientation in space through the anced. We are everywhere called upon to find th
necessity of overcoming the heaviness of his body right balance, the right relation to delicate balanc
to which the teenager so easily succumbs - is ing situations. The rudder also plays an importan
of immense benefit for the young. . part. Making it demands great care and precision
The boat's seaworthiness is the test of success. Most of the boats we make are sailing ships; th
It goes without saying that the leaden keel. poured rigging has to be professionally added, Our stu
lnto a plaster of Paris mould made by the students. dents often know more about this than thei
must be proportionate to the size of the boat. The teacher.
body of the boat is carved from a piece of log. The The finished boat. usually one metre in length
horizontal deck is given graceful. curved lines that is an achievement of which the 14 year-old can b
blend In nicely with the water. The symmetry is justifiably proud.
then determined: broader boats float more securely! Especially skilled students like the challeng
Speed will depend on the shape of the deck: the of building a catamaran If perfectly built th
wall between bow and stern curves tautly to the teacher wiil not ohj 0 ct (0 its O\,\'ner adding suc
 ~: '''', -.- . ',' . •.... _.::f..-.
.. ~.:.~/~~t"'{e~1j;:~~II-"~" .~., ..- ' ,."
.. ::'. :, irJ.l .:..:. ~ "'\'O,:,~

,, .,,,.

technological extras as remote control or similar II a cultivation of Lb.e_?_en~~~: The eyes must lea
things in his spare time. Its negative aspect is the ' to differentiate the delicate nuances of form
loss of the delicate feeling for wind and waves. order to avoid an interruption of the graceful fl
and the necessary experimenting with rudder and of the rim through either a wrong fall or rise
.~
. ~.
sail that take the boat to the opposite bank,
All these projects in Class 8. (hat must be both
the wood, The inner form is best perceived by t
hand gliding gently across the delicately chisell
beautiful and functional Le. prove themselves when surface: it can feel even the smallest unevenne
applied and used. are already transitions to the Such skills and faculties should here be develope
teaching of applied arts in the High School. Already during the making of spoons the sense
The joinery period will then bring a new ele- touch Is cultivated. every wrong protuberance
ment to woodwork and take it further. the handle is felt. the more so the further the wo
proceeds. The delicate pressure of the fingerti
SOME THOUGHTS I HAD IN here becomes more i.rJ;lportant than the eye. T
THE WORKSHOP". students are encouraged to trust their own facu
\ ties. to find their way to perfection, "Can you st
(EdUcatiOn in the crafts is education oL!b~l!!L1 feel a bump - all right you may now start wi
The students must continuously tame their will the polishing." The student does what he or s
as they carve the inner shape of a boat or bowl. I· notices and nor merely what the teacher tells h
frequently tell my classes about my childhood to do.
when I had to help with the ploughing. The oxen In weighing up symmetry (as In the making o
did (he hard work of pulling the plough but the boat) the sense of balance comes into its own: t
farmer had to give the directions. He had to stand gether with eye and hands - as well as our sen
firmly and move on the earth if he wished to of touch we can see if left and right compleme
control and tame the strength of the animals. each other. If the outer form is wrong. the inn
In the same way. the hand guiding the chisel will also suffer and the boat will not float well. T
must hold it firmly so that the strength of the sense of balance is also essential in the fitting
other hand is controlled. The children under- mast and keeL And the sense of movement accom
stand the analogy - a picture that helps them panies everything the child observes and does.
to achieve co-ordination. Even the sense of hearing is evident. It tells
, , _Handw?rk, wood"~·~k af!..d_craft 1~~~~!2.s.A!:.~E.1.~9 (/ something about the quality of the \",ood, abo
social interaction. There are innumerable opportu­ closed and the tools returned to the shelves.
nities for mutual help - be it in the selection of suit­ The students then take their seats and remai
able material in the storeroom or during the sawing silent. A receptive mood is created for the teache
and splitting of logs. A stronger student can assist a to say whatever might be useful or necessary. It i
weaker one, a more skilled child will feel good when important that the lively activity during the lesso
he patiently teaches his clumsy friend a few tricks. is calmed. The names of the four students on clean
This development of soclal feelings isa necessity in ing duty are then called out. The remainder ar
our busy and understocked workshops. Considera­ dismissed with a handshake. an opportunity for
tion is essential, there is no room for selfishness. possible personal remark.
Clumsier children must be given the better benches I hardly ever delegate specific duties. such a
and tools, the skilled ones can more easily handle tidying the shelves. Every Single student is calle
less Ideal situations. Mutual understanding and help upon to return his or her tools to the right place
are the golden rule in the workshop. This is. of course. only possible if the teacher him
I regard it as absolutely necessary for the self is tidy and the room neat at the beginning o
teacher to handle everyone of the children' s arti­ the lesson. This serves as example and helps th
cles after school. He must have the picture of each students in feeling inwardly supported and disci
child before him, This will determine the success plihed, This is particularly important at a time whe
of the following lesson, people find it so difficult to bring order into thei
Order in the lessons is essential. The children lives. Deep down. the children long for order an
are used to being greeted by their teacher. They love it. This does not mean that the room has to b
shake hands and sit down. facing the teacher. This prosaic and barren: our description of it will con
quiet minute is necessary: it allows the chil­ firm this. Order and 'Cemot' (heart-forces) are no
dren to calm down after their wild games in the mutually exclusive: the children's souls need th
play-ground and the creation of the right mood for right feelings for their nourishment.
work. They listen to the teacher's remarks about Life in the workshop has many aspects. Work
the previous lesson or about the next stage of the ing within a group awakens many faculties. It is
work before moving to their aSSigned places and necessary complement to the other subjects. Bu
continuing with their projects. . it is also a help for life itself, for the purpose o
The teacher must be aware of everything, must learning is to understand the world. so that on
praise, reprove, correct if necessary, lend a hand day, we take our place in it, work in it. Henry Ford
and pay attention to students with special needs. was surely right when he said: "There is some
Occasionally the work is interrupted, in order to thing really grand in our daily work! Work is th
draw attention to some discovery a student may corner stone on which the world rests, it is th
have made during his or her work. Through the root for our self esteem'"

1 All illustrations are of work done by children.

2 Steiner. R. Soul Economy and Waldorf Education. Lecture XI

AP. 1986.
 Will take considerable time.
1 Baron von F.. owner of several large forests in
Sauerland. had invited us to spend two weeks. from
I May 2nd to the 14th, on his estate. Not the usual
class trip: we were to observe the whole cycle of
timber production from start to finish - saw mills,
thinning, re-planting. germinating, seedlings. A
comprehensive overview that could be summed up
as: 'From wood to workshop',
Much of what we use in our daily lives escapes
our understanding, Technology has seen to this. The
children know well enough that the iron gets hot
when plugged In, that the fridge makes a humming
sound, that the telephone rings and that the calcu­
lator Is reliable. But they don't know how they work,
Without fully realising it. we are surrounded by a
world of magic, believing we are in control as long
as everything Is in working order - but often at a
loss when something goes wrong
Our very young children are trying to come to
grips with the world around them by asking "why?".
Their questions assume a new urgency at the be­
ginnIng of puberty. During the 12th year the faculty
of reasoning and judging makes itself felt. It allows
the children to understand the world through think­
ing. preparing the step into adolescence. during
which the young man or woman carefully exam­
ines the world around him, probes deeply into the
moral issues, the truths behind the phenomena,
because he now Wishes to understand hiS world and
find a useful place for himself where he can employ
his skills and energies and feel 'at home'. Because
of this it is essential for the young to experience the
world at this age in a way that they can feel: under­
f standing, insight are possible. connections can be
found. The head alone cannot gain such assurance.
It must take hold of the whole being, must be felt in
every part of the body. It is because of this that ex­
perience and doing take priority in the curriculum
at this time.
Our class trip was aimed at strengthening aware­
ness. this standing-firmly-in-life by following the
processes of timber production from forest to work­
[
and whether this often unconscious experience ma
help them to stand more securely in life. ma
strengthen their confidence: I can see the connec
( tions. my own activities fit into the world.
Every stage of the wood's progress from fore
to workshop provides the children with the oppo
tunity of not only intellectually understanding th
course of events, but experiencing it with the
hearts and senses, During the pre-puberty stage
, the children are still primarily related to the worl
through their feelings - friendships and enmitie
pleasure and displeasure are important. Graduall
thinking takes over. the students become mor
, awake. their questions about the reality of thing
become more precise. Much of later life depend
on the nature of the environment in which th
young person now finds himself, on the echoes h
turbulent knocking calls forth.
The forest as living community. dependent on th
care and cultivation of people. is a picture of inte
relationships in which the youngster can learn ho
to deal wIth living things. The researcher of the life
less, the mechanical. must separate the object from
the totality. He who wishes to understand and car
for living things must discover the totality. relation
and connections. and must perceive them and tak
them into account. When the forester tells u
about the numerous functions of the forest. abou
the refreshing air. the right a.mount of moisture
the Significance of birds and the life of the deer, th
children's thinking is directed to comprehend th
inter-relationships in life, This is a pre-condition fo
1
.
today's demands for ecological thinking.
But this main-lesson block in forestry offer
more than the hearing of stories and the observa
,tion of things. It allows the children to be activ
themselves. Not only their thinking - their feeling
and will are also addressed. And this meets th
needs of this age admirably!
I began our first craft lesson in Class 6 with th
sentence: "There is nobody. however small. wh
cannot be a: helper. Before I could continue, Floria
interjected: "This is true. The grownups don't trus
us lo do anything. When the bridge was being bui
forestry main-lesson block for Class 7. The children
are 13 years-old and about to grow into adolescence.
Not yet fascinated by their own subjective world,
they are, however, already intelligent and strong
enough to lend a meaningful hand in some projects.
They are at the threshold to adult life and yet still
open to the magic of the world of elementals. The
forest to them means more than the usefulness of
timber. The gates will soon close - a Class 8 stu­
dent perceives the world very differently.
There Is much to be done in a forest.' Our
concern is to provide such tasks that are educa­
tionally sound and fruitful. What are they?
They must be meaningful! The children must
Immediately see that their work is Important,
worthwhile.
And there must be enough room for play. The
strength needed in doing one's duty at the expense
of self interest must be given time to develop. In its
play, the little child imitates the grownup's work.
Activity is here the important thing, not the result.
Beginning and end of play is determined by an in­
ner impulse, by the joy and pleasure the activity
provides.
Later in life we must meet the demands coming
from without. Can we think of tasks that make for
a smooth transItion from the one to the other. that
can give the children an inkling of the nature of
duty. of responsibility and yet leave enough space
for the element of play?
The children should have an opportunity also
of experiencing the strengthening effect of com­
munity life. How everything combines, interacts,
interweaves for the benefit of the whole, the com­
mon aim. Strength and gentleness, courage and
reflectiveness, direct action and clear planning,
eagerness and patience, fun and earnestness.
Things happen as long as everybody contributes
his or her best!
In a forest there are many possibilities for the
children to experience these things.
The following are but a few examples:
"Go and pick up all the dead wood along the
and get them ready for the truck, Off you go!"
. "I have a special task for you today. It's a fai
distance away. There, at the top of that hill wher
a lot of trees were recently felled, the smalle
branches have to be cleared away and burnt. Her
are some matches. I wonder if you can get them to
burn. Take good care and watch for the direction
of the wind. Don't lOiter on the way. you'll need al
the time you have."
"You really did work hard yesterday. But I am
sorry I have to disappoint you. The stile you mad
will not last. the beech wood you used is not suit
able, it rots too quickly. You should have used pine
Its gum gives strength and endurance. Would you
mind doing it again? Now that you know how to
do it, it shouldn't take you long."
"Could you repair the bridge behind the main
building'The hikers who had their picnic there las
Sunday broke the railing. There might be som
other damage as well. Let's go and see. You can
then get the necessary tools from the shed."
Every morning brings new tasks~ and delegated
groups, led by an adult. see to them. The children
experience the difference between the relation o
the forest to a person who merely strolls through i
from one who actually works there. The fores
speaks a different language to the latter.
Wind, fog. warmth. rain - the weather is impor
tant for those who work outside. The children
experience deeply the various moods in nature: the
delicate early morning mist, the soft drizzle, a hai
shower, the clear sky, the fresh breeze. A bird o
prey circling in the air; a deer looking at us from a
safe distance and bounding away; frogs in a pond
horses tame enough to allow themselves to be
stroked.
We meet the dangers of this age - the isolation
of the newly awakening energies. the inclination
of the sparkling intelligence towards a cold
intellectuality, the physical maturity overpowering
the adolescent and making him a victim of primi­
tive instincts - we meet these dangers by counter­
ing them with activities directed by feelings and
air and the sun will dream his life away.
Consider: before a tree is chopped down. the di­
rection of the fall must be determined. Where is
the greatest weight of the crown? Where is the most
space for the fallen tree? How should it drop in
order to cause the least damage to the other trees?
All this is 'professlonally' discussed until a con­
sensus is reached. And then the work begins! The
whole tree vibrates as the well directed axe bites
into the stem. At the right time the saw is employed.
The tree begins to bend. gently at first. then faster
until it crashes to the ground.
Thinking is needed before the tree is dragged
from the creek into which it has fallen: the 'how' is
as important as the physical strength.
We have thus a healthy interweaving of planning.
doing and experiencing in all the things we do in
the forest. Experience - reflection - activity; the
burning of rubbish needs to be watched. guarded
and kept going.
The indiVidual way the students apply them­
selves to their work offers the teacher opportunities
of studying their temperaments. The sanguines are,
always ahead of everybody else. discovering bee­
hives and feeding troughs for the deer: they quickly
make friends with the workers. splash about in the
stream during breaks and always have to be calle,d
back to work.
The cholerics make a beeline for the axe. feeling
their strength as they chop away. They love com­
peting against the others. "See how much we got
done today!"
The phlegmatics do the planning and try their
best to succeed with the least phySical effort. Yet.
in this way they occasionally get more done than
the others.
The melancholics are given the task of sealing
the 'wounds' where branches were cut off. Loving
experiences are important for the pupil who wish
to find her place in the world. The children learn
value each other's skills: Eliza's help is alway
asked when the tree to be carried away is esp
cially heavy. Matthew is the one whose advice o
felling a tree is listened to. Evelyn never refuses a
appeal for help. and Frank always brings life in
the group with his cheerfulness. Mary plods qU
etly on. unperturbed and never complaining. Eac
of them could be characterised in the way he
she is trying to find his place in the group. and th
way they are helped by their friends. sometim
gently. sometimes a little roughly.
Nobody can opt out of the process. There a
transformations in the children during this tim
Working in the forest is at the same time workin
on oneself. I sometimes wonder if the children
parents notice these changes in their sons an
daughters after their stay in the forest - the wa
they have grown.
The two weeks in the forest seemed like a lon
time because of the wealth of events: dealing wi
nature. the interaction with one another. with th
teacher. the work itself. the occasional homesick
ness but. most of all. the coming to grips wi
oneself.
During our subsequent woodwork lessons memo
ries arise: "Do you remember ... ?" The students loo
at the wood from which they are carving a boat or
simple stool with different eyes than previously.
has its own history. Wind. mist. warmth and rai
are still present in the children's memories. The ci
ding bird of prey. the deer. the swarm of bees. th
call of the cuckoo - they all are part of it and hel
the children to treat the substance entrusted t
them with understanding care and with reverence
They wish to transform it into beautiful and prac
tical objects.
. robe in a child's room. It was a simple toy, a man
sawing wood. He asked for it to be taken down,
examined it carefully and said: "Such toys ought
to be made." I
Max Wolffhugel who was responsible for organ­
Ising the "artistic handwork lessons"2 in the first
Waldorf School - supervised by Rudolf Steiner ­
spoke of this incident as the hour of birth of the
moveable toys that have since then been made by
the children in Class 7. The idea was born before
the school opened! It shows the importance Rudolf
Steiner attached to It: In subsequent lectures he
referred to It repeatedly. and he gave numerous
suggestions for It. J We must remember that the toys
at that time tended to be rigid and mechanical.
threatening not only the child's inner life of imagi­
nation, but also the healthy development of its
delicate, flexible organs.
The next question to be addressed is the (
I
following. Why did Rudolf Steiner consider it so
Important that children in Class 7 and beyond
should themselves invent and make such move­
able wooden toys? The process itself obviously
corresponds to this age and positively affects the
children's development, quite independent of the
influence the toys might afterwards have on those
playing with them. Rudolf Steiner referred to this
in different ways: on one occasion he asserted that
the making of moveable toys would give the chil­
dren pleasure and make them more skilled. 4
On another occasion, he emphasised the "inner
mobility", and the "connection of the soul between
the child's life and the life In the world outside". 5
Here the humorous. hearty and happy nature of
the quaint movements of animals and people,
brought about by turning, pulling and pushing, the
use of gravity etc. plays an important part.
All these suggestions cannot. however. fully
satisfy the serious teacher. Pleasure, skills, con­
nection with life etc. may be derived just as well
from the knitting of socks, from carving a boat or
from potting plants in gardening. There must be
something else that makes the production of
essential aspects of physics connected to th
children's sense experiences - seeing. hearin
touching etc. - were discussed. MechaniCS is lif
less, dead. It is implicit in our movements that ar
if not carried out. supported and sustained by o
skeleton. Unconscious processes - we don't wor
about our bones when we move. And yet they pr
vide the basis for the way we control our bodies
standing. sitting or moving about.
The child's relation to his bony system is no
undergOing a decisive change. Be it on the pla
ground. in the gymnasium or the gardening lesso
we can observe the increasing heaviness in his mov
ments: they become clumSier, bonier. The earli
graceful movements have gone. Think of a class
eight doing eurythmy: heavy movements, as thoug
directed from without, clumsy legs carrying the bo
in a circle. It reminds one of marionettes, pure
mechanical figures held, controlled and moved fro
outside. The idea of marionettes is sometimes a
sociated with 'manipulation of people'. Consider,
contrast, the light and graceful movements of a pu
pet in the hands of a skilful puppeteer.
The German poet Heinrich von Kleist pondere
deeply on this subject and he indicated and suggest
ways of dealing with this problem. It is essenti
for the threads moving the lifeless mechanism
be fastened to the correct points of gravity of th
corresponding limbs. If. by doing so, the thread
moved forward in a straight line. a gracef
movement of the marionette is assured. Su
cess here is conditioned by the full connection
the puppeteer with the process. The path of th
thread is identical with the path of the puppeteer
soul that fully places itself into the marionette
point of gravity, in other words, it must itself mov
It is not easy for a grown-up to submerge him
self consciously into his movements. What a chi
unconSCiously demonstrates In its natural grac
and lightness of touch is, when an adult attemp
to imitate it, all too easily tinged with vanity an
the contrived movements will offend the beholde
With the growing awakening of the soul. vanit

1
;1
. through the dominant bony system, is the oppo
Harm Siegel: Mephisto
attention seeking and every kind of self-con­
sciousness are present in the movements. The
marionette here has an advantage: being of a
r
purely mechanical nature it cannot be self-con­
scious, cannot be coy,
We may now move from the marionette to the
obviously identical situation of a 13 or 14 year-old
'1
child. Its natural graceful movements have gone.
I, because of the muscles' growing dependence on
the skeleton. "Later, after the 12th year, the bony
system, placing itself into the outer world. domi­
1-- nates the muscles and. through them. the soul and
spirit". 6 Our task now consists in connecting the
newly awakening soul correctly with its own cor­
responding 'bodily mechanism',
The young man or woman becomes more awake.
more aware of the environment and of his or her
relationship to their body, Coquetry. even arrogance,
frequently characterises this age. The 'falling into
sin' comes (0 mind I.e. the time in evolution when
the soul united itself strongly with the body. It pro­
vided the impetus to progress by filling the soul
1 with desires and wishes it could satisfy through
the body. Soul and body became as one. but this
progress was paid for with the loss of innocence in
f' Paradise. Applied to our subject this means: the
young child's grace left the movements of the limbs.
own body. If. during puberty. the soul can develo
in a way that it can connect itself with the poin
of gravity in the organism of movement, that i
right into the bones, this will then result in grac
ful and natural physical movements.
Hand in glove with these dramatic changes
the development of will around the 12th year, th
show themselves in the movements brought abo
site pole of the life of the soul: thinking. Here. to
development occurs. This is, however. a much mo
difficult problem. Although the exact processe
can be practically addressed during lessons the
cannot be easily detected. But they provide a he
for understanding the children at this stage
their development.
Thinking does not only consist of picture ele
ments, but also of will that begins to come int
its own at this time. the 12th year. Thinking no
connects itself more deeply with the organism
right down as far as the bones. It lights up. as
were. in the densest and most solid system and
through it, becomes capable of understanding th
solid. dense elements and processes of our world
"As we enter the 12th year we acquire a thinkin
that, in keeping with its will nature, runs i
course along with the processes in the bones, I
the dynamics of the skeleton. We pass from th
soft to the very hard system of the human bein
- an important transition - that, let me say
places itself into the world like an objective le
ver system 7
n,
As each single bone. complete in itself. border
on the next, so also are the single thoughts now
built up. developed in clear and logical sequences
thought on thought. progressing, structured, Her
lie the seeds for thinking in cause and efrect. Th
children have become mature enough for it. Stu
dents of anthroposophy have become Llsed t
speaking of different 'kinds' of thinking - not. o
course. the content of thinking. We cannot un
derstand the utterings of a very young child if w
apply the factual reasoning of the adult. Thinkin
develops qualitatively from stage to stage. Th
of will through the muscles with the efforts of will
in a living, imaginative thinking process.
Our instincts, urges, desires and wishes are tied
to flesh and blood; they are subjective in nature. In
past times, the pleasures of the flesh were consid­
ered to be contemptible; they had to be fought and
conquered. Nobody has as yet spoken of the 'pleas­
ures of the bones'. Bones have neither urges nor
desires, they are hidden from sight, serving us self­
lessly, unnoticed, qUietly. It is exactly because of.
this that they provide the body with secure and de­
cisive support and firmness. If we wish to step out
Into the world In freedom, without being influenced
by our desires and instincts, we must, as it were,
submerge ourselves into our skeleton and, from it,
set our body In motion. We must put aside 'flesh
legs - feet
progressive movements
In forward or backward
direction
excessive elements of Instincts and desires that ma
themselves especially strongly felt during puber
Thus we lay the foundation for freedom in thinki
and doing by connecting the human being with
most lifeless system: his bones. In experiencing t
lifeless - death - we have the seeds of a new freedo
the young man or woman may acquire. As stran
as it may sound, mineralogy, mechanics and, y
the making of moveable toys will help this develo
ment, if they are introduced at the right age.
MOVEMENT AND MECHANICS
The structure of our skeleton determines the wa
we can move. Beginning with the head we see
spherical shape that can turn in universa
spherical movements. It rests on the uppermo
vertebrae of the spine. The human being mak
use of spherical and circular forms wherever it
necessary to overcome gravity and friction, In t
case of the carriage of a train its wheels touch t
track at a tiny point on which the entire weig
rests. This lessens friction to the degree that
lows a little amount of energy to move heavy load
The same principle applies to the use of ball bea
ings. Spherical forms that overcome the force
gravity by their circling movements are al
present in the planets.
Our feet, on the other hand, are directed towar
the front, their movements straight. linear. T
joints in the toes make possible only very limit
up and down movements: the knees, through th
hinge-like jOints are fully embedded in a forwa
. movement. The degree of circular or side mov
ments of our legs is made possible through t
spherical form of the hips. The linear alig
ment of legs and feet are in polar oppositi
to the circling movements of the head. From the
they pass in diminishing possibilities in arms a
legs into the straight movements of fingers an
toes where the simple up and down movemen
dominate absolutely. Thus the 'straightness' a
'roundness' of the skeletal structure determine t
 clrdlng and progressive movement
possible bodily movements. Legs and feet are.
through the way they are constructed. in a posi­
tion to carry the entire body forward. The forward
movement is added to the circular one.
t·
! Our arms and hands - apart from the similar
i basic organisation of the legs, the circular move­
:' ment in the shoulder joints and the dominant up
and down movements of the fingers - have an ex­
ceptional position. Ulna and radius can turn around
an Invisible axis between them, making it possible
for the lower arm and hand to move in connection
with the shoulder point freely in all directions.
By consciously observing the movements of our
hands we have the most beautiful and pertinent
picture of freedom. Apparently unaffected by
gravity. they selflessly submerge their bony struc­
ture in the unconscious regions. The rhythmical
to-and-fro movements are characteristic of arms
and hands. We may perhaps now understand
why our legs serve us in our forward movements,
taking turns. The one supplements the other. A
counter movement would inhibit progress.
A great deal of our work depends on the rhyth­
mical movements of our arms. We can thus speak
of three fundamental tendencies:
Head: spherical movements.
physical basis of thinking.
Arms/hands: rhythmical movements. N';'
physical basis of feeling.
Legs/feet: progreSSive movements.
physical basis of willing.
-J
~
movement co and fro
H. von Baravalle writes about mechanical move­
ments. outside the human being. in the area of the
purely physical.
"A machine, quite independently of our knowl­
edge of its uses or technological details, becomes
an object of our thinking, of our observation.
"We begin by ascertaining which of its parts
are moving and which remain static. as sup­
ports. We then observe the different types of
movements. We shall differentiate them in three
large groups. The most frequent of them are
turning movements. carried out by wheels. cogs.
gears etc. Then there are the rhythmical. ever
repetitive movements as. for example. by a
knife that first raises, then lowers itself in
order to cut something, or the various move­
ments of grabbers and excavators depositing or
carrying loads. The third type of movement
. is progreSSive: these are carried out by a part
of the process, enter the machine, run their
course and leave it again. "
Thus we discover the various movements of the
human organisation also in the machine. separated
from and independent of the human being. Baravalle
connects them with natural phenomena. We find
the turning movements again in the movements of
the stars. the rhythmical movements in all the life
processes in Man and animals. but also. very much
slowed down. in plants. Baravalle sees the progres­
sive movements realised most dramatically in the
distinctive movements of wind and water.
that would have impeded clear thinking and the
execution of the functioning of movements and
the correct shape of the duck.
We are tempted to say: the making of moveable
toys at the beginning of puberty facilitates the
children's descent to earth, helps them to over­
come the problems implicit in the 'falling into
sin '. The handling of mechanics' demands ­
soberirtgly and inexorably, but also, due to the
material used (wood), warmly and invitingly - the

From an arUcie by Max Wolffhugel. in Erziehungskun

1952. Nos. 5 & 6.
2 Ibid.
3 Steiner. R.. The Spiritual Ground of Education. Garber Pub
cations. n.d. Lecture of 23.8.1923 on the occasion (8.8.192
of an exhibition of arts and crafts made by Waldorf ch
dren and in a lecture given on 10.8.1923.
4 Steiner. R.. Conferences. 22.9.1920. vol. 1. SSF. 1987.
5 Steiner. R.. Practical Advice CO Teachers. Lecture of 2.9.191
RSP. 1976.
6 Steiner. R.. The Spiritual Ground ofEducation. 22.8.1922. s
above.
7 Steiner. R.. Soul Economy and Waldorf Education. Lecture
211922. AP. 1986.
8 Baravalle. H. von. Volume 1 Mechanics. Publishers n
known
annoyed. my first reaction is to turn and go back.
But the gently swaying leaves of the trees are too
persuasive and Inviting. I continue. without a path.
and am amply rewarded by one adventure after
another in this magical world of trees.
Happy the teacher who Is familiar with this life
in a forest and who has the opportunity to dis­
cover its wonders with the children In his or her.
Class 6. This would serve as preparation for their
first woodwork lesson. The teacher is indebted to
the trees that have been his silent friends all these
years. They are now to become the children's
friends also. They are to experience them as the
primal mothers of all life. as symbols for every­
thing that grows and strives upwards. The trees
give us their bodies. their bones. so that we can
shape them and build with them. The 12 year-old
children love this material and work with it with
enthusiasm and eagerness.
The first woodwork lesson should. therefore.
be carefully prepared and conducted. A piece of
wood has been selected beforehand for its suit­
ability for splitting. Working with it will allow the
children to get to know its properties. It could be
the trunk of a plum tree. with its plain. dry grey
bark: the children look at its crooked shape. full
of branches. lying on the ground. How could they
posSibly carve a wooden spoon or a mallet from
thiS? They turn it carefully from side to side until
they find the best position for splitting it. They
try its weight, watch their teacher place the wedge
in the right place and see it split lengthWise from
end to end. Should something go wrong and the
split be uneven, well, the children will understand
and forgive.
I found it good to line up the children along
each side of the log. They take turns in hitting the
wedge (in which the girls are frequently more
skilled). Standing astride the log they do the best
they can. Care must be taken to keep the area
before and behind the child clear. When every
child has had his turn, the time has come to dis­
cuss the task ahead and the purpose of splitting
the wood.
wedge. some boldly. some timidly. The wedge is
biting deep into the wood what a clear sound
when it is hit! At last. the log starts to crack. the
crack grows wider. runs along the entire length.
not unlike a lizard running along a furrow. The
wedge has sunk into the log. What now? A
second wedge is inserted further down the log.
widening the crack, and the first wedge drops
out. The procedure is repeated. Just before the
. log falls apart it is good to stop and listen to the
wood's groaning and complaining. And then the
surprise when a child (perhaps one of the weaker
ones) gives the wedge its final blow. The two sides
fall apart, still connected by a few fibres that
tauten like the strings of a violin. The children.
with hardly any exception. give vent to their
amazement at seeing the dark red. luminous col­
our of the wood that had been enclosed by the
grey-green bark.
We bend down to inhale the fresh scent. The
children are allowed to taste. even eat one of the
fibres - except in the case of laburnum or yew. A
happy group of chewing or tasting children sur­
round the teacher. They are now ready to admire
the clear. strong flow of wood fibres and to touch
them with their hands. The branches with their
vortex-like wavy veining are especially beautiful.
And if an especially large branch at the end of the
trunk is exposed, the amazement Is complete. No­
body before us has seen it! In a triumphant mood
the children now carry or cart their pieces of wood
to the workshop and fasten them between the
hooks of the planing benches. It is now the turn
of the big saw that must be handled by two peo­
ple. And this has to be learnt. Each wrong move
either bends or jams the blade. Gradually the
movements improve. the saw glides rhythmically
along and the sawdust drops to the floor. The other
children watch intently for the end piece to drop.
some of them eager to catch it a good time to
get to know their temperaments.
The deep and lasting impressions of the first
woodwork lesson often surface when our alumni
revisit the workshop. They tell of experiences the
 in the right way. from the centre of the log to the bark and indica
The first adventures on the path to the wood are where the piece of wood can be split most easily
thus dramatic ones. Slowly they become gentler because these rays are not unlike tiny channe
and steadier, suitable for the more delicate tools. into which the sap can flow from the periphery.
But every new task follows the same pattern. from There is no firm connection between the tw
the forceful splitting of the log to the final. careful walls of the channels. This allows the wood to spl
polish. Each temperament finds its appropriate. cleanly where the water had evaporated or whe
favourite activity and plenty of opportunities for it is forcibly split with a wedge. Such markings ar
effort In practical exercises. especially prominent in oaks, but also in some
Why Is wood used exclUSively as material
during the middle school? Why not clay,
stone, metal. cardboard or even paper? All
of these are substances that demand less
effort and are, in part. even easier to shape.
What are the special effects of wood on the
children's will? What are the feelings evoked,
the consciousness developed from it?
In every working process we can see a
basic reciprocal effect: I give the material I
work with shape, but I must obey the inher­
ent laws. The material thus has its effect on
me and the philosopher-craftsman may
agree with Novalis when he says: "To
arrange things according to one's wishes or
to adapt to them is one and the same. "
When a child is working with wood the
life-filled growing element (the chIld) meets
the life-filled element (wood) that has grown.
Such a meeting does not allow for boredom,
is full of adventure and contains many pos­
sibilities for self-education.
During the process the 'things' by which
the children educate themselves assume cross section of a trunk

life, be it the wood itself or the tools they with irregular radial markings

use. Here are a few examples that might

illustrate this: a wooden spoon or a flour
scoop are to be made. Children and
teacher consider the required strength of
the object. as well as its user's needs. This
gives the children a clear picture of the
outer form and the necessary degree of
hardness of the wood. If then the children
are shown two roughly sha ped spoons

r'

 may be expected will depend on the spot where be cut off. removed. in order to get the righ
the tree has grown and on its immediate surround­ shape. so also must the child create his inne
ing (direction of the light. the slope. and path by chipping away. by freeing the inner form
weatherside). Once the cut is cleaned the rays can The pieces that are removed can be beautiful i
be discovered emanating from the centre (the po­ themselves or. metaphorically speaking. turn int
sition of the ·heart'). The children should be told valued habits.
short stories and shown such properties and quali­ When a child, in carving or planing. produce
ties of wood through demonstrations. They should well formed shavings we may be sure that he ha
be told how people work with them. fully connected himself with the activity. Th
They are especially receptive to stories about teacher can leave him to it. but should neverthe
Stradivarius, the famous violin maker. His contem­ less praise his work.
poraries admired his ability of splitting wood. He The noise coming from an adjacent bench tel
was known as the ·wood-splitting-Master'. In ex­ a different story: uneven, harsh hammer blow
amining his instruments the secret of the extremely cracking and splintering, angry exClamations.
thin (1.8 mm) vibrating parts was discovered. In critical situation that calls for intervention befor
all the curved parts bearing the greatest strain the it is too late. The teacher either takes over by re
markings ran parallel to the curve. And since the pairing the mishap. or he points to a successfu
area of the marking rays is much harder than the part of the work and allows the child to discove
I rest of the wood its thickness could be reduced. In his mistake himself. He may have to be reminde
splitting off the sounding board he had to consider of the bowl's usefulness before continuing wit
the curved direction of the marking rays. It is in­ his work. The teacher must make every effort t
l.
j
teresting to know that the best violin bows (used avoid a possible breakdown. A hole in the bottom
by master performers) are made from thin of the bowl may well be experienced as a catas
pernambuk stems. split in such a way that the two trophe by the child. He grows quite pale as h
sides of the qny heads are enclosed by two mark­ stares at it. as though he had cut into himsel
J"}
:1
ing rays. Even when he puts on a brave face an
During the years the splitting of wood will be shrugs it off. this does not hide his real feelings
accepted as the right method, as appropriate to The teacher must here use all his skills in orde
I the material. The children soon take to it - it is to rescue whatever may still be rectified. Gettin
quick and efficient. They learn in the process to angry or critical would be as destructive as
perceive accurately, to identify with the material. , would be for a doctor to blame his patient durin
Courage and presence of mind are essential when the mending of a broken leg or the stitching up o
they hit the wedge and drive the log apart. a wound.
Splitting wood is also a matter of conscious­ The child has fully identified with his work. ha
ness. We do it in order to get the material for the aligned himself to the properties of the wood and
I making of practical objects that serve people's on the other hand. left his mark on it. He is full
needs: spoons. shafts. tubs, backs of chairs. spokes. immersed in it and experiences himself through th
hammer and axe handles. Long. thin. feathery-light work. This can go so far that. when asked whos

,
J - the split wood serves human beings. bowl it is. he does not answer: "It is mine." but
Working with wood is especially beneficial to "It's me!"
children during puberty. Its resistance challenges Children in Class 8 have an especially stron
the will. But it also shows the result of meaningful connection to wood I,lihen they decide to mak
work in the beauty of form. the radiant colours and musical instruments. Take the case of Knut wh
life-filled structures. And especially in Class 7 when arrived after the holidays with two curved. fou
produce the required sounds. Then the child's play is correctly transforme
Knut removed all the obstacles, kept measuring into an understanding of work. This is what w
the thickness of the wood and patiently persevered must strive for the sake of our social life ".1
in his work with his partner - the wood itself. And If. among other things. we can prepare the chi
when, at last, the two parts are fitted together the dren in the middle school during the craft lesson
great moment has arrived for trying it out. A quiet for their inner readiness to develop their love o
hour should be chosen for this, with only a few work. we have achieved a great deal.
people present. The hopes, joys and fears of the Whatever kind of wood we give them to wor
past few weeks are reflected in the face of the With. it will prove to be a living and patien
'creator'. If the teacher reads a few runes from partner, opponent. enthuser and an essential co
the Kalewala, how Vainamoinen made his kantele educator. A material with which the child fee
from the birch tree, a circle is closed in the child's connected, by which he learns to know himself.
life. in which he himself took part. He has gained material he respects and might even love.
In self confidence. in sureness and joy in creat­ During the High School years. the work wit
ing, ready for more work. His relation to the wood continues. together with other natural an
working material has become one of love for it. . man-made materials. In the joinery block it deter
During the work with wood. the initial 'maker' mines the work processes. helping the students t
became a 'formative artist'. allow their thinking to be influenced by their hands
When making the wooden soundboard of a In artistic work the wood will respond to th
musical instrument the children must pay even student's ideas of form and feelings. Wood allow
greater attention and care to the material. Even in itself to be shaped, and affects in turn the shaper
the relatively simple flat zither. the space has to be so that. in this co-operation of all the energies
formed into the wood. space that can receive and splendid result can come about.
deliver sounds. In guitars and. especially. in vio­ . As class teachers we are responsible to find th
lins and cellos. every fibre vibrates along with the suitable wood for each child entrusted to us. a
sounds. The bowl here becomes a body, alive with well as the kind of work corresponding to his o
numerous interacting processes and conditions. her development. To do this. we must not only know
The child. intent on making such an instrument the static properties, such as long and short fibres
for his or her year's project. must immerse him­ homogeneity and toughness, but also colour an
self deeply into the properties of the wood. must surface quality and even scent. An especiall
keep on practising the use of tools and measures. difficult and important aspect is the grasping o
Surprisingly. the 13 to 15 year-old children seem forms implicit in each type of wood. in order not t
to have an innate gift. an aptitude for this. It is as demand the Impossible i.e. to work against th
though they are able to Immediately translate the wood's characteristic properties. What this mean
many life processes that take them to earth ma­ may easily be observed when carving a fla
turity. into formative. space-creating structures. rectangular bowl from birch wood. with its sharpl
They are developing an almost ingenious dexter­ edged. exact rim; or working at an oval. gentl
ity in their fingers. acquiring the most delicate flair curved bowl with a rim that makes in its curvin
for dealing with the feathery light and fragile and rounding only visible - or, rather. tangible
material that has become almost de-materialised where the hollow passes into the curvature
in order to make the inaudible audible. Comparing the forms, we shall immediately expe
The other students. watching the efforts of their rience the fact that the delicately veined. brigh
classmates, deeply participate in the successes and shine of birch is not suitable for the rectangula
 cross section reveals many shiny points; it is
permeated by olive-green to bright yellow-orange
colour structures. The sanguine temperament
comes to mind. light. living. ever changing. Its
wood is most effective when given strained planes.
when curious/cheekily rounded corners are
carved out and unexpected dents are elegantly
incorporated. Cherry wood lends itself to the in­
numerable hollow forms of a carved surface with
their lively light reflexes.
Concentration on everything characterises the
apple tree. Its rose-coloured. delicately tinged
blossoms open quickly. not unlike an explosion.
Its plump fruit seems almost about to burst. The
wood itself: ingrown. hard. cracking - resisting
every attempt. it dislikes round. pleasing forms.
and demands clear and strong structure. But. then.
its effect is noble. with its golden-yellow. reddish
and white colouring.
The most insignificant among the fruit trees must
surely be the plum. It frequently grows to the height
of a bush. remaining small. thin and lean even as a
tree. Its green-White blossoms hardly extend
through the leaves and its longish fruit are. for a
conSiderable time. hanging almost invisibly on their
often thorny branches behind the leaves. But there
is sweetness gathering behind the shimmering blue
skin! The reddish brown wood shines strongly.
framed by the white-yellow sapwood. But care must
be taken! There are frequently whitish-rotten
spots In the centre. Not unlike the melancholic.
i-­ it can rot deeply into itself. but allowing enough
healthy wood to be found for the making of
I elegantly curved sets of salad servers. as thin
as a leaf. And yet. the plum tree persists un­
J­ challenged as the favourite wood for many
children who love its beautiful colours. its re­
1
I
liable toughness (due to the long fibres). and
the shine of its carved and polished surface.
They enjoy making longish receptacles for their
pens and pencils. letter openers. different types
of spoons and tool-handles from it. They treat it
almost like precious stones when they make
jewellery boxes and candle holders. polishing
tree can become a picture for us. according to which
we shape its wood. We may also watch the form
changes of bud to fruit during the years. Anothe
pointer could be the way a tree looks in sun and
moon light. how it defends itself against a thun
derstorm or. in winter. bears the weight of the snow
The structural elements naturally also innuence
the shape of the objects. All woods whose pore
have grown haphazardly. such as the lime. birch
maple. alder. nut. beech and fruit-trees. are espe
cially suited to curved. rounded and hollowed ou
forms that please the eye because of the shape's
correspondence to the nature of the material
Woods with concentrically grown pores (ash
robinia. oak. elm) really demand taut. stretched
tightened forms.
The oak occupies a special position. Its radia
markings are so strong that it frequently trans­
forms its annual rings into circular segment arches
- reminiscent of blossom leaves - that become
visible in a cross-section. This indicates tre
mendous forces working from the centre to the
periphery. We can discover the same laws active
in the in-and-out curving forms of the leaves
albeit in a softer. gentler interflowing. Even the
shape of the branches - gnarled. sharp edged
curves - shows the alternation of retarding and
RobilJia.
pores growIJ cOllcelltrically
MJP/e.·
POft'S grown liapllJzJrr/ly
 can be seen not only in old pictures. but also
the planetary seals of Rudolf Steiner that show
metamorphosis of peripheral and centric forc
affecting each other. Rudolf Steiner refers to th
as planetary developmental stages. The centre s
(Mars-seal) shows both forces at the stage
greatest tension through which it can develop
true. independent form in opposition to the ot
piece of wood seals. What comes to expression in the draw
(rom a serrated oak can be discovered in the characteristic grow
forms of the oak. The oak is thus an example
the way the craft teacher may. through the
servation of the shape of a tree. tentatively f
forces active in it.
The sequence of metamorphoses in the se
designed by Rudolf Steiner can be of invalua
·help.

During our investigation of roots we shall f

that nearly all the available botanical literat
limits itself to descriptions of the upper org
and more or less ignores the finer tangle of ro
deeper down. However. much can be learnt fr
the way a tree interacts with water and soil.
Important formative pole of the tree can there
found: the pole of movement can be experien
in the gestures of leaves and blossoms.
Rudolf Steiner advised the makers of musical
struments to investigate the way trees interact w
the watery element. This would help them to
lect the suitable wood for the various Instrumen
His indications were taken up already during
lifetime and string instruments made from unus
wood were built.

Franz Thomastik made his instrump.nts for

. 'Planetary Quartet' from maple. cherry. bi
and ash. This changed the quality of the soun
produced (together with a new and differ
construction of the bridge); it is larger and warm
It is instructive for the students to experience n
ways of deriving tonal qualities from differ
kinds of wood.
Since nearly all musical instruments used
be made from wood it may be justified to tak

----__________
 good look at the 'classical' wood of our string and elastic. When its thickness is evenly reduce
instruments - maple and pine. The first violin for to 2-21/ 2mm. its effect on the instrument is th
the 'Planetary Quartet' was wholly fashioned from of a very sensitive membrane. especially capab
maple. Its wood produces a bright. fresh sound. its of transmitting the various sound colours.
colour is radiating. clear white. Of middle hard and Pine has such a clear. unequivocal structure th
elastic quality it especially allows the overtones to it has a strong ordering. concentrating effect o
be heard and the sounds to spread out more widely the pupils working with it. not only when they a
in the air around them. making musical instruments. but also in the man
The bodies ofrraditlonal violins. violas and cel­ projects in carpentry and joinery where this woo
los are made from maple. the sound board from is used.
pine. Pine has different growth processes from· Although we must not expect the children
maple. There is no such sweet sap beneath its produce works of art as such. we as teache
bark; it is almost dry. Comparing its needle-like . and educators. must at least have an idea of th
leaf organs with a wide. spread out maple leaf. suitability of this material for certain. defini
we can feel the whole economy. almost parsimony articles and their correct shape.
of this tree. And yet the pine is fully Immersed in In looking at the forms and structures the woo
the course of the seasons. Its soft. brightly grown has to endure during the natural course of event
early wood tells of the dampness of spring when we shall qUickly see the many hollow form
much of the wood grew with its large. spongy cell exposed through rotting. decaying. burning or spli
structures. permeated by important hollow chan­ ting. The electronic microscope reveals below th
nels where sap once flowed and. later. much air smooth. shining surface. a catacomb-like maz
kept circulating. On the other hand. the dark wood of hollow channels. holes and cavities. The myste
grown during summer and autumn, envelops the rious warm darkness in the hollow. inner space
i soft layers with a thin, exceptionally hard and attracts the heart of the onlooker. Hence the dee
1 dense ring of cells that not only supports but is effect of the surviving old wood sculptures wit
I able to vibrate powerfully. almost like a spring. their concave, grooving and hollow forms. In Tilma
This makes the wood very light and yet strong Riemenschneider's magnificent late-Gothic alta

carvings. each figure, each filigree leaf is com­
posed, embedded into its deep. dark surrounding.
The tools of the woodcarver and sculptor con­
form to this tendency of form. They hollow out. drill.
notch and split. The strongly arched shape of the
gauge Is thus always produced from many hollow
layers during the carving process, the flowing ele­
ment formed from what is inhibiting. consumptive.
Because of this. the chisel is the wood sculp­
tor's most used tool. It is also mainly employed in
our schools. In working with chisel and mallet.
the wood Is. as it were. slowly consumed. If gUided
by rough hands, the consuming is intensified to
destroYing, the necessary reduction of the wood
becomes ruinous exploitation of the material. It is
only the sensitive, controIIed work that leads to form:
transforming rough strength into soul-permeated
forces. a pre-condition for success.
Riemenschneider's sculptures demonstrate how
the wood. through hollowIng out. is forced back to
an extreme in order to bring out the forms in edges.
curves. archings and grooves from the darkness of
We can discover something of this equali
ing strength in the elm. Its leaves, for example. a
growing in an obviously irregular way: the side fa
ing the branch spreading downwards, the oth
side, meagrely established. striving upwards. Th
branch itself. as it meanders along between th
leaves, harmonises and gives life to the whole.
the oak two polar opposite forces are at work.
the elm a third. the mediating force, is added, I
wood is as hard and durable as that of the oak. B
its annual rings show a free rhythm and, despi
its hardness. its surface has a delicately shinin
appearance. the colours are richer, ranging from
dark. warm brown to the brightest of gold, Th
forces of light penetrate right into the wood. b
the earth forces also are borne upwards and mak
themselves unpleasantly known by blunting th
gauge as it attempts to cut through the miner
.substances embedded in the wood.
in this connection we may be justified in inser
ing a poem by Albert Steffen. as one of the man
and various. lovingly written poetic expression
regarding trees and wood:

the wood. Every cut. every detail was carefully, lov­

ingly done. the entire work breathes the artist's
submission and devotion to the greatness of the
universe. to the divine. spiritual world. Rudolf
Steiner. speaking about the wooden Goetheanum .
building. emphasised that the human being
..... must, out of real devotion to the greatness of
the universe form. what allows to be formed, when
one hollows out such forms in the soft wood, that
can live in the concavity. It is only possible to carve
concave forms into the wood if one does so out of
love for the universe ... "2
We can see that the work with the chisel de­
mands in an intensified way the quality already
earlier referred to as 'love of doing'.
We are indebted to Rudolf Steiner for undoubt­
edly the most significant wooden art work of our
time: the first Goetheanum. 3 And although its large
rooms with their formed wood areas can only be
studied in reprodUctions and models. one can spend Branch of a field -elm

",.-_.­
 Einst wollt das Ho/z veriJarten,
da hing sich Christ daran.
dass wir uns neu ernahrten
ein ewiges Bliihn begann.
Such thoughts and poems cannot be directly
used in the lessons. They can. however. live in.
the teacher and create the appropriate inner mood
that allows him to do the right thing at the right
time. The children will always be receptive for the
descriptions of the mysterious ways a tree builds
up its substances from the invisible, how it lives
In unison with light. air. water and earth, build­
ing its body or. in other words. lets everything
flow together. The children. although uncon­ StudeIlt's work. Class 10
sciously. feel their own growth and life processes,
and they take to the wood as something that is
living and related to them. They happily pass
through a phase in their development together
with this most living of all working materials. and
their craft teachers have the pleasant responsi­
bility of correctly preparing and accompanying
them on this path through the forest.

Steiner. R. The Cllillr~ Ulilllgiflg C()IISClOlISIIt'SS. 20.4.1923

AP 1996
2 Steiner. R.. lecture ul IS 10.1920 In GA 288 (not available
In English).
3 The first Goetlte<.1IlUIll \\ <.1:' bullt in Dornach (Switzerland)
elltirelyofwood Ui1 Ll cum Ielt: founJdtilJll It wdsueslroyed
bv fin~ on 31 12 l!.l::::
unobtrusively it places itself between the mud­
guards. Yes - it does protect against rain and It
reduces the resistance to air; but then, the engine
underneath Is exposed to weather and. r am fairly
certain, the matter of resistance to air (stream­
lining) is not all that Important. And yet. if my
bonnet weren't there, an essential part of the car
would be missing! And here is the strange thing:
its apparent uselessness makes it especially im­
portant. in that its purpose Is to provide a part of
the ~overlng which, although it is no more than
tin and varnish. encloses the whole of the car - in
this respect, It's not unlike my skin. Think of all
the things that would become visible without it!
The whole jungle of engine parts, hoses. screws.
plugs - incomprehensible for most drivers, yet
details known to be vital for the functioning of
the car. Though the things concealed underneath
this skin are decisive for the functioning of the
car. they aren't attractive to our eyes and ears,
nor to our sense of touch, all of which long for
harmony and beauty in life.
The engine takes its whirring sounds from an­
other source than the musician his melodies. Why
do we experience the slamming of a door differ­
ently from a song sung by a human being? The
former belongs to the inorganic: and lifeless world.
the latter wells forth from soul-filled life. The en­
gine, serving our needs and contributing to our
modern standard of living, as does al1 technology.
Is the product of human intelligence a useful
helper in our daily lives, serving our needs. The
sounds thus made also come from this lifeless.
mechanical word - unavoidable noises, be they
whirring. rattling, purring, roaring or booming. We
must accept them as part of our payment for
technology'S invaluable help.
Our 'hunger for beauty' has its roots in the soul
and spirit and cannot be satisfied with screws.
hoses and gears, however well designed their
shapes may be. The architect Hans Poelzig (1869­
1936) writes from this experience: "All merely
technical conSiderations are a horror for the artist.
and that he is called upon to fight its dominatio
Technology and art remain sharp polarities ".
[t would certainly neither be necessary nor se
Sible to give beautiful forms to the wires, lev
and all the other mechanical parts of a car.
ram quite happy and satisfied with the polish
cover - as representative of my need for beauty
that hides and encloses the mechanism and serv
a useful purpose besides.!. too, am enclosed with
a skin that both separates me from and conne
me with my surroundings. for through it I percei
very important impressions through the sense o
ganism it incorporates, especially through tou
and warmth.
In our houses and apartments. the pipes a
wires also are hidden. Whenever the one or t
other is exposed we don't like It. Technology
the utilitarian aspect of our life is, although esse
tially helpful and necessary. often also ugly. no
and dangerous. often hostile to life. Whilst a
knowledging that it provides for our comforts.
have to admit that It also produces new worr
and discomforts. Because of this it is kept hidd
from sight. The containers enclosing it protect
from it; they also protect the machinery within fro
harmful Interference from outside. A line is draw
between us and the working parts of technology
keep it out of sight because of its having been d
veloped from the lifeless kingdom. And the attem
is made to bring beauty in colour and form In
it. an effort that has met with conSiderable su
cess. Purpose and beauty In teChnology are n
identical. They meet best whenever the sha
adapts to the elemental world. such as in the ca
of a sailing boat or glider. But here there is no ne
for an engine to be enclosed or protected!
There are. of course. many useful articles wit
out such a mechanism, where these problems
inner and outer, of technology and beauty do n
exist: age-old tools such as the axe. spoon and sa
amongst others. They are not merely useful but.
the same time. beautiful. By giving them beauty
form the craftsman raised them above the mere
 'beautiful' together

functional to a sphere of a higher perfection of barest essentials: the straight handle. the curved end
which Michelangelo said: "There is nothing that It looks like a concept translated into a visib
makes the soul as pious and pure as the effort form. doing its job. But It neither relates to the po
of creating. of producing something close to per­ nor to the person using it - as far as Irs shape
fection: for God is perfection and he who strives concerned. Because of this. its function Is limite
towards it strives towards the divine, Art belongs to the bare necessity of what it is meant to do. bu
to no country on earth, it comes from heaven", , It is as yet not realising its full purpose.
This applies also to the artistically shaped , This will come about only when its form
articles discussed In this book. As soon as form adapted to the flat area of the pot's bottom. whe
becomes subservient to mere necessity. to mere we take into account the heat rising to the top. W
purpose. beauty takes second place or is lost al­ shall then give the handle an inclined form. mak
together. Because 'purpose', .expediency' do not its end. perhaps. a little thicker for a firmer grip.
come from heaven, they are subjected to the We could go further and try to give the spoo
necessity of earth-bound. terrestrial laws. something of the nature of stirring: the motion I
As elsewhere. here, too, we can experience the the turning. the flOWing element of the liquid. Th
tragedy of the primal polarities our world has to shape would here once again have to change! Dur
deal with at its present evolutionary stage. Their . ing the stirring. hand. spoon and pot. preViousl
tensions produce Intensifications and ideas for quite Independent of each other. are now combined. ar
new creative pOSSibilities for the human being. fusing into each other. From the state of being spa
Let's return to the workshop to see the conse­ tially related. from lying side by side. we get
quences our reflections have for practical work., . temporary process of togetherness. Seen accuratel
How. for example. can purpose and beauty be we shall see In the wooden spoon the lengthene
combined in a wooden spoon? What are the forms hand. impervIous to the heat riSing from the pot.
that may be developed from such a combination? When stirring liqUid in a pot or bucket with ou
The flat bottom of a cooking pot corresponds to hand we might discover something we had no
expediency: the nature of the electric element de­ expected: a developing rhythmical process. Invol
mands it for the sake of efficiency and economy. In untarily. our hand wishes to open when the arm
the past. the open fire called for rounded shapes directs circling movements to the periphery. Th
of pots that made it easier for the flames to engulf opposite movement towards the centre results i
them. Our modern pots are not as beautiful. are the tendency to close the hand. During the turn
not suited to the movements of currents of the ing. simultaneously. the wrist also participates i
heated liquids inside them. Everything has become the in-out movemems. We can make our experi
abstract. The wooden stirring spoon. too. can ence stronger when. during the stirring. we kee
, ,, be an abstraction. if its form is limited to merely the our arm in a still position and our hand rigidl
 In this. living sphere the energies and forces can every deviation can spoil It. They can work in th
only be perceived in their results. in the changing way with enthusiasm - experiencing support a
forms. Energies and forces are Invisible. But they structure. And yet. the soul feels cheated: it is n
are active In all rhythmical processes, either re­ allowed to participate in the process, the sha
duelng or building up. They can be grasped in time, produced is foreign to it. remains outside its spher
· ,, as everything else subject to change. I If we wish to proceed with the third possibil
Thus will an object made from natural material we must take a quite different starting point. T
appear artistically shaped if its form assumes differently shaped cooking pots. their differe
something of the rhythmical processes from which sizes invite us to tryout the lengths of wood w
It derives: It Is ·beautiful·. It widens, stretches, con­ split off the maple - to .get the feel of them' as w
tracts. streams out, dams up at the end ... as our stir. Every piece of wood is different. both in sha
trivial wooden spoon that started our discussion. and size. Which of them is best suited to the p
We may wish to choose the shape we want it to - the slightly curved one or the one with the ligh
have: wavy or the smooth fibres? We also examine t
1 the necessary shape; the absolute minimum of two ends to determine the one that is best suit
effort. In order to serve a specific purpose; . to the spoon part.
2 a shape in accordance with its purpose - this . And only then does the work begin. The hand
already Implies a relation to the surroundings in is carved with the chisel. its thickness gradually r
which It belongs; duced to its required size. Our hand. its width. t
3 the anlstic shape that embodies the processes in- thickness of the fingers indicate the shape of t
valved. without Ignoring the two other principles. spoon. The eye alone guides our activity; there
Each of these conditions leads to different. spe­ no diagram - the form of the spoon develops duri
clfle ways of working. What happens when we wish the doing.
to make a cooking spoon corresponding only to There is a noticeable tension and excitement
the first category?
We can here take .a board
with a suitable thickness.
preferably maple or birch. free
of knots. We make an accu­
rate drawing. using a pair
of compasses and a ruler.
trace this on the board and.
after fastening the board
vertically into a vice, start
sawing it out. We follow the
lines. making sure they re­
main visible on the cut-out
shape. We then rasp. file or
sandpaper, smoothing out the cooking spoon
unevennesses made by the made from a board
saw until the shape is identi­
cal with the drawing. This is
followed by chiselling out a

,----- --------------------------------------
 cookilJg spoons made from pieces of wood split from a log

the student as he or she sees the

actual form taking shape. The
teacher makes sure tools and made from blocks of wood in
vice are handled professionally. 'geometrlc/sing formation'
Impulsiveness is counter-pro­
ductive. Craftsmanship lends
strength and support also in the
free handling of the material.
Finally, the spoon is carefully
smoothed down_ Every spoon
made in this way will be differ­
ent from all the others. Every
one of them corresponds to its
purpose, while still bearing the
Imprint of its creator. The flow
contained in the act of stirring
is reflected in the flow in the
form of the spoon character­
Istic features of the artistic.
Rudolf Steiner clearly stipulated the correct The article also contains poInters for our wood­
conduct in craft lessons. He demanded an eye work lessons. "It began with small, harmoniously
for exactitude from the teacher: the children were geometricising forms, and continued with a­
to learn to work correctly and accurately. On the symmetrical yet carefully balanced larger pieces_"
other hand. the lessons had to be permeated by We already mentioned the ever larger role of a­
the artistic element. borne by the' artistic spirit' symmetry during puberty and beyond; we shal
of the teacher. 2 Max Wolffhtigel. whom Rudolf refer to this in greater detail later on.
Steiner entrusted with the artistic craft lessons. There is, however. no such reference in Rudol
wrote in an article: "It was Rudolf Steiner's Steiner's lectures on education: we assume it to
deeply felt wish that the teachers of the artistic have been made in a conversation. Wolffhtigel's
craft lessons should not only be fully trained in remarks led to the cultivation of a method after the
their work, fully at home in all areas of wood­ re-opening of new schools after the Second World
work, but should also be freely creative artists, War - practised in the middle school, a method we
1. able to combine their knowledge with pedagogi­ characterised as 'expedient' i.e. directed to pur­
cal enthusiasm. I believe that it is only this pose. The work had to proceed from a drawing so
constitution that makes it possible. by aiming at that the 'geometricising forms' could be brought
the laws in objectivity. to affect the children in a about in an exact and professional way.
creative. stimulating way'.J Alld yet, Rudolf Steiner emphasised in his lectures
 the 'correct horse' In a book all anatomy

that the practical work in the workshop ought to bear
the stamp of freedom and independence, and that it
should have artistic form. The child should - as we
have stressed several times - act out of his or her will
forces. The teacher must not 'prescribe', but merely
direct. gUide, suggest in order that the child's inten­
change according to the content in our lesso
It lives itself out in forms. We can see In the for
the children produce what they experienced
the previous main-lesson, because their less
ought to enter and grasp the whole of the h
man being." 4

tions can be realised. The child's will contains what A year later, this idea of synthesis of the polari
It has brought with him. This leads us to the basic of thinking and willing in the human being a
aims In our working methods. characterised by Rudolf totality. penetrating each other in the centre. c
Steiner as follows: mlnates In the following words:
uBecause of the artistic handling of the lessons,., "These two things can only be brought toget
the children have been inwardly gripped by what if knowledge by itself passes into ability a
they were doing. It entered their will. not only if the ability to do is at the same ti
their thoughts and heads. And we can, there­ handled in a way that it is everywhere perm
fore. see, as they concentrate on their work. that ated by thinking, by the soul grasping it. by
this continues to live In their hands. The forms spirit participating in and experiencing it." 5

------------------------------------
way, towards a fine' attitude of craftsmanship, I
give him assurance in the free shaping and form­
ing of whatever he Is making. an attitude arising
from the appropriate task at his age.
We began by selecting an article that is used in
daily life, in order to show the variety of artistic
and technical conceptions of the same object. This
will become even clearer during the making of a
wooden toy animal in Class 7.
How should the teacher prepare for this? Should
he go to the zoo, in order to study shape and move­
ment? Should he draw sketches, make day models
or look at illustrations in a book?
Yes, he may do all of this. The romantic
descriptions in Brehm's Life of Animals will also
be a help. If he Is looking for what we referred to
as 'the purely technical', mere craftsmanship,
this could suffice to grasp the form to the extent
that he can draw the side view of the animal on
a thick board. This he can cut out, by following
the lines of the drawing as exactly as possible.
Chisel. rasp. file and emery paper will give it the
required finish.
carved from half of a split log
... 3'"
the rhythms of its movements. Only then can
understand its shape. In practising dynamic draw
ings I was able to experience it in following th
line of the spine, discovering the right curve, th
animal with its characteristic movement suddenl
stands before me. Body and legs are no more tha
'appendages'. they merely hang there. What i
essential is the flow of the spine. how. startin
from the head and ending at the tail. it stretches
dams up. contracts, curves. stretches again etc
Is it really so djfficult to see from this linear form
of the spine that the horse is. in fact. galloping
That the lion is stalking, the kangaroo hopping?
The animal's movement Is engraved In its form
From this we may dIscover Its movement. It be
gins already with the bones. We deepen thi
further by making the effort to Identify wit
the animal's instinctive nature for it is instinc
that determines the animal's movements and
informs them. We can observe the changes in th
animal's posture as instinctively it listens. scents
trembles and, finally, spurts into movement. O
how calmness, undisturbed by urges and in
stinct. lives in the form. determining it. Here
too, we enter the rhyth
mical processes - as w
did when shaping th
cooking spoon - and i
this way we shall be abl
to guide the children
even though the form
they give to the animal
may. to begin with. be
only modest expression
of their feelings.
These inner experience
of animal nature will induce
us to approach our work
differently from merely
copying the outer, lifeles
form. We must first shape
the back. from head to taiL
Half the side of a split log
will be best for this. We pu
 it horizontally on the bench and carve the back
and neck of the animal. In order to get some gUid­
ance we could. of course. make a drawing of the
intended shape of the back on the straight side of
the wood; but this would not be of much use. be­
cause It would disappear with the first shavings..
What must be done is to work from the plastic form
Itself and not according to the bordering. limiting
IInel Because the result should not be a side view
with Its contours. but the arch of back and neck.
The one-sided arch of the wood makes for a
gentle. lateral turn of the animal's form that can be
further emphasised ..so that the rigid axis - frontl
back - is overcome. Finally. the legs are carved
~ ___________________________________________________
and the fi nished shape sawn orf the block of woo
Are children really able to do this. to shape a
tistically? Only through the gUidance. the 'artis
spirit' of their teacher. Free. individual artistic wo
is only possible when, through earth maturit
t~le imagination as such has awakened and ente
into the formative processes with its very ow
will. Before this happens. the children are inward
more pliant and not subject to the coercion
concepts. It is because of this that they can acce
this mode of working. Their creative strength
still embedded in their bodies and their process
of movements. And this makes every formati
expression of the child art!
Rudolf Steiner referred to these forces as "etherlc formati
forces".
2 Steiner. R.S., GA 300. Conferences with the Teache
30.7.1920. Vol. L SSF. 1993.
3 Wolffhugel. Max, in Erziehungskunst, May/June 1952.
4 Steiner, RS.. The Spiritual Ground of Education. 23.8,192
Garber Publicatiolls, n.d.
5 Steiner. RS .. A fI,[ndem Art ofEducation. ! 7.8.1923. RSP. 198
 existing at that time"': Stuttgart. Hamburg and Lon­
don. There is only one known suggestion for the
wall colours of craftrooms: 'Handwork: orange'
(Stuttgart. 1922123). Since this written statement
has not been further qualified it has been left
to us to investigate the colour quality of orange in
order to discover the objective justification of
Rudolf Steiner's suggestion and. proceeding from.
there, to choose the correct colour nuances for the
different craftrooms. 1
My own very strong colour experiences as a
young man completely convinced me of the fact
that the human being has as much need of colour
as of food and drink. I spent several years as a
prisoner of war in Russia. Every day followed the
same monotonous schedule: the way to work. the
stark. bleak bUildings. the desert-like surroundings
- with no hope for escape. Cool colours grey.
umber. green. blue. white - dominated. changing
but little In the atmospheric phenomena that were
unable to produce the 'warm'. the 'sympathetic'
colour tones.
After the night shift. I secretly picked the bright
orange blossoms of the tagetes from a small flower
bed between two of the bUildings. I deeply inhaled
their scent and colour. becoming conscious of the
daily lack of colour nourishment.
I had a Similar experience when I saw the fiery.
red bricks that were unloaded at one of the
bUilding sites. It was only later that 1 realised the
life-affirming radiating power of orange that gives
strength and encouragement to a temporarily de­
pressed person in a seemingly hopeless situation.
strength and encouragement streaming from it and
mediating them to the world around it, filling it
with the joy of living.
Orange. like yellow. has a radiating quality. but
differs from it in the substance of its radiation; it
is heavier. more earthy. much warmer and denser.
Orange is. therefore. not merely communicating.
its side meaning or significance lies in its intimat­
ing. imparting. warming quality. expressing the
need to participate. We must imagine warmth as
a picture in which the spreading, radiating power
of yellow meets the primal autonomous power of
Because warmth always radiates to us. a warm
colour seems to come closer to us.
The sense for the musical, but also for the craft
is reflected in orange this is how H. Frieling char
acterises the experience of orange. He sees in it
motivating force. the extroverted. the warmth o
feeling. Such knowledge and experiences in colou
psychology have long been made practical use o
Orange is not often found in nature. This is wh
we notice its lively freshness immediately. It is give
its right place everywhere where one stage passe
.into another (traffic lights. direction indicators
when something moves. stirs and must b
especially heeded (forked levers. shovel loaders
protective clothing of road workers).
"Orange is the natural colour of fire. of the flame
Fire is not at all red. as its symbol (red -- fire
leads us to believe. Moving orange-coloured bit
of paper give a far more convincing Impressio
of fire than red ones. It is only the glow of fir
that is red the flame here has, as it were, al
ready become as one with the material it ha
burnt. We can see the path from the airy. th
purely fiery to the earthy in the colour sequenc
as colour intensification. Connected to the in
tensification of red we have. at the same time, a
higher densification ". 2
This description of the progression from th
airy. via the fiery. to the earthy can help u
experience the inclination of orange to what i
active on earth. A radiating - but neither a glossy
poster-like nor a dull-lazy orange - as basic mood
in a room can stimulate and enliven the children'
energies in work.
. Rudolf Steiner was able to go even more deeply
into colour experiences and. from his knowledge
tell us how to practise them. He points to "a stil
more intensified togetherness with the outer world
a unity strong enough to include not only the oute
impression of colour. sound and form. but also
that which one can experience behind the sounds
behind the colours and behind the forms. wha
manifests in colours. sounds and form ". 3
Of this more or less meditative immersion into
the nature of orange. he says that it had something
 1 ' Stockmeyer. EAK.. Rudolf Steiner's Curriculum for Wald
Schools. SSF. 1991­
2 See original text. ed. Martin. M.. Verlag Freies Geisteslebe
1991­
3 Steiner. R.. 1.1.1915, GA 291.
4 Ibid.

--------~-----------------------
 MICHAEL MARTIN
Considerations arising from a knowledge of
the human being

Intensive study of Rudolf Steiner's investigations from within. The sphere characterises the e
of the developmental stages of the human being. closure of forces directed to the inside; ra
and practical experience in teaching will lead , characterise the directing of forces towards th
to an understanding of the quite new impulses world outSide. We would never do any work
arising during adolescence. impulses that must we had spherically shaped hands and arm
affect the adolescent because of the strong devel­ The hand becomes mediator between our Inn
opment of his limbs. He can make use of his limbs and outer world. This it can achieve only by b
In quite new ways, as helpers for carrying out his coming the organ which comes out of the dee
will impulses. The limbs grow In length; the hands directed by an independent inner world. And th
get bigger and become earth-bound. due to the only awakens during puberty. The awakening
bones gradually growing closer together and pro­ the new soul forces within the adolescent is thu
viding the basis for sturdy manual work. These directly related to the development of the han
processes urgently call for the involvement of the The young child is determined from without; th
limbs In practical work. adolescent Is searching for the man or woma

\. Before this time. especially during the first seven he or she wishes to emulate: this person b
years. .the child lives predominantly in its sense comes the model he or she admires. A comple
organs. It is itself a sense organ, a sense being. The transformation has occurred.
eye. as an example, imitates the whole of the envi­ The master craftsman, too, will be such a mode
ronment within Itself. reflects it, copies it. The very he is familiar with the properties of the material
young child receives Its environment like the eye and . efficient in the handling of tools, and he know
copies whatever comes to it from without. 2 The senses all the working stages that lead to the finishe
are as much organs of 'jntemallsing' as the hands product. He can give clear directions; he know
are of 'externalising'. The eye's retina and the palm how to deal with physical matter. If the youn
of the hand have in their opposite character much in man or woman obeys the rules and applies the
common. Both are organs turned and open to the to his work, he will imprint forms into his new
outside. Both receive what comes to them. The eye. developed will-organism that will give suppo
however, makes it still more inward. while the hand. and structure to his activities. He is proving him
true to its nature. transforms the human being and self. and this gives him a sense of confidence. Th
returns him or her, changed. to the outer world. correctly directed blow with the hammer on th
The spherical shape of the eye accurately blacksmith's anvil. the successful use of the plan
corresponds to the function of receiving. and In­ or the right pressure in pottery connect him wit
ternalising. The shape of the hand. in its many the material taken from the outer world.
single parts, rays out the impulses it receives Such activity affects him formatively and. a

l-
'.
i·
needs distance and calm In order to perceive.
The third seven-year period, especially the lastAll the aims of the High School curriculum are d
stages of puberty (Classes 9 and 10) is thus the rected to encompassing within each lesson
time for activity, for work. It is not accidental that
'knowledge of life!' (Lebenskunde). In the prima
in past ages this used to be the time for the school it was a matter of doing justice to t
beginning of apprenticeship. The will. emanci­ demands of the human being we are to educa
u

pating Itself from the body, receives direction, hygienically, healthily and to conduct our lesso
firmness and measure through work in the crafts. with regard to body, soul and spirit",3 The task
so that It may develop in a healthy way and trans­ the lesson content is to correspond to the children
form into inner mobility. developmental processes.
This changes in the High School. The student
AN 'IMPORTANT TURNING POINT' to grow into the situations life prOVides. He is
develop his energies in a way "that his work m
Class 10 marks the end of puberty - the young , have meaning for the community and human life
man or woman has 'arrived'. The last signs of Rudolf Steiner frequently referred to this subjec
the verve, the vitality so noticeable in the mentioning specific lessons, such as spinnin
middle school and still In Class 9 have vanished, weaving. surveying, practical mechaniCS, th
What we now see are the stirrings of new making of soap, paper and much more. 5
energies that have to be directed and used The lecture cycle In Ilkley (England) contai
This includes a different relation between stu­ important general directions. Rudolf Steiner show
dent and teacher. And. although many a student how children's play should be guided into artist
would prefer to continue the old, child-like structuring which Is. after all. already present
connection with his or her teacher, it is right play, This still free structuring and shapin
and healthy to begin this new phase by address­ should then continue .Into the crafts, through th
ing the student in a more formal. adult way, In making of simple tools and household articl
German speaking countries the Intimate du is that already demand a deeper commitment. H
replaced by the formal Sie. It reflects the teach­ might have been thinking of cooking spoons. bow
er's respect for the student. treating him as an and candleholders, made in the Stuttgart scho
equal. It also strengthens the student if the at the time.
teacher can now develop a new relationship of This utility orientated work in wood was to fin
trust between them. its further progression in the actual joinery an
Rudolf Steiner emphatically wished to draw carpentry work. He called it 'practical structuring
attention to this important boundary between These are clear indications. Other techniques
Classes 9 and 10. Before the opening of Class the crafts were not yet mentioned. Rudolf Steiner
10 (autumn 1921) he repeatedly spoke to the conversations with Wolffhugel - whom he ap
teachers about this ~important moment when we pointed as craft teacher - resulted in an outline
ought to find the right way to the children's a curriculum that does, however, not mention
souls at a most definite and Important age ", He single craftblock in the High School. But it doe
drew attention to the fact that "we were facing speak of 'the plastic shaping of clay, wood an
the very Important task of adding Class 10 to the stone', illustrated with numerous photograph
primary school." I It was only in 1952 that WolffhUgel addresse
"It is a matter of summarising all our pedagogy himself to the 'plastic lesson blocks' in the uppe
and didactics In an elementary feeling that allows classes, adding: "According to his {Rudolf Steiner'

--------~--------------
 I Steiner. R.. High School Education. AP. 1996.

2 Ibid. Lectures of 15 and 17 June. 1921.

3 Ibid. Lectures of 15 and 17 June. 1921.

1-­ 4
5
Ibid. Lectures of 15 and 17 June. 1921.

Steiner. R.. The Modern Art of Education. Lecture 17.8.\923

RSP. 1981.
6 Wolffhugel. in Erzielumgskunsr. May/June 1952.

1­ 7 Steiner. R.. TIlt: CWe}'s Challglng Consciousness a/ld Waldor

Educafion. lecture of 21423. AP. 1996.
8 Steiner, R.. Hjgh School Education. 16.6.21. AP. 1996
wooden box! Round and rectangular objects be­
long to different worlds. the curved and straight
plane are primal polarities.
During the following reflections we shall con­
centrate on these phenomena of form in order to
discover the consequences this might have for our
questions about education. We shall include the
activities of the hands. as well as the nature of the
different materials In our deliberations. The result­
ing 'overview' will show that the several techniques.
employed In the crafts can. when studied in this
way, appear to be concretely connected with the
age of the students at which they are presented in
the High School.
Our discussions of the basic principles will be
followed by reports from specialist teachers.
PREPARATORY STAGES
In Wishing to find a starting point for ollr theme,
we are taken back to the very first lesson in Class
1. Every child draws a straight and curved line on
the blackboard; these are the primai elements and
polarity we discover everywhere e.g. in the basic
shapes of head and limbs. In the house-building
maln-Iesson In Class 3, the shaping of bricks and
the baking of bread draw our attention to two
streams In which the children are living on their
descent to the earth. The polarities of form here
assume an almost palpable reality. Take the fol­
lowIng composition by a girl at the end of her
house-building block in Class 3, during which real
clay bricks were made:
"Dear Mr. D..
I really liked it. What I enjoyed most of all was
the washing, and pushing of the clay into the
moulds. I was really dirty afterwards, especially
my hands; when I put them into the water they
were really yucky. Johann and 1made two bricks,
not much, but then they were quite beautiful.
and that's worth something. I hope they'll dry
well, so that they can be used."
We can see from this how a nine year-old child
Beauty and purpose meet in the child's activit
The child's play in the sandbox. '.baking mud pie
or whatever, with its ever changing forms, no
transforms into purposeful work where shape an
form is also reqUired it is a first and significa
step into the working world of the right angle.
It is an exciting experience [0 press the for
less, 50ft clay into the rectangular mould! T
damp, cold and heavy clay is put as though into
coffin by which it can become useful. And yet t
child feels happy when the clay sticks to its han
and firmly connects with its whole being.
When baking bread. the wheat. ripened In t
warmth and light of the sun. must be ground an
changed during the baking process In order to ser
as nourishment. It is a descent from cosmic heigh
a transformation into useable substance. into t
service of earth life, But think of the way a chi
experiences the heavenly elements of light. air an
warmth I In bread-making It Is the round. spiral
constructed straw basket into which the dough
put. The clay, on the other hand. has long be
removed from these life processes: its appropria
form is rectangular if we wish to build a house fro
it. But. in spite of the fact that they assume qui
opposite forms, both bread and bricks come abo
through related work processes: their substanc
must be kneaded in a moist condition. The child
hands feel the sort mass until the correct elastici
is reached. Both - the clay only after a long time
drying out - are entrusted to the fire. guarded an
guided by the human being. in order to becom
useful. The round and rectangular meet In the bak
ing of bread and the making of bricks: the form
clearly demonstrates its connection with the co
mos. the latter its connection with the earth,
The child Is borne into life on the stream
beauty; it is the guarantee against succumbing
the 'merely useful' on earth. But the human bein
must enter the other stream, coming from th
earth itself, must connect with the necessities an
demands of life. In the child we can already g
an inkling of what can become the main them
 who produce the plants. We can watch their ger
for the High School student: my work will have mination, their unfolding. dying and becoming if
meaning for the social life; I shall make every ef­ by learning to know their laws of development. w
fort to achieve this. prepare the soil and provide the right conditions ­
moisture. warmth and air. The children experienc
GARDENING these things in their gardening lessons more o
less subconsciously. As we collaborate with th
Unlike the craft lessons with their caesura at the elements of earth. water. air and light through th
end of Class 8 and their replacement in Class 9 by way we care for and cultivate the plants. we par
different arts and crafts subjects, the gardening les­ ticipate in the unfolding of a new paradise tha
sons continue from pre-puberty age uninterrupt­ supports and maintains our lives.
edly until Class 10. Their purpose is to make the But we also connect ourselves with the cosmo
children familiar with the preparation of seeds, in a different way during our work with the plants
plants and soil, with the cultivation and care of the through their formative forces. Even superficia
plant world, and to lead to an understanding of observation shows us how the petals of many
larger connections (composting. agriculture and blossoms open to the light. Looking closer. w
meteorology). as well as to the human being's discover that the green leaves also turn toward
manipulation of and participation in natural growth the light of the sun. Every single leaf can be seen
processes through such things as grafting. sprays to be an organ that longs for the light and stretche
and pest control. The Gardening lessons are now towards it.
frequently supplemented by practical work on Our astonishment reaches a climax when we dis
farms and in forests where an understanding of cover that the branches, too, reach towards the ligh
our modern ecological problems can be prepared. with, as it were, open arms, forming the shape o
Anyone who has had to dig the hard ground of a . an upwardly opening bowl. We had been used to
garden, who has gathered potatoes with his back seeing the trees' crowns as spheric shapes and
bent to the earth. who has. perhaps in the heat of this correctly so. But the branches, as though in a
the day, tied sheaves of wheat. might have thought counter movement. are, bowl-like. striving up
of the Angel's words to Adam: "Adam. thou in fear wards. This can be especially beautifully observed
 "
Ji.
~

\
I
( '1<,

/ ..
Metamorphoses of a theme - spiral
l'
~'(

•
In the young shoots of fir and pine tops that only 'after the gardening block in Class 9. We leav
at a later stage. due to their growing weight, turn the garden and descend the steps to the pot
towards the earth. In view of their tendency to tery workshop. We are given a handful of cla
form bowls turned towards the cosmos, the plants and feel its coolness and weight. Its moistur
appear as paraboU~ forms with their centre in the ,makes it elastic enough to be shaped into a ball
sun. These 'bowls' unfold from the seed resting in Keeping it In our hands we press deeply into
the earth. At first we have a vertically stretched, with our thumbs and. rotating the clay ball ~are
supporting form: the stem. The leaves grow on it fully. we enlarge this hollowed out space until
In a spiral sequence and, depending on the spe­ near perfect shape is attained. During the proc
cies. unfold ever further into their surroundings. ess our thumbs are pressing from within outward
The untiring observer, Goethe, drew our attention towards the palms; through the continuing rota
to these formative forces: tion and the spirally increasing pressure from
"The two main tendencies or, if you will. the two within. a hollow space is gradually established:
boV'1 opens Itself upwards, It is put on the bench
living systems by which the life of the plant grows '
and completes lt~ cycle. are the vertical and spi­this gives It a base to rest on. A ring-like thicke
ral systems; the one cannot be thought of as coUls fastened to the rim and, again through rota
being separated from the other. because the life tion and the spiral-like pressure from within. i
of each depends on the other." 2 properly shaped. The bowl grows in size. We mus
There are thus two aspects in the gardening les­ now Inwardly experience the up/down directio
sons: the one connects the children, through the like an invisible vertical axis. so that the hollow
forms of the plants. with cosmic laws; the other space around this axis may be enlarged. withou
connects them with the earth through their actual losing its orientation and support or else the bow
work. It is because of their connecting cosmos and will turn out to be crooked.
earth that the gardening lessons continue into the We recognise in this technique the same forma
whole of puberty. tive elements working in the plants. The human
being perceives them and translates them into the
ParTERY way he handles the quite different material- clay
Such considerations certainly put in question the
In keeping with our basic theme. especially that theories of chance or aCCidental happenings tha
of formative work, the subject of coiled pottery as people apply to technical discoveries in the past
the first technique of craft is taught immediately The ancients' innermost connection with nature

,-------------------------

is well known today. It is clear that they also ex­
perienced nature's formative forces and made use
of them.
We have a quite extraordinary phase during the
making of such a bowl when its opening is to be
narrowed or almost closed. It is here where the
actual structuring of the hollow, the inner space
begins. QUite a few students find this difficult; they
need all the concentration they can muster: con- .
centration on the inside, which ignoring all the outer
influences. is essential for this work.
The whole of this formative process depends on
the right preparation of the clay; on its mixture of
different and complementing types of clay. on the
correct moisture. And even after the work is com­
pleted. the elements of air and warmth are decisive
during the drying and firing processes. While it is
j ,
1­
Spiral and cross
Basket weaving and knoWng
The basket maker also makes use of the spira
starting from a point and continuing in a spiral
the rim. The starting point is, however, made b
the crossing of several willow wands. No long
the flexible clay that allows itself to be shaped a
cording to the sculptor's wishes: in its place w
have a number of single and long wands that a
placed In layers at right angles to each other. he
in place by skilled fingers and are. through th
spiral-like Insertion of further wands interwove
with each other. Before this is done. the cross-lik
placed twigs are bent away from each other
. allow a radiating star to arise. Basket weaving ca
be seen as a forerunner of weaving. We could spea
of the basket as a woven spherical form that is bu
on a cross in a spiral movement. The crossing
two straight lines at right angles to each other is
form element that contains tremendous streng
in whatever Is [0 be fastened, tied and linked. N
now it is not the loosely formed cross made by takes us to Class 10, and is only fully experienc
layers of willow wands. but the firm knot of thread. when we recall the life of the plants as they unf
It begins In a circular movement and comes to .in living spatial forms towards the light under
rest in the crossing of the thread - it tightens. holds influence of their natural environment, proces
together in itself. Adding identical knots. the that lie at the basis of the formative work in
necessary repetition of the Identical movements craft techniques discussed so far. Space clo
make this work almost mechanical. in contrast to ever more. gaining its centre. its point of grav
pottery and basket making where the work con­ within itself.
sists of the alternation of widening and narrowing.
Remember the way the children learnt knotting SHOE MAKING
and looping when they tied their shoes? To get it
right, to keep the same distance between the knots Sho~making awakens a strong consciousness
- takes a certain degree of wakefulness if the re­ our connection with the earth and of the nature
sult is to be worthwhile. Be It a knotted net or a inner space. The theme is already taken during p
hammock. Its production demands so'me previous puberty. in the handwork lessons in Class
thinking because of the linear nature of the thread Earlier on, the children crocheted hats. knit
from which the intended object Is to come about ­ gloves and socks - from head to feet! Our feet
very different from the sculpting of a clay pot the only organs of our body that are Immediat
which is shaped directly by the sensitivity of the adapted to the earth and to the burden they m
hands. Old cultures e.g. the Incas, used the knot­ carry across it. Without their connection with
ted string as 'data banks: It was an excellent and earth they appear to be unfinished. mer~ly fr
most original memotechnical aid. ments of a larger connection. This is why, wh
With the help of such knotted strings significant seen from below, they really look rather stran
events were stored away. statistics established Other organs. such as our stomach and lungs.
about every and any thing connected with also directed towards the substances of the ear
numbers. Even today. we make a knot in the but differently; they transform them and do not,
handkerchief to serve as a memory aid - to bind the feet. experience the earth through pressure a
what wishes to flyaway. counter pressure. This gives our feet their gr
significance for the energies needed in our verti
METAL WORK posture and. through it. for the ego developme
We are not usually aware of this.
The step away from the Immediate connection with . "We have already spoken of the Importance of
the hand's movement by touch is even greater when pressure of our bodies and the counter pressur~
the hardness of the material resists it. Help must the earth during work especially from the beg
be found in a tool that takes on this task by com­ ning of puberty and continuing into the High Scho
plementing the shortcomings of the hand. In the·
metalwork block In Class 9. as it were, a 'lifeless'
or 'dead' connecting link pushes itself between A last
work and hand - the chasing hammer. It becomes
. :.,.:;. ..
the fingertip that must accurately put pressure ~

beside pressure. so that a small object may result

from the work.
The hammer. loosely lying in the hand and yet

---~--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
..
 Relation between inner and outer space

And this pertains most directly to our feet. Rudolf distaff or spindle, weighted down with a clay o
Steiner's wish was to have a shoemaker amon~ stone weight. into an ever denser and tighter con
the staff, but this was not possible at the time, tinuous spiral thread. The 'suction into heavines
His indications were incorporated in the handwork here becomes graspable reality. As with the ham
lessons in Class 6. They were to be proper shoes Le. mer, the earth's force of graVity plays a decisiv
the left and right shoe were to complement each role. In Class 10. the upwards opening tendency o
other in their symmetry. form is definitely reversed; we have an emphati
Looked at from the aspect of giving shape to· orientation to the centre of the earth as centre o
something, we have here an excellent example of gravity. Immediately we can see the Significance
the transition to the earthly world of forms. The the symbolic character, of those processes for th
educational task arising from them: the heavines
flat area of the sale is connected to the upper leather
that, through its curved form. is adapted to the of the body of the adolescent. expressing itself a
curves and ankle joints of the foot. Only the care­ roo easily and unpleasantly in posture and move
ful and professional joining of these two parts into ment, is here used and translated into formativ
an organic unit allows us to stand and move well work processes. The result is a meaningful treat
on the earth. The important role played by the sen­ ment of controlled heaviness which is put int
sitive measuring of the foot, by the careful selec­ the service of people. It is a process that does no
tion of the corresponding last (the foot's substitute negate, but that takes hold and transforms what
that Is 'clothed' with the leather) points to its rela­
present and. indeed. necessary i.e. heaviness.
tion to tailoring in Class 10. The shaping of an in­ We could see the same principle apply t
ner space also takes us to Class 10. During metal basket making i.e. by adding a number of parts. t
work and pottery the inner space arose outSide the be able to lengthen something. In spinning. thi
human being: box and lid had to fit. The shoe. Idea becomes ingenious reality. A multitude of shor
shaped on the last. assumes the living form of the fibres is (at least in theory) twisted Into an Inf
foot - an inner space in which the foot must fee,1 nitely long thread.
,1-­
. t·
\,
comfortable! It took ages before the distaff (hand spindle
was replaced by the spinning wheel, invented i
SPINNING 1530 A.D. In the spinning wheel. the spindle is in
serted horizontally the vertical is replaced by th
Ie-
, .
A decisive new step Is taken in Class 10 when spin­ horizontal! It is obvious that the experience of th
ning is introduced. What is happening when th'e . vertical must have preceded the learning o
spiral does not open out from a point towards the accurately handling the horizontal. The exac
top, but from the distance, as though following a
downward suction. ever contracting and
densifying? We are familiar with the impressive
phenomenon of the vortex e.g. in the bath when
the water is drained. This formative process is
present in the making of threads. We can observe
it during the original hand-spinning process: From
the loose. airily picked ball of wool a small part is
pulled downwards and twisted. by means of the
how the essential parts of this 'machine' were be especially strongly experienced during the iron
constructed into the three dimensions of outer forging block in Class 10.
space. The attentive eye observes and gUides
the processes in spinning but the regular. IRON FORGING
smooth movements of the wheel. the regular
feeding into the spindle and the quality of the In Class 10 the motif of the hammer is intensifie
thread depend on the delicate interplay of the to almost brute strength. The hammer is no long
hands and the action of the foot. Eyes, hands. loosely held and guided. as in copper work. Lik
feet -' the whole human being participates in a stronger made fist, its cross shape is used
harmonious interaction. tame the hardness of iron. This is poSsible on
with the help of fire in which the iron become
TECHNOLOGY (SCREW, WEIGHT AND DENSITY) malleable enough to be shaped. The clenched fi
contains will forces, expressing itself throug
During our reflections on spinning we were unex­ . warmth. Warmth is engendered when force o
pectedly led to the thread form of th~ screw. In energy must be used against an obstacle. Litt
hand-spInnIng. the weight of the spindl~ adds to
the connectIon to the centre of the earth. Scr~w
and weight are basic elements in mechanics.
According to Rudolf Steiner th~ teaching of mech­
anics should emanate from "the characteristic
nature of matter. of what is dense. Only at a later
stage should dynamics be introduced".4
This Indication is very important for our teach­
ers of technology in Class 10. In Class 9 we learnt
about spiral forms in the growth of plants. Plants
grow against the forces of gravity in liVing. moving
forms. In technology the spiral is as though para­
lysed in the screw and becomes a technical device.
It was Archimedes (died 212 B.C.) who discov­
ered both the screw and gravity. In 200 B.C.
the Greek mathematician Apollonius of Perga
developed the geometry of the spiral i.e. its rigid,
constructed form. During this time, the Greeks un­
derwent a decisive change of consciousness. They
preoccupied themselves especially with the laws
of the physical world. And. although their world
was still inhabited by gods, they loved their life on
earth so much that the post mortem existence
seemed shadow-like by comparison. They preferred
the prospect of "being a beggar on earth to a king The forming of a thread
in the realm of shades", Wood screw
Screws made from iron - by which things can Gimlet
be fastened together were invented as late as
 our connection with the telluriC forces. iron is made use of in many practical ways.

--j..
i
shaped on the anvil with the hammer. The glow­ It took much abstract knowledge to produce clot
Ing irOn is. as it were, kneaded between them. through thin. linear elements interwoven at righ
Strength and fire must co-operate. Presence of angles to each other. All modern woven material
mind and a sense of purpose are essential before just as in the distant past, is still based on the prin
the iron grows too cold. ciple of a dense spiral and the crossing at righ

~
Rudolf Steiner characterises what we experience angles of warp and weft.
in the process. During pressure and counter~ The beauty of a piece of material is due not s
.1 pressure the ego kindles and activates itself. the much to the actual weaving itself. which must al
1 ego that can always turn active and mobile ways follow the same routine of crOSSing the wef

~
wherever it meets reSistance. . and warp threads. but to the different coloured
We arrived at the hammer via the spiral and the threads chosen. Weaving as such Is partly
mechanical operation. As such It Is no longer th

,..
1 head that is important but the mechanism, be
ever so simple, which the weaver 'serves',
The weaving loom has a similar history as th
spinning wheel. In ancient times, the weaving wa
done by weights that pulled down and stretche
I the warp. The process was orientated downwards
This type of weaving loom was used in Europe a
1 late as the 10th century. Records of the treadle loom
J-­
f~
,
are no older than 600 years. Here the woven clot
lies horizontal to [he ground. The working proc
esses penetrate each other cross-like; this make
for a strong tie to three direc[ions: the change o
shed occurs vertically through the foot actio
(up/down), the shuttle Is guided horizontall
through the changing sheds (right/left) and th
enclosed thread Is then beaten by the batten (front
back), The immediate connection to the earth'
centre, present through the weights pulling th
warp, is apparently removed exactly the sam
development that led from the distaff to the treadl
spinning wheel.
This touches on a deep mystery already men
tioned during our reflections on spinning. We d
not know whether the human being was first con
scious of his vertical position, standing upright o
the earth, or of the horizontal plane he perceived i
the stillness of the surface of a pond but we may
imagine early humans experienced, unconsciously
the upward striving forces which are connected t
J Gravity the delicate balancing relation between scalp and
sole, head and feet. In this he could comprehend
We find our way to the straight line when we feel
confident and strong enough ... In the history of
form. the straight line Is a late product." said Le
Corbusler. the pioneer of cubistic architecture. This
architecture draws us into a dead world of flat sur­
faces. straight edges and right angles. all worked
out according to the harmonious proportions of the
golden mean. 5
Is an exactly flat plane or a perfectly straight
line to be found anywhere in nature? Both are'
'discoveries' of our mind: we can Imagine them
in their perfection. but would find it difficult to
apply them to the reality of the physical world.
Due to the curved surface of the earth, a straight
board lying horizontally on the ground would. If
long enough. after a while no longer touch the
ground, And the still water In the pond? Its sur­
face would become spherical if it were to expand
far enough In all directions. It is only in smaller
areas where the lllusion of straight lines and
planes can apply.
The spherical earth, of which the surface of
our pond Is but a segment, has its point of grav­
ity at the centre. We use the spirit (water) level
to determine the correct horizontal lines e.g. in
building; we relate t/lis to the centre of the earth.
A large bUilding project would. as a consequence.
be standing on a curved foundation. In this
roundabout way. we are again led to see the small
flat and horizontal planes. which human beings
created. in their connection with the centre of
the earth, the centre of gravity. Were our woven.
cloth to expand in all directions It would ulti­
mately assume a spherical form. We can see in
the three spatial directions of the spinning wheel
and the weaving loom the basic forms that domi­
nate our entire culture; but the delicate structure
of the woven material resulting from the innumer­
able right angled crossings of equally innumerable
straight lines also gives cause for reflection.
Could it, then, not be more than mere 'chance'
that these form elements through Rudolf
Steiner's clear and exact indications for spinning
cloth. They preferred to wrap themselves in squa
or rectangular cloths (e.g. the toga); this is st
practised in many countries today. The Indi
woman takes a piece of cloth, one metre wide a
7 metres long. and wraps it in spiral fashion rou
her body. The sarong is used by Indonesians: t
two opposite ends of a cloth of one square me
are sewn together. the excess material being firm
fastened to the body. The word means 'containe
In our culture, too, the rectangular cloth - he
scarf. shawl. table/altar cloth etc. has retain
Its use and significance.
But, increasingly, the fabric is being adapted
the shape of our body. The garment demands t
cloth to be divided and cut up. regardless of
right -angled structure. This must surely have be
experienced Wilh considerable pain, bUl also
an important step, In the cutting, the dividing
the cloth is certainly as important as the sewin
Whereas the spherical/round form prinCiple in t
previously discussed crafts (pottery. basket ma
ing. metal work) was put to practical use with
our surroundings. it is we ourselves who becom
the centre of the article during the making of
garment.
In this way. the adolescent in Classes 9 and
directs his consciousness ever more strongly an
objectively towards himself. to his or her physic
bodily shape.
The design of the garment constitutes the fi
stage. However freely adapted the cut may
to the body's shape - according to the curre
fashion - its disposition is the right angle. Fro
there the desired single parts follow. correct
transferred from the pattern to the material. T
correct quantitative measuring is essential if t
garment is to fit. Success is assured only if co
rect thinking. drawing and measuring preced
the work i.e. if the garment can be seen in fu
within this form of a pattern. Only then can th
hands begin to carry out what had been thoug
out - we might be tempted to say: to car
out thoughtlessly. Never before was there suc
 in the garden or forest and brought to th
Pattern of a blouse workshop. There are no flat surfaces: the shap
of the wood. the living stream in the graining
determines the object made from it.
a contrast between design and execution - a Only in Class 10 do the children experience th
picture of our modern division of work. nature of a board. its flat surface being sawn a
The cloth is now cut into single parts and, with right angles and made into a box, a shelf or th
the important help of the sewing machine. re­ seat of a chair. The living qualities of wood mu
JOined. The exact correspondence between correct here be ignored or. we could say. 'tricked'. Such
thinking and skilful doing is the happy result of trick would be the clamping together of the board
the successful work. for a table top, in order to prevent warping
Warping is really nothing else but the wood
SOAP MANUFACTURE - HYGIENE natural tendency to curved. rounded forms. Th
the carpenter must not allow to happen. What use
It is not enough that the activities in our immediate to be curved is now objected to and considered
environment are now directed to the physical form be wrong.
itself. giving it, in dressmaking, its covering. When There is only one living aspect of the woo
Rudolf Steiner refers to the knowledge of soap pro­ that persists and cannot be aVOided: the expand
duction in Class 10, he does not do so from merely ing and contracting of (he boards In keeping wit
theoretical considerations, but from immediate prac­
tical life: the care of the important organ of the skin. 6
The skin separates us from our environment. pro­
vides us with a ·cover'. This being enclosed within
himself can give the adolescent a premonition of
hIs burgeoning Individuality coming into its own
within his body. Not only the clothing, his individu­
ally formed body becomes Important to him, This
should, however, not lead to vanity. but to itS
I reasonable care, to keeping it healthy. This must be,
learnt like a craft, a technique in the art sphere of
life! The skin. by virtue of Its pervious 'breathing'
nature. Is (he physical mediator for a healthy rela­
tion to our surroundings. Anyone who. for lack of
soap and water, has had to go without a wash for Dovelail joinlS
some time. knows the dangers to health resulting
from it. knows that his innate wish to be fully
human is diminished by it. In the story of Bearskin
or The Devil's Sooty Brother such a person is shunned
by his fellow men as someone who has signed a
pact with the devil and is not allowed to wash him­
self. cut his nails or comb his hair.
The lessons of First Aid and Hygiene are the
!t· climax, the crowning touches to this sphere in

-,
l' which the adolescent becomes more aware of his Glued and damped boar

'~.
come separated from all life processes.
The basic features in the wood's progress from
Its natural origin to the board. which allow the stu­
dents to become familiar with the basic technical
elements of Joinery. are identical with those in
dressmaking. In both a piece of furniture and a
garment. the idea. thinking and design corne first.
Exact measuring. knowledge of special tools, the
use of machines (some of them out of reach for the
students because of danger) are essential. There is
hardly a part of the work that can be done without
the help of a tool. We can see the same basic fea­
tures In dressmaking and carpentry. but also their
specialised individual characteristics.
SURVEYING
Surveying the exact distances of a given area leads
to the drawing of a map according to scale. It Is the·
same process we saw in dressmaking, with the ex­
ception that. tn dressmaking. we are measuring the
body and do not stop at the design (the drawing).
It Is Interesting to note that, in surveying. we
have the same form structure we met in most of
the crafts in Class 10: the right angle. The reality of
the right angle in the three dimensions of
space is absolutely determining. We can find this,
Surveying
_________________________________
In dressmaking. the exact measures of the bo
determined the artistically pleasing pattern: in s
veying. in measuring the body of the earth, all
has been taken away from it. giving way to sob
objectivity. And it is precisely this that allows
resulting map to be used by everybody. wherea
dress or garment belongs to one person only.
wearer.
Dressmaking and surveying are complementa
in their polarities: the one points us directly
the human being, the other leads us into the d
tance. Both demand great care in measuring wh
Is measurable on our and the earth's body. T
technology of surveying is a bridge between
crafts and those subjects that are concerned w
the attainment of knowledge.
WORKING WITH PAPER. CARDBOARD.
AND BOOKBINDING
Think of a chest or a cabinet and imagine it shrin
ing to the size of an outstretched hand. We c
make such a little box from cardboard and use
as a receptacle for our stationery. This leads
to the making of paper goods In Class II and
its continuation in the bookbinding lessons
Class 12.
 Woven texture
- hairfelt - Is now a very modern materiaL It is
fundamentally different from woven textures.
however thinly they may have been made: the
short paper fibres are mixed in a watery solution.
haphazardly; the more haphazard. the better.
because this engenders the felting process during
the further stages of production, making the
paper stronger. Out of this 'atomising' we get a
material whose origin can no longer be visiby
detected. We could almost regard it as man-made, .
as synthetic, artificial material that has been fur­
ther developed in many different ways - such as
hardboard, insulation and other building materi­
als - pressed from broken up tiny substances and
rebonded. Paper fibres
With paper we also have flat surfaces of any
size cut at right angles to each other. The proto­
type of the book that developed in the monasteries
in the Middle Ages has retained its rectangular of work that are part of the process. including th
shape, but its earlier form was the spiral: the corresponding thinking and the feelings engendere
papyrus scrolls In Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece 't" 8
bYI.
and Rome were rolled up strips of paper that were The "right age" is Class II and 12. accordin
rewound. after reading, by the other hand around to Rudolf Steiner's indications reported in th
the second rod. Conferences. 9
Bookbinding demands a delicate flair and great If we study Rudolf Steiner's words attentively
manual skill and dexterity - together with an ar­ we may sense their meaning. Our daily thought
tistic feeUng and clear. logical thinking in order to are restless. changeable. inconsistent, frequentl
do full justice to the several stages of work. Rudolf fanciful, unreal and difficult to control. They com
Steiner spoke emphatIcally about the necessity of and go, distracted by outer impressions. Th
this subject. Because of Its importance we quote logical sequence in crartwork can educate them t
verbatim from his lecture of 21.4.1923: calm down. to connect with reaUty. to be conse
"The qUite special human activity employed in quential. to become objective, without the loss o
bookbinding also does something quite special for their liveliness.
the most intimate life of spirit and soul, provided it
is done at the right age. This applies especially to SUMMING UP
the practical work. I would. therefore. consider it
to be a sin against the human being if we do not We attempted to show how, during the sequenc
introduce bookbinding. the work with paper and of the craft lessons. thinking became ever mor
cardboard at the appropriate age in our Waldorf important. It is still possible in Class 9 to b
I schools as part of the craft lessons. These skills
are essential if one wishes to become a complete
spontaneously creative in pottery. No previou
concept is necessary, the little bowl can chang
\
human being. It is not the finished product - be it its form during the work. In Class 10. thInkin
) a cardboard box or a. nicely bound book - that is
important. but the doing itself. all the various stages
takes over. determining the work in every detail
be it in carpentry, dressmaking or weaving. Th

f
1 .
;:
 The work material itself shows an interesting
progression: the garden with its nature elements,
the life-filled plant world is the creative practising
ground for the pupils: in pottery it is a specially
prepared and improved (by the human being) piece
of earth. made usable through the help of the
elements. In basket-making. the linear branches,
already more highly organised by nature itself, are
used. The influence of the elements on the actual
working process diminishes ever more. In the crafts
mentioned so far. the origin of the material can
still be recognised. This is no longer so easy when
we consider the thread used in knotting. The
piece of copper has undergone several trans­
formations: neither its shape nor its substance
Indicate Its connection with the raw material from
which it originated. Tin is already a very 'abstract'
material. The same applies. at least in part. to the
timber used in carpentry that can be essentially
___________
r
education. At first the echoes of the second seve
year period resound in the bowl with its openi
to the top. followed by the formation of an Inn
space. both following the spirally-round form
tive laws. Then the spiral contracts. experienci
the force of gravity. The emergence of the cro
takes us to the flat plane. to the linear form a
the right angle. The round, inner space becom
the box. cabinet or wardrobe. The influence of t
telluric forces waxes ever more strongly and brin
about the decisive change in Class 10. The you
man or woman who comprehends and contro
his inner life is now grounded on the earth who
point of gravity he unconsciously experiences.
is his task to take hold of the earth without falli
victim to it. by recreating it out of his very ow
spiritual. psychological and also phYSical ene
gies. A beginning must be sought in the top class
in bookbinding. in. perhaps. an artistically shap

 It is important. however. to know the threads in should be taken as stimuli for further research and
development that make possible an inner struc­ for finding solutions for other intentions In educa­
ture of the work processes. of the material used tion. Rudolf Steiner allotted the subjects discussed
and. especially. the creation of organic forms. This (and actually related to the special headings o
can provide the teacher with a basic orientation crafts. handwork and technology) to definite age
from which he can draw whatever may be realis­ groups. the respective classes being:
able In his school. 6 - 10: Gardening.

We have been able to see that the craft lessons 9 - 10: Basketmaking. Macrame. Dressmaking.

gain enormously by becoming the outer picture of . 10: Spinning. Weaving. Surveying. Technical
developmental processes taking place in the stu­ Mechanics (engineeringJ. Hygiene, First Aid.
dents. This is not to belittle other craftwork: for to 11 - 12: Paper. Cardboard. Bookbinding,

I Steiner, R.. Soul Economy and Waldorf Education. 4.10.1922

AP.1986.
2 Goethe, J.W.. On the Tendency to SpIral Forms in Plants, 1831
(,Ober die Spiraltendenz des Vegetativen').
3 Steiner R.. Tile Kingdom of Childhood. lecture of 19.8.1924
AP, 1995; d. also Part 3 The Shoemaking Block:
4 Steiner. R.. Conferences with Teachers 17.6.1921.
5 le Corbusier. About the Poelly of Building.
6 Steiner. R.. Practical AdvIce to Teachers, lecture 12. RSP 1976
7 Steiner. R.. The Child's Challging ConSCiousness. 21.4.1923
AP. 1996.
8 Ibid.

9 Steiner. R.. Conferences 28.4 & 20.6.1922. Vol. 3, SSF. 1988

10 Heydebrand. C. von. The Curriculum of the Waldorf School
SSF. 1989.
E. A. Karl Stockmeyer. Tile Steiner School Curriculum fo
Waldorf Schools. SSF. 1991 .

. ­,
which can assist the systematic development ofour natu­
ral gifts. the happier we will be. What we take in from
our environment cannot harm our innate individuality.
Our human organs...are capable of uniting ...that which
is acquired from the environment with that which is
innate in us." (Goethe. letter to Wilhelm von
Humboldt. 17 March 1832.)
Pottery was not yet included as an independent
subject in the curriculum Indications in Rudolf
Steiner's day. Clay sculpture was to begin in Class
9, yet even here only a few open-ended sugges­
tions were made. 1 Craft and practical activities were
not strongly developed in Waldorf Schools before
the 1950s, at which time pottery found a firm place
In the curriculum as well.
Pottery signifies the making of pots or vessels.
Today It Is regarded as just one aspect of ceram­
Ics: the latter signifies everything that Is shaped
and baked using various clay-based materials.
OrIginally. however. pottery was the principle
branch of ceramics. It arose to meet the simplest
and most primitive necessities of life. This was
where art and culture began to develop to meet
the human need for decoration and beauty. Even
in the most ancient water jars, vases, storage jars
and above all urns which have come down to
us it is eVident that the potters were not merely
serving bodily needs. Intuition, Imagination and
a joyful experience of form and colour rose up for
them out of their own creative being. their expe­
rience of the clay medium. from earth, water and
air. Their hands shaped what was needed
with loving dedication: even today we are still
moved by the Immediacy. simplicity and expres­
siveness of these ancient vessels or works of art
when we see them in museums or exhibitions.
How can we make the ancient potter's joy of life
and creativity come alive for Class 9 pupils?
Clearly, the pupils must first acquire a certain
dexterity through practice before they can give free
rein to their imagination and their desire to be
creative. They are rank beginners: thus we should
not expect too much from them. nor they from
the kiln fresh-baked. hard as stones and com
pletely changed in colour to be built into a w
using mortar. In Class 4 they will have done som
modelling in clay. perhaps having formed simp
rounded and angular geometric shapes. perha
even having done some simple pottery. e.g. a dis
In connection with the Man and Animal less
animal figures were modelled freely. playfully a
yet with great concentration and seriousness
purpose.
Now. however. they enter the craft room qu
differently. Their spontaneity and uninhibited. fre
approach to life has been lost. They have becom
more thoughtful. critical and reserved. some som
what shy. some apparently a bit cheeky. What th
will now make with the clay can no longer be mere
. playfuL It must become constructive work. craf
manship. artistic activity. Only in this way can ne
Increasingly accessible strength. flowing into th
hands be properly focused and developed. For th
reason. pottery should not be brought as an ind
pendent diSCipline before Class 9.
Our pupils are waking up to their environme
Their experience of our times shows an attitude t
ward life heavily influenced by the material surf
of our western-oriented. post-industrial society. W
have lost much of our respect for articles of da
use as well as for the natural environment. Ru
ning water now means a tap in our homes; we
longer see its source. Everything which gathe
this living element is also readily at hand: was
basins. saucepans, teapots. cups. jugs and mu
and we hardly ask ourselves where all the
come from any more.
We re-awaken to the original context when w
arrive at a stream after a long walk; the precio
liquid bubbles out of the cool earth as we cup o
hands together to catch it and refresh ourselve
Indeed. our cupped hands are an image of t
archetype underlying every vessel.
It is vital to awaken a new feeling in the
pupils who have reached an age when the teach
should no longer exercise a natural authority:
I,
'j
,
the process again from the middle of the base. this
time with a somewhat closer. flatter grip to smooth
the surface. The walls of the lower part of the bowl
should already have their final thickness. To avoid
.~~ sagging. the bowl should now no longer be set down:
it should be held obliquely in the hollow of the left

l
. '
hand and the walls squeezed up bit by bit with a sculptural forms it is more important to achieve
shaping movement of the fingers. With a little prac­ feel for and insight Into how volumes and surface
tice. pots the size and shape of a half-coconut. but advance and retreat: Which spatial gesture doe
slightly thicker walled, can be modelled in 5 to 10 the form make towards you. away from you and
minutes without anything being scraped or cut away. simultaneously. in the periphery? How does it ap
i,".
~.
} \.
Working the clay any longer makes it dry out through proach. retreat from or garner the light. castin
the heat of the hands. the top edge cracking; the . shadows?
-'1 .,
clay also loses its freshness through being over­ We can speak about all these questions over th
worked. becoming tired. 2 work, during short breaks or (as appropriate) be
Though it all sounds quite Simple. patience. calm fore we start working. We can discuss them. rais
and composure are vital. These are. of course. or answer questions. above all explain why we ar
qualities which are worth acquiring anyway should doing it this particular way and not another a
we do not yet have them: they are helpful through­ well as the effects of what we do and don't do
out our lives. Also necessary. however is the abil­ Examples should be given whenever possible. Fo
Ity to concentrate completely on the matter at hand. example. our bowl would have a tendency to be
painstakingly observing every pressure of the fin­ come broader and flatter if we worked with bot
gers and Its effect. While shaping Ollr first piece in thumbs inside, It is easier to raise up the walls whe
this way it's good to experience the whole process we work with one thumb inside while the whol
as a unity. accomplishing it from beginning to end bowl rests in the other hand. In this way it will no
without interruption. Both the inner and outer so readily warp out of shape. which is to be aVOide
curves should be kept taut everywhere. the base at all costs. The bowl's shape should be change
remaining somewhat rounded. The interior is as slowly and regularly; otherWise it easily become
important as the exterior; they should not be viewed structurally unstable and begins to develop cracks
independently of one another. A synthesis of the Some pupils may not be entirely happy with thi
polar qualities of concavity and convexity should approach to modelling (the pinch-pot technique)
be sought for. The top edge. which might undulate Perhaps one or the other has already seen how
a bit, should also be incorporated; it should clearly bowl can be 'more easily' built up out of rings or
and incisively round off one wall's surface while spiral of clay. Perhaps they have even already prac
forming a transition to the other wall. If the edge tised this common method.
becomes too irregular it can be sliced away with a The pupils can be put at ease. We'll not restric
delicate knife or a needle and then thoroughly re­ ourselves to the pinch-pot technique. It offers. how
worked. It should never appear to have been cut ever. the possibility of acquiring an ever secure
off but rather should form the culmination above feel for the thickness and stability of the walls an
as naturally as a pendulum which has reached its for the form of especially the interior without con
turning point and begins to swing back again. fronting us with other problems (such as thos
While working on and evaluating the form there· of positioning the clay. adding new clay, the dis
is often a tendency to be aware of the outl ine alone. sagging when we set it down on a table. etc.). I
to view the piece two-dimensionally. linearly. For addition. it is possible to acquire a good feel fo
 cient merely to wet the clay and then press n
clay on top of this. There is also a danger t
the water can drip down and soften the base
the pot, just the place that should be grow
firmer. It is better if the clay is kept moist a
thus never forms a skin where the Juncture w
take place. (OccaSionally moisten your hand
4) The Join must be thoroughly worked. This is o
possible jf both the edge and the added coil
a good bit thicker than the walls of the pol.
how clay moves and reacts in and through the work 5) The base must be all one piece. A rough ball c
of our hands, i.e. the constituency that allows it to first be rolled out into a sort of lens shape. th
be worked easily. and how It begins to dry and pressed totally flat. simultaneously raising
harden as we work it. The latter happens espe­ edge up about a finger's Width.
cially quickly In winter-time jn dry, heated rooms,
Another of the pupils' questions will be about the
rounded base: 'this thing won't stand up properly:
perhaps with the feeling that 'it's sure to tip over: It Apply day
is a beautiful experience to see afterwards how the
bowl establishes its own balance like a roly-poly
man. If we have worked well. the middle axis is
upright and the top edge lies horizontally, If not, the
pot will tilt. and we can adjust it accordingly.
Originally. all pots had rounded bases. This was
not Just a question of aesthetiCS or the ease of
firing. but above all of durability. We will return
to this when we look at how the clay dries. fires
and cools. blend in day strongly
It is an open question whether it Is desirable for
pupils always to be qUiet. for a work mood to be
continuously reigning. If they are a left a bit free.
they begin to chat amongst themselves. This is fine
as long as it remains within an appropriate context. .
We can take part as the teacher. paying atten­
tion that the path Is not abandoned, the goal not
__

'~
Original form
..
,'.

lost sight of. We can discuss stable and unstable

states of balance. We can collect meanings of the
,, expanded
wall
--1', :
word 'cup' or 'sheIP; it Is always indicative of ,
,
t t
.
the covering as opposed to the actual kernel or
fruit or content.
.
," /
, .'

If we want to construct larger pots we'll have to

begin to add clay. The so far thumb-high pot is
planted upside-down on a moist cloth between original base

_________________________
r
 Their ideas must be discussed first. however. th
teacher perhaps even developing them togethe
with the pupils. sketching them roughly on th
blackboard and considering them carefully. In th
way the teacher knows what the pupil wants to tr
and can help him or her to realise it. How far th
pupils can be given a free hand will depend ver
much on the individuals. the group as a whole an
the mood that is present.
As a matter of principle, pots should be mad
which are meant to be used (this could includ
lamps. for instance). The teacher can also give
, choice of exercises. He or she can demonstrat
possibilities. show successfully completed work (o
photos), or even when necessary set a particula
task for all to do. A common exercise can result i
individual solutions by each pupil. In this case it
a matter of providing a framework so that the pu
The pupils will run into difficulties in shaping pils are not totally at sea. yet leaving play withi
the clay: the framework for the individual will. The pup
Every time that the wall is pressed thinner it ex­ must feel connected with the working process an
pands outwards - this is a simple physical law of must be able to experience successfully creating
the distribution of matter - thus increasing the sur­ piece while clarifying the idea of what this shoul
face area. IfI want to bring the wall up more steeply. be like and how it might be made in the process.
I have to simultaneously create a constant Inward The teacher should not have a rigid, pre-define
pressure to force the mass of day upwards. The idea of how the pupils' work should turn out. Th
resulting compression (opposed only slightly by pupils should not be merely means to accomplish
the pressure of the thumbs inside the pot) tends to ing the teacher's own ends. No true co-operatio
Induce folds In the walL especially If it is thin. This would be possible if this were so; this can onl
can easily lead to uncontrolled spreading. begin­ result from pursuing the matter at hand withou
ning already at the base. If the wallis a bit moister. any personal coloration whatsoever entering In. I
with increasing pressure above due to the weight the upper school this is necessary if we want t
of the clay the wall begins to sag Just above the avoid a sort of 'glass wall' arising between pupil
base. As soon as this danger becomes noticeable and teacher. The work does not have to turn ou
we must stop adding on above, correct the situa­ exactly as it was originally conceived - especiall
I tion below, and set the partly finished pot to rest attractive and beautiful work often comes abou
bottom up (as described above) so that it can dry as if of its own accord. Sometimes, of course, some
f out and firm up. thing goes wrong. which should not be take
If a pot with a narrower neck is desired. a simi­ too tragically: perhaps we can even make a virtu
.J lar difficulty arises in attempting to bring the neck of neceSSity!
in at the top. Even if a coil of clay is added on the The pupils need to be acquiring an ever sure
Inside edge, the attempt will fail Without a special and better defined feeling for form and for wha
compressive grip which needs to be learned. speaks in the form as an expression of life, styl
If the pupils are attentive, they will learn all and characteristic qualities. Earlier cultures hav

'",

again to animals or, as in the case of the chalice, tive of a rich. perpetually metamorphosing an
to flowers (calyx). We have the foot, belly, shoul­ varied language of form.

der and neck of a pot. The jug has a lip (in Though there are endless creative possibilities
German this Is the 'snout' while the longer spout in pottery even more than elsewhere, simplicit
is a 'beak', the opening is the 'mouth' and the marks the master. This applies primarily to th
rim is the 'lip'). When a dish has a foot ring the shape. but also to a certain extent to the decora
transition from the foot to the body is called the tion and coloration of a piece. The simpler. cleare
waist; this transition gives the dish its interest. A and more unified the shape of a piece appears. th
vessel can have a posture. a gesture. A vase can better and more convincing it usually is. The pur
be narrow or wide, simple or elegant. rough or geometric forms of the sphere. ellipSOid and cylin
fine, noble or awkward, It can enthuse us or leave der shall not serve as our models here. however
us cold. Its actual purpose Is first fulfilled when it The forms of skins and sheaths, as we find in na
is filled with flowers. ture around every sort of fruit, have always bee
Naturally, a coffee-pot must look different than found to be more stimulating for us. Living form
a tea-pot or a watering-can. It Is not a matter of are more appealing!

indifference which shape we give to the things we Pieces with fat, round bellies have somethin
make. The Intended content SIgnificantly deter­ stolid about them; they can express contentmen
mines the form. A container 'contains'; holds and and peace or weightiness and gravity. Amphor
protects Its contents. The latter are generally some­ shapes. opening up to their Widest above the mid
thing needed to sustain life. dle height. seem to stand tall, bear upwards. Tall
A flat dish, e.g. for serving sandwiches. Is some­ slender shapes have an air of upward striving and
what like a miniature tabletop; a tray. like a seem lighter, more free of the earth. Our piece
little table. The contents will not stay there for can be given more a feminine or a masculine char
long; they're meant for immediate consumption acter. They can be firm or soft. gentle or powerfuL
and to be freely partaken of. A flat breakfast plate In any case they should stand stably.
on which we butter slices of bread is similar. as Is Since we want our pots and vessels to be read
the normal dinner plate; both have only a slightly ily usable. they'll need some sort of handles and
raised edge to retain what is on them (and for . spouts. After the shaped pot has firmed up
ease of grip). Soups and round fruits that could enough that it is no longer warped out of shape
roll about need somewhat higher perimeter walls. by every little pressure, the parts to be added
All of these flattish utensils receive and give of can be pressed home and worked In using som
their contents readily, holding onto nothing firmly. slip (a mud of clay and water). The handle i
This gesture. which our hands can also make, can initially attached above. then given Its final shape
be expressed in the form of our utensils; we can and pressed Into place and worked In below
accentuate and articulate it further. Then there again using slip. It must then be wrapped up so
are utensils that enclose their contents more firmly that It does not dry out faster than the rest o
and hold them more securely: goblets and cereal the vessel.
bowls, as well as cups, mugs and all deep bowls; In shaping a jug we abandon pure symmetry
the dominant gesture remains that of offering. The With hand-made pots we are not. as in the case o
pot which gave our activity its name usually has the potter's wheel. bound to the vertical axis o
steeper and more enclosing sturdy outer walls. It symmetry and thereby to round forms as seen from
occupies the middle ground between receiving. above. We can build up. modify or beat out vari­

protecting and offering. The name 'pot' itself is a ous kinds of rounded. angular and diverse shapes
 Bowl with Jug Vase
base ring

_:':'"=
.:-. . .-*-----"""-.. . !I4ii&<....-I111'1111'----'­
Level surface
- _ - - ­

Comalner with lid

BOlde wuh rap

The pot as
middle between
vase and place

We need not make a principle of creating asym­
metrical. crooked and hard-edged shapes simply
because this is 'in vogue', Many an arbitrary ex­
periment can be forgone when the pottelY is not
shaped primarily for the shape's own sake but
rather so that the vessel can serve us in a particu­
lar manner. This task establishes the potential
shape and form, We must not lose sight of this
point of view, the potential utility, which is a result
of the utensil being readily manipulable. not too
heavy. stable and easily cleaned.
Flat plates. fruit bowls and bird baths offer the
best possibilities for free form. Vases run the
greatest danger of becoming abstract. Consider that
everything which is full of life has a tendency to­
wards rounded forms. the form of a water droplet.

Weight-bearing,
,l!'/.,~!!J:i" standing
This Is simultaneously the most stable and
durable form and allows for the thinnest wal1
(the egg!). A vase should not be imagined to be
a self-sufficient object: together with the flowers it
should beautify the house, complementing the
house's atmosphere and the vase's surroundings.
Branches of blossoms demand a strongly shaped,
securely standing heavy vase or a large Jug.
In determining on a shape It Is very important
for the pupil to know and have a feel for what
happens to clay as It drIes. as it is fired for the
first time, when it is glazed and when it is given
the glaze firing. All the elements - earth. water,
air and fire take part in the process. We must
take Into account the occurrence of shrinkage
and the strains that result from the clay drying
unevenly. The moisture escapes from the clay
as it dries. The walls become thinner. the whole
brightly as the glaze melts into a liquid state
The clay softens as well. however. and begins
warp somewhat if special measures are not take
to prevent this (e.g. grog. special kinds of clay o
a comparable additive having been mixed in wit
the clay). The pot shrinks again and the who
mass has a tendency to sag where it is not we
supported. Heavy parts droop and press dow
(handles. candelabra arms), It is therefore nec
essary to 'think big' already during the desig
process. shaping everything more generousl
than actually feels right at the time. The whol
seq uence of shrInkage and sag begin
already as the clay is first drying!
All contact with work-a-day utensi
should be accompanied by a feeling o
respect for what can and should be a
image of a higher. humanly Significa
reality. During the time of life in whic
the young people find themselves the
bodies are undergoing a hardening proc
ess. Their bodily sheath has reached
certain culmination of its developmen
it encompasses a new life of soul. Th
is not only a transHory passageway fo
experience, learning and discovery - an endurin
Inward space Is created, This can apply to large
contexts as well; if human beings work properl
, together out of a spiritual standpoint, they form
a vessel where their common striving assembles
In olden days a lovingly formed vessel accom
panied the human soul into the after -life as
burial gift.
THROWING POTTERY ON THE WHEEL
"The potter's wheel stands amongst the most origina
and ancient inventions of the human creative spirit. I
no other craft is there anything remotely approachin
the activity of throwing on the wheel. Neither wood no
metal, neither glass nor any other material appeals s
direcfl{ to the human being as does tile contact wit
clay.
 Jug with beakers

­ ,

\1 -­
'I'!:~ VII"

These are the words of a well-known and expe­ spontaneity and the connection to nature. Pe
rienced potter. His experience may be of Interest haps it Is not even just the shape and colouring
even though the feeling of a craftsman or artist for though these play an important role as well.
his or her material Is highly IndiViduaL Since throw­ comes down to delicate nuances. intuitivel
Ing pottery on a wheel Is not a mass-production grasped and not easy to fasten In words, The valu
technique as is e.g. casting, we still have all the - above all the subjective value - that an objec
creative possibilities of shaping by hand. Putting has for the people involved with It Is all-Impo
aside for a moment the difference between pure tant. We like to have a personal connection wit
art and artistic craftsmanship, we can compare the the objects we live With. We want them to b
potter's wheel to a musical Instrument. Human appealing and to have an aesthetic element. It
beings have not stopped at produclng music with a question of which means serve the same en
their own voices but rather built Instruments in - here. The product is affected by the process o
order to bring it forth in another fashion: the in­ production with all that this Involves. This Is we
strument of the potter's wheel arose In a similar worth reflecting on. It is questionable if th
way and still leaves rich possibilities for indiVidual apparently necessary process of industrial deve
creativity. We must not mistake the Significance of opment hasn't reached its zenith or has perhap
this step, which drove the development of crafts even gone beyond the limits of what is tolerable
forward like a wheel does a wagon, leading to the There are various Steiner Waldorf Schools whic
spinning wheel and the wood-turner's bench, and have integrated commercial production technique
In the end preparing the way for the whole realm right through into full apprenticeship program
of mechanical engineering, leading to work in social fields as part of thei
To the extent that the potter's wheel found ac­ curriculum.
ceptance in the profession, production by hand When a young school first begins an uppe
ceased, being no longer competitive, Something school. questions and deliberations wUl arise fo
Similar happened when Industrial production the college of teachers and council about the goal
began. Despite thiS, artistic craftsmanship is of such an institution in the light of the expande
sustainable again today on a smaller scale. for need for educational diversity. There are mono
many people are not finding what they seek in lingual and poly-lingual pupils: there are on th
machine-made, mass-produced goods. It is not one hand practical and artistic subjects. on th
only the lack of such things as warmth, life. other hand academic and SCientific subjects: an
 still does not justify spontaneously introducing it positive effect as long as no disappointments
into the curriculum. cur. There is also an element of practice which c
Those for whom free artistic creativity Is ail-im­ be brought in with the potter's wheel. indeed wh
portant and who are less than enthusiastic about it demands. just as a musical instrument does.
a commercial style of doing pottery will ask: What­ In alternating turning on the wheel with mod
ever could move us to set up such a terribly com­ ling by hand the follOWing observations were ma
plicated and technically and spatially exorbitant Even though some pupils had a certain reluctan
activity as pottery on the wheel In the school? to try the wheel. it none the less exercised a po
Building up and modelling clay by hand offers far erful attraction. It was clear to the pupils that p
freer creative possibilities which reach to great tery on the wheel is significantly more difficult
depths of artistic involvement. The latter are also learn and demands much more of them. It is fair
less tied to vertical symmetry. need no expensive say that the enhanced dynamiC resulting from
machines and lessons are easily co-ordlnated with (still modern) technology of the wheel mechani
the work in sculpture. In view of the already ex­ generates this fascination,
cessively technological world of the industrialised The difference between modelling and turning
nations. in which aesthetic sensibility is withering the wheel is approximately the same as that
away fast. such an additional technological field . tween walking and riding a bicycle. betwe
of activity could be readily dispensed with! spinning with a spindle and spinning with
But let us not be too hastyl Have all the points of .spinning wheel. The encounter with technolo
view and facts needed for a well-rounded judge­ signifies a step forward, a step into an increas
ment been considered? The question of a peda­ evolutionary speed. demanding correspondin
gogical Justification certainly will and should be greater wakefulness. Because of the wheel's d
raised. AU-important for Steiner in founding the mands (the legs must be active as well), the pup
Waldorf School was that 'life' should be brought will is more ful1y engaged and they must also
Into the school; that all the instincts for life be more attentive.
awakened. especially in the upper school; that a A further difference; through modelling relativ
sense for practical matters on the one hand and few vessels can be made durIng a block. Ev
for an artistic senSibility on the other be nurtured. though the creative process is more Important th
Seen from this point of view. the pottery wheel is the result. the joy taken in the activity is dam
part of 'practical life' or, better said, practical life­ ened should the attempt to shape a few vess
experience. and can therefore be exemplary for aU well and attractively not succeed.
pupils. Ideally. every pupil should undergo such The pOSSibility of not being distracted by co
fundamental studies of life and for life special­ versations or of not being fully involved In
Ised. IndiVidualised. dependent on the school's process. to be thinking about all sorts of oth
Individual situation. 5 things. is far. far greater for modelling.
Let us observe and experience the upper school At the beginning. the emphasis in turning on t
pupils working on the wheel. comparing this with wheel lies not with the creative process but rath
hand-built pottery as an activity. with the learning process. the development of sk
In a school which had a well-conducted choir with the hands. practising and practising again a
and a competent orchestra it could be observed again until the clay becomes a vessel.
that pupils who voluntarily took part in these were The creative process comes second and slow
generally less burdened with problems and ap­ Learning to playa musical instrument is Similar
peared freer than other pupils even though the great deal of practice precedes the moment wh

 pend upon what space is available in the school.
In the Stuttgart Uhlandhohe School. the pupils sit
at the wheels facing the wall. To some this may
seem odd at first. but it has proved Its worth and
has never been objected to. The pupils can con":
centrate better on their work this way.
To begin each block we always gather around
the large table in the modelling room. After a gen­
eral introduction. each pupil makes a little bowl by
hand. as described above. This bowl should frt
into both hands cupped together. This preliminary
activity exemplifies and clarifies the process of turn­
ing a pot on the wheel. In the next lesson. work
then begins on the wheels.
We have here readily understandable technol­
ogy: a round wheel-head on which the clay is
turned by hand is fixed onto a vertical axle mounted
so as to revolve freely both below. at floor level.
and above. at table height. A large fly-wheel, the
foot-wheel. is attached to the bottom of the axle.
The foot-wheel's inertia ensures that the wheel­
head will continue turning for a good long time
once set rotating through the action of the right
foot. The hands now come Into play. If the platter
slows down too much it is sped up again
using the foot; hands and foot thus continue to work
alternately. (For the work with pupils. electriC
wheels are unnecessary and in my own judgement
inadvisable). The machinery must of course be
properly maintained so that it turns freely.
As with modelling by hand. we begin on the wheel
by forming a ball of moist clay. This ball is without
spatial orientation. seeming to float weightlessly. It
is thrown forcefully onto the middle of the platter. It
must cling firmly to this just as a sprouting seed
must first take root before it can begin to grow up­
wards against the force of gravity. The disc of the
wheel is like the earth turning in relation to the sun
and stars. This is an incarnation event and must be
seized courageously and energetically.
Considering ourselves as a micro-cosmos com­
pared to the macro-cosmos around us. it could
be said that the idea or imagination of what we
want to create must enter the sculptural reality
I
and clay both must be continually mOistened. fo
the clay should never encounter friction from the
hands. braking its spinning.
This series of steps should be followed by each
individual pupil: .
1) The lump of clay must be centred on the quickly
turning disc. It is vital to first achieve a state o
complete inner peace and concentration. The
peaceful centre within must be found; fo
sanguines especially this is a goal which need
perpetual practice. The upper arms should res
alongside the body. whose weight gives powe
and resistance to the turning mass on the wheel
head.
2) Only when the clay Is completely centred can
the next step follow: the clay is to be opened up
Its centre is opened out into a funnel shape by
the thumbs. freeing space within. the polar op
posite of the preceding ste p. When everything is
turning calmly and smoothly again and the fun­
nel opening reaches down to the final thickness
of the base (6-8 mm). the next step Is ready.
3) The base is formed out and carefully regulated
to be level right out to where the wall begins
After the walls are again turning smoothly. they
can be
4) Raised up. forming the actual interior of the ves­
sel; this is the most difficult step so far. to raise
the weight of clay against the force of gravity
This work takes place while the clay is in a fluid
extremely unstable state. It must be accom­
plished calmly and carefully but also quickly
always holding the Image of a peaceful. uprigh
centre emanating down into the vessel and
around which everything spirals. This lifting
process can be repeated up to three times. The
final form must be given using the fine sensitiv­
ity of the fingers and fingertips. A somewha
thicker edge should remain at the top. giving the
vessel stability.
After all of these steps and the corresponding
techniques which cannot be described In detail
here - are fully mastered. the pupil can begin to
narrow the neck of or even fully close the vessel.
let the pupil experiment at random. It is easier to willing to give part of their work to be sold at t
acquire than to overcome bad habits! The teacher . Christmas Market, possibly even helping run a sta
must pay attention that the various steps are fol­ themselves.
lowed conSistently. He or she must observe each Pottery can be a particular help to or even ha
pupil precisely. keeping a sharp eye out for when a liberating effect on pupils suffering from the i
help is reqUired and not letting up until each tech­ tellectual pressures of the Upper School. Whe
nique Is really mastered. He or she must clarify done seriously with full engagement, its archetyp
and demonstrate why one technique is done in one qualities and formative character is revealed.
way and another in a different way as well as the First the pupil learns to concentrate (to cent
effects of the various methods. The pupil must also the clay).
be able to comprehend all this clearly. A new step She learns to open up to a higher reality. th
may only be Introduced after the previous one is contents (hollowing out the clay).
brought to completion. She creates a foundation for the contents (form
The pupils with the greatest difficulties must be ing the base).
given the most attention: we must repeatedly and She shapes the vessels to suit the conten
patiently watch over their work. demonstrating (raising up the wall and shaping it).
techniques and offering praise to get them going.
With ten or more pupils It is no easy task. espe­ CLAY
cially at the beginning. But their progress, joy and
enthusiasm will reward us well for our pains. Upon entering the craft room of a Waldorf Schoo
In shaping the pieces. what was said above about its unique atmosphere will be noticed immediatel
hand-built pots remains valid: shrinkage must be The woodwork room. the metalwork shop. th
taken Into account. Two special techniques remain modelling or clay room and the pottery worksho
to be learnt the turning of the base or foot-ring on each has its own fully .Individual character corr
the partly-dried. already leather-hard vessel and sponding to the materials used in the variou
the mounting of a handle. Both of these must be spaces. Even more Important than the materia
practised just as intenSively as the turning itself. however. is the relationship of the teacher respon
To turn the base. the leather-hard vessel must sible for the space to his environment: how h
be centred upside-down on the wheel with the base perceives his medium. how he cares for and guard
up. This is no easier than the original centring and over what is entrusted to him by way of the spac
demands full attention and concentration. The medium and tools. The pupils partake of the room
process of turning Is to lift off curls of clay with a atmosphere with an immediacy that allows the
specially formed turning tool. fully analogous to to experience all this quite deeply.
turning wood or metal on a lathe. As used in pottery. clay neither reveals the proc
Mounting a handle is done with clay as moist as esses of growth and development that it has bee
that used for turning. The handle is attached to through nor does it show an identifiable structur
the turned vessel above. squeezed into shape in its . in contrast with solid wood and hard stone. It
moist state (as if milking) and pressed on to attach precisely as if the clay has given up or sacrifice
it below. all that it once was in order to serve that which
The glazes are critical factors in the vessels' ap­ may yet be. Originally. extremely fine siliceous cla
pearance. The pupils can run trials with them, us­ was formed from primeval rock. Together with th
ing various glazes mixed together or over-laid. They coarser loam. sand and humus this provides th
are as yet unable to develop their own glazes. basis for plant growth on earth. At the same tim

--_._--------------
 its plasticity. its capacity to take the impress of the
slightest pressure of hand or finger and then to
1 maintain the finished form throughout the proc­
., esses of drying and firing and beyond.
Now, all clays are not equal. There is coarse
brick-makers' clay and the finest porcelain clay
as well as a great variety of naturally occurring
types in between. Of these. the best and most
easily accessible are used industrially: they are
1 dug up. processed and marketed commercially.
Much of their natural character is unfortunately
lost in modern processing. A completely different
relationship to clay can be found by going in
1 search of It ourselves. Even a fine loam is often
very usable for modelling if first crumbled and put
through a sieve through which the finest sand Just
'1 passes. Mole heaps. rIver banks and flood plains
of Slreams and rivers. defiles. building pits and
large gravel pits all offer possibilities of discover­
1 ing clay beds. Attention must be paid that there
are no particles or bits of chalk In the clay and
that no plaster bits are absorbed while the clay ,is
drying on plaster boards. Clay or loam that can
be picked up from brick-yarq.s is usually quite
usable for sculpture and for modelling clay pots.
'Rural potters used to dig for a single clean, us- .
1 able day located near to theIr ovens: Thus Bernard
Leach. These early potters still sensed the whole
elemental connection to nature which bears un­
seen within it the primeval process by which clay
arose. They were usually content with their
direct experience of the clay. not seeking out a
geological. mineralogical or particularly a chemi­
cal understand ing of their raw material. In any case,
there was little to be known. for science began to
interest itself in this specIalised field quite late. Even
today there are only uncertain insights into it; huge
1 questions remain, If a deeper interest develops for
what is passing through our hands almost daily in
the way of clays and glazes then the following may
1 be discovered, broadly speaking:
Almost all clays arise from a transformation.
crumbling and erosion of feldspar-bearing primary
rock (granite and related stone); the causes are
~ i.
organic material became mixed in - partly at
termediate points of settlement until the c
was deposited in its final location. Its charact
istics are extremely dependent on the vario
possible processes involved in its origin and f
mation. Most common is iron-bearing clay wh
fires yellow to red, or at higher temperatu
brown (brick and clinker clay). All colours incl
ing those of the glazes are produced by vario
metals and metal-oxides present. South of
proximately the 49 0 of latitude almost all c
contains lime and cannot withstand high tempe
tures. Above 11000 it suddenly melts.
The principal components of clay are:
Quartz (siliceous acid) ca. '50- 70%
Aluminium-oxide ca. 20-30%
The remainder consIsts of minute qua.ntities
oxides of iron, lime, titanium, magnesium a
alkalies.
Generally, a 'richer' clay contains comparativ
more aluminium-oxide and correspondingly l
quartz: a lean clay the reverse, more qua
and less aluminium-oxide. Potter's clays
generally modera.tely rich and can absorb a co
Siderable amount of water. giving them plastic
and malleability. A good clay takes time to m
ture; this is connected with Its plasticity. It m
lie wet and become saturated with water - this
called maturing - preferably out in the open wh
it can freeze in the winter and be rained upon
the summer. Before being shaped it must be th
oughly kneaded or pugged: this also applies
the mOist, ready to use 'de-aired' clay market
in plastic sacks.
Kneading must be learned as well; the most
fective technique is spiral kneading. It is mu
more difficult than commonly supposed. for
air may be allowed into the clay. Should there
air bubbles in clay. they must be eliminat
through kneading. The follOWing is a guarante
method of pugging the clay and eliminating a
air: Take a block of clay and cut it with a thin w
 In the kiln the water which is still chemically
bound to the clay (water of crystallisation) evapo­ I would like to close with an observation fro
rates. The clay loses its malleability irrevocably, another pOint of view. Perhaps this will throw som
becoming stable in shape and durable. Its texture light on the origin of the earth itself and the orig
and colour change as well. Properly fired. clay be­ nal formation of clays.
comes porous, relatively light, insulating. solid. It is commonly thought that the minerals whi
weatherproof and heat-retentive. It feels pleasant make up clay and the raw materials of a gla
to the touch. These are all treasured qualities. are inorganic. lifeless material. Through our a
especially for building houses or (tile) ovens but tistic activity we try to let the form come ali
also for common pottery or earthenware. Potters and the material speak by sculpting and colou
call fired clay 'biscuit'. Usually there are two ing the clay. When dry. clay no longer revea
firings. After the first firing. the so-caned bisque or the life which is natural to it in its moist stat
biscuit firing (ca. 850-950°) the pot is glazed. The We entrust our vessels to the kiln's burning hea
second firing. the glaze firing, is done according to hoping for the best.
the glaze's melting point: earthenware at ca. Honest self-observation reveals the child-li
1020° -1080°, stoneware at ca. 1150-1300°. At expectation that awaits the opening of the ki
higher firing temperatures the clay begins to sinter- . after the glaze firing. Each successful pi~C~ a
shrinks further. becomes denser and extremely hard rives like an unexpected gift and is receiv~d. st
and absorbs virtually no more moisture. It loses a warm in our hands. with unalloy~d joy! We lo
high degree of its insulating value and porosity . with wonder at the often-surprising unity of form
(stoneware. clinker, porcelain). The shrinkage colour. and surface. Previously, this was all lif
reaches ca. 10% for brick clay or earthenware and less earthly matt~r. Now beauty meets the ey
up to 14% for stoneware. Disappointment is common enough, as well. b
Decoration and glazing should be briefly men­ . it hardly matt~rs in the face of a single life-im
tioned here. While still In a moist. leather-hard bued success I We have contributed to this throug
condition a piece can be covered or painted with our skill and perhaps a lucky touch. but we ha
white or coloured clays (engobe) made into a thick by no means done it alI! What lies hidden in th
mud (slipware). It can be decorated using sculp­ world of the 'lifeless' minerals, e.g. in quartz an
tural tools. stamps and cutters. But it is the glaze, metal? - What lies hidden in fire?
actually a layer of glass covering the piece. which To approach this question. it might be valuab
really gives a piece a splendid beauty and colour. to take a look at various descriptions of potter
It smooths, densifies and hardens the surface. mak­ mature life experience with pottery. 'Slowly I b
ing It considerably more useful through being much gan to comprehend why potters - as in my ow
easier to clean. Large. built-up pots (e.g. floor vases) , case search for years to find their raw materia
can also be waxed like wood or clay tiles. outside in nature instead of using standardised. d
In principle. a glaze has a Similar constitution to , pendable and good quality clays. There is an a
the pot itself. It is thus irrevocably bonded to the chetypal instinct at work here that longs to find i
underlying layer of clay. Malleable oxides are added way back to the source: not only to the source
to it to enable it to melt at low firing temperatures; the clay and glaze materials but also to the sourc
lead is a familiar agent here. melting easily but of our inspiration, the potter's invisible material:
poisonous in glazes. Nowadays. pre-melted glass. We have arrived at a signlficant juncture lead
ing us into spiritual realms: to Goethe's artist
• To become a solid mass. genius and Rudolf Steiner's spiritual science.

____
 reverse process is completely different; living.
forms can die and leave dead material behind.
Thus Steiner describes earthly substances as
arising out of originally living matter which then
undergoes death processes. We can thus under­
stand the enormous mass of chalk mountains
which have come into being through animal life.
We can understand how coal and oil exist thanks
to mighty. hardly imaginable organiC processes.
We can truly envisage how the earth had to un­
dergo many metamorphoses before the human
being could set foot on solid ground.
Let us look more carefully at our malleable clay.
lust as allUfe must go through death in order not
to become fixed and frozen. so that which should
serve life of a higher order must give up its old
establtshed structure and be renewed.
The forms Df creatiDn's work ever renewing.
All armouring growth's rigidity strewing:
Eternal1yactive. life-imbuing doing!
Primeval rock crumbles and erodes down to flne
minerai particles. Water converts these particles
from a crystalline into a colloidal state; the latter
is highly unstable. howev~r, and can easily revert
. 3 The German word 'Schale' can mean a dish. bowl o
L
following the usual chemical laws. Inherent in
is something of the natural laws of the primeva
mineral-plant world which preceded the forma
tion of primary rock in earth's evolution.
Recall that this formative process does not en
with the settlement of the clay. that clay throug
maturing in the open air - through a rhythmi
process of getting wet, drying out, freezing an
thawing, of summer and winter and day and nigh
- is becoming ever more malleable. We can als
see this as a preparation for new life processes;
is as if the day would speak: ·Come. shape me
work with mel'
We can ask how it has come about that in th
German language the word for malleable eart
{'Ton'. clay} is the same word as that for a musica
'tone', Perhaps an explanation lies in what Steine
says about musical tones;
The evolution of form In matter can be properl
compared with the formation of form throug
tones (Chiadny figures). Archetypal processe
are revealed here. All form is frozen music. Th
sounding tones must first battle their way throug
primeval fires. The mineral and animal kingdoms
actually everythin~ Is music which has fought it
way through fire.'
Stockmeyer. E. A. Karl. Rudolf Steiner's Curriculum for til
Waldorf School, SSF, 1991.
2 Leach. B.. The Poller's Book.
even cup. but also a creature's or nut's shell or a fruit o
vegetable's skin.
4 Leach. B.. as above.
5 Steiner. R. A Modern Art of Education. lecture of 17.8.1923
RSP. 1981.
6 Carden. M.. Der Pionierl6pfer.
7 Steiner. R.. Question and Answer Period to the Lecture o
22.4.1909.
 differences between them, however.
The potter's starting point for shaping a piece is
the interior space. The original ball of clay Is hol­
lowed out and a cavity which Is isolated from the
expanses of surrounding space is established. This
cavity is made to receive something which it should
hold safely and protect. If the vessel has a narrow
neck. the interior space is more sensed than seen.
The sense of touch working together with the
senses of movement and balance are used to cre­
ate the form. These 'dark senses' are independent
of light and the eye and can be active even in total
darkness through the hands.
While sculpting, forms are either built up from
the inside outwards or else are opened up to
embrace the surrounding space. It doesn't matter
whether a sculpture is soUd or hollow beneath the
outer surface. Light and shadow play on it, bringing
the surface to life. The relationship of the sculpture
to space around is Vitally important; changing light
and viewing distance affect how the form is per­
ceived. The senses of touch, movement and balance
are more active by way of the eyes when viewing
it, for a SCUlpture Is usually viewed at a distance. It
Is important to occaSionally step back from the piece
while working on It for this reason.
The pottery vessel is experienced in relation to
its own interior, its centre. while sculpture is expe­
rienced in relation to the periphery. Thus. the pot­
ter begins forming his work from the centre out­
wards, the sculptor from the periphery inwards.
Motifs for the architecture of the corresponding
craft rooms can be found here.
The pottery workshop is connected with the earth.
In our school. an old laundry was used for this. The
entrance led a few steps down from the garden; a
moist, earthy odour greeted the entering pupils.
Copper wash basins served to mix and soak the clay.
which came from the immediate surroundings. The
pupils experienced the processes involved in pre­
paring the clay for use. This created a well-grounded
atmosphere which harmonised with the nature of
the work.
concentrated. Finally. glazing is a kind of scienc
concerned with earth and minerals. just as potte
is tied to the earth by the nature of the medium.
The flowing silhouettes of the fat-bellied vesse
on the shelves reflect the watery element out
which they arise. Wall shelves displaying colou
fully painted plates. mugs and jugs once made u
the decorative centrepiece of the kitchen of town
house or farmhouse. Centuries-old barrel-vaulte
ceilings would give the proper character to a po
tery space; even a slightly vaulted wooden ceilin
would do much. The floor should be able to b
wet-mopped in order to pick up the dry clay dus
glazing's worst enemy. A separate room shoul
deflnitely be provided for the glazing.
The modelling or sculpture room. on the con
trary. needs light and space; clerestories ca
provide this from above. Shadows must be thrown
though; the form dissolves in light alone. Sculp
ture lifts us into expanses of life-Imbued space.
is Important that pupils stand while modellin
the upright of one's own body stimulates the crea
tive powers of the hands to give form to the day
Tables can be high and supplemented by mode
ling stands. The elasticity of the floor is importan
while standing; this should be taken into accoun
a wooden floor laid onjoists is one good solution
Cups. bowls and dishes are well-suited to grou
arrangements. perhaps grouped around ajug; the
are by their nature sociable. Sculpture is rarel
shown grouped together. for every sculpture re
quires Its own space in which It sits comfortabl
and which suits it. Jugs. vases and bowls are shape
by the hand in a mechanical fashion and ar
therefore reproducible. even in various sizes, wit
sufficient practice. When rotated on their own axi
they maintain the same appearance (the handl
and lip of the jug are added later). It is striking tha
the usual styles today can mostly be traced bac
to basiC shapes which originated as far back a
prehistoric times. This reveals the extremely slow
development and almost tentative rate of chang
which characterises the craft. A sculpture. on th
 n;
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~~
 the stories told by the shoemakers themselves.
thought of during their work. The shoemakers'
guild, one of the oldest and first mentioned in
Trier in 1104. was highly respected. even though
they were considered as 'yarn-spinning folk'. This
provides proof of the shoemaker's lively. creative
spirit, in addition to his trained eye, skilled hands
and the thorough knowledge of his trade that he
shared with other craftsmen. He was considered
to be eccentric and fond of philosophising. No
other trade or craft has produced as many impor­
tant individuals such as Hans Sachs. Hans von
Sagan and Jakob Boehme.
It would not be amiss to connect these qualities
to the part of the body and Its covering. foot and
shoe, which Is the cobbler's business. The work­
shop Itself had an extraordinary attraction for
people; they liked to congregate there. Leather, too.
has a special quality. It is cured from animal skins,
an organic material familiar to people. All of which
led to the saying: ·Cobbler. stick to your last!'
Although. or perhaps because. the cobbler's craft
is a basic one, we do not indulge in nostalgia dur­
Ing our shoemaklng block. What we are dealing
with are highly topical problems, a subject whose
importance will be fully acknowledged in future.
Rudolf Steiner mentioned shoemaklng. among
other subjects. during a lecture on education and
the curriculum of the Stuttgart Waldorf School, soon
. after its opening:
"I should have liked, if It were possible. to have
employed a shoemaker as one of the teachers.
Current requirements do not permit this. But It
would be good for the children to learn how to
make shoes - not theoretically. but actually
making them. experiencing every detailed skill.
It was impossible to persuade the authorities to
allow a shoemaker to be employed as a teacher.
But it would benefit the children immensely." I
On another occasion he said: "A real philo­
sopher ought to have made at least one pair of
boots ". 2 Rudolf Steiner's fondness of shoemaking
Is obvious. He gave it a special dimension that
When making shoes we are continuously co
centrating on the foot. the organ most intimate
related to the earth. Our feet are adapted direct
to the earth, as well as to the weight they mu
support. Through pressure and counter-pressur
their mature form Is developed during the thi
seven-year period. In addition, they are of immen
significance for the energies connected with t
upright posture and for the developing self. T
causes for many a foot problem in adult life can
found during puberty. This shows that special a
tention must be given to the feet during this tim
At the same time these considerations allow
to understand why the shoemaking block Is giv
in Class 9. It is the time of puberty and the beginni
of the development of the personality emergin
through the young person's own inner life.
"The inner processes that occur during puber
are often mysterious and difficult to see, becau
of the adolescent's reluctance to speak about h
or her experiences. He holds something back f
his private life. because he tentatively opens u
a new inner space that can begin to receive an
work with the problems he encounters." 2
Here, too, Rudolf Steiner is helping us with h
indication that the quite personal destiny of th
young is now beginning to make itself felt. Th
light-filled time of early childhood is over. th
newly developing inner space is still dark but
contains a spark that can, through the adole
cent's own strength and effort, kindle a new ligh
at first within this space and, later more and mo
raying out Into the environment. 3
Ultimately, the making of shoes is nothing el
but the forming of an inner space! Imagine th
Inner space of a shoe not correctly shaped! Mo
of us have at one time suffered the consequence
A shoe may be described as a convex-concav
hollow body without an axis of symmetry. Exam
ining it more closely, we shall see that there is
left and a right. and that the axis of symmetry lie
between both feet. This means: the student is no
working. as he does in the other Main-lesso
 S~
Cobbler's hammer
...____J::lr::D-­
. lL
<~ c--__:::=c::>
Roughening up tool

Smoolhlng /001

(Ut If II (I If IUliU IflJID

Cobbler's rasp Cross section

blocks. with one object. but must occupy himself
continuously and simultaneously with two, left
as well as right, and this homologously as well.
The outer shape of the shoe is. according to
this view. of secondary importance. It Is sad to
see the unfortunate impact of fashions on our
young. even when damage to health is the
consequence. It is frequently only at the end of a
block, when the students put on their shoes (even
though they are not pointed enough!) that they
have the striking experience of the shaped Inner
space and. with It. the enjoyment of the work.
What they recognise is a universally valid law ­
be It In shoemaklng or architecture - that a we'll
formed inner space makes at the same time for
timeless beauty of outer form.
In order to do Justice to Rudolf Steiner's indlca- ,
'tions, it seems to be important that the structure
of the shoe making block corresponds to that of
the traditional .archetypal' craft. This means a
, clear sequence of the single work stages and
,I material from the flat leather to the upright stand-'
ing product (the shoe).
The following report of such a block can do no
logical and comprehensible.
'I
more than give a faint impression of the work. The
The strict logic behind the processes demand
strict discipline of the student If the work Is to b
successful Le. If the shoes are to fit. But he IS In
the position of fully understanding each step o
the work and thus able to follow the 'master's
instructions. And this is, from a pedagogical poin
of view, especially important at this age.
All the students in Class 9 participate In a
four weeks block of shoemaklng. The group
do not exceed 10 students. About 35 lessons ar
required for the making of a pair of shoes, The
work is supported by subjects dealing with the
materials used. the history of shoemaklng and
anatomical aspects.
It will be noted that the work sequences are
such that the students can become ever more fa
miliar with the materials and that the differen
procedures keep repeating themselves in an eve
more delicate way until the work is completed
This means that there is hardly any work done
that is not later applied to the different parts o
the shoes. The many different working steps and
tools. when exactly observed. also appear to be

soft, tough leather with its typical smell, the unfa­

Illustrated is an adequate assortment of shoe­

making tools for our work. More speCialised tools
miliar tools and work processes engender their very
are usually added to the collection during the years
own atmosphere that is further underlined by the

initially quite strangely sounding vocabulary used

Day one:
in the trade.
The students learn about different methods o
\ '
 tanning leather. The differences between chrome . leather must be held on the lapboard. In this wa
and vegetative leather is shown; and hygienic and 0I1e literally 'grasps' the complicated shape of t
technological issues connected with tanning are last that. during the course of the work. becom
studied. The size of an average cow hide (6-8 more and more hidden behind the leather and y
ml). as well as the quaHtles of leather in the dif­ provides the measurements for the correct shapi
ferent parts of the skin are demonstrated. of the shoe. In the fulling process we have the fir
The students then measure each other's feet; still rather crude. contact with the leather; but man
18 measurements are taken. This establishes a of the working steps are already Included which w
direct contact with the feet of another person. In a more refined form. be repeated later on.
The student doing the measuring is also respon­
sible for the fitting of the shoes someone else Day three:
will make. Thus the necessity of exact workman­ The curved form of the sole is cut from the inn
ship develops by itself. . sole leather that has in the meantime dried.

Since the Class 9 curriculum Includes the The next stage is the drawing of the outline o
study of the human skeleton (in the biology Maln­ the upper leather for which a paper stencil w
lesson), the exact study of the bony structure of prepared. The different parts are then cut out. n
the foot connects nicely with this block. This an easy task considering the tough. elastic natu
allows for a discussion on healthy and harmful of the material. It demands the greatest conce
footwear. The students frequently bring some of tration. The leather tends to pull away from th
their shoes to school on the following day. knife. and the attempt at correctlng the matter a
With the help of the 18 measurements. the terwards through cutting· away the excess on
teacher then selects the corresponding lasts for worsens it and the student has to start again. It
each student. They serve as models for the feet on only a courageous approach that will be Immed
which the shoes are shaped. ately successful.

The next stage has proved to be the most diff

Day two: cult for students: the thinning (sharpening) of th
The inner sole is fitted to the bottom of the last. It is leather at the edges where two pieces have to b
described as the sole of the shoe and. because of its Joined. It requires a strong feeling for the materi
direct contact with the foot. the best leather ought and takes a whole day of practising before darin
to be used for it. It participates to a high degree In to attack it.

the breathing of the foot. The leather must be fulled

up on the iast In a wet condition, so that it may Days four and flve:
adapt to the curves of the sole on the last. This The different parts are sewn together, usin
demands some degree of skill. as last.. toois and the saddle stitching method. The sewing is don
 Double soUng using a saddle stitch is the
method of both shoemaker and saddler
'Doubly sewn lasts longer!'

Hammering the inner sale on the Japboard

Sharpening on a zinc plate

Fulled up Inner soJe

Upper Illread

Lower thread
..
.'

Cutting and flaying the parts of the shoe on a zinc plate

.: 1
Double soling
 (

'-

Tacklng o( the leather

1
""'-::------- ) --­ 1
Punching holes (or the wooden nails

Tacked leather
 the last from below.
• Days seven and eight:
Inner and outer soles are accurately glued together.
The subsequent work also is a more delicate con­
• frontation with the shape of the last. It is only when
the 'frame' (a strip of leather fixed to the edge of
the sole) harmoniously meets the overall shape of
.,
• the shoe that the usable interplay between sole
and upper leather is guaranteed. The student here
.
is once again directly confronted with left and right.
as the shapes of the soles must obViously be as
similar as POSSible.
Days nine and ten:
The sustaining lower part of the shoe is glued on
and the holes punched for the nails. The wooden
nails are then driven in. The control of the cob­
bler's hammer is here put to the test! It is only
then that the nails can be driven in (with three
j:-.
. L
.•i.
~..
I i.
. is the moment when the shoes are actually p
on; it is something to be experienced! Th
students who jokingly referred to the lesson
as 'torture' now see the fulfilment of their strug
gles, viz. the inner space they themselve
created. They are proud of their achievemen
often surprised at their skills.
In spite of its brevity. this report. may. perhap
show that it is possible in a relatively short time
produce excellent shoes. provided that everythin
has been thoroughly prepared by the teacher,
The total process measuring. making th
several parts. fitting them together - is Similar
taIloring. but concentrates on the foot. a matter
importance for the development of the studen
during puberty.
Due to the lack of suitable teachers the shoe
making block is relatively new In our schools. Th
growing interest in it. however. seems to be pro
of its necessary place in Waldorf schools.
Steiner. R.. The Kingdom ofChi/dhood. lecture of 19.8.192
AP.1995.
2 Steiner. R.. A Modern Arc of Educatioll. lecture of 17.8.192
RSP. 1981.
3 All quotations from High Scllool Education. lectures of 15
17.6.1921. AP. 1996.
4 Michael Marlin in Erziellullgskunst. October 1985.
 early stage of evolution. In the mole, the hands are
transformed into digging tools. in the fish to fins,
in the squirrel to paws for climbing. Our human
hands can do all the things that animals perfected
in their speCialised ways but. although less ably,
·, in a universal way.
I Our hands, therefore. develop almost heSitatingly,
reluctantly. We assign all the very speCialised
uses to the tools we. construct. through which
we conquer the nature of the various materials.
These tools obey the laws of mechanics which we
experience In our skeleton. espeCially when it is a
matter of dealing with hard materials.
Rudolf Steiner tells us how the child's skeleton.
after the 12th year, adapts to the world outside, It
submits to the laws of mechanics and dynamics
we find to be working Independently of the
human being. l Before this age. the skeleton is more
elastic. more in keeping with the static and mov­
ing impulses emanating from the child's inner
being. It now receives an objective characteristic
as though it were no longer part of the human
organism, because of its submission to the gen­
erallaws of mechanics.
If. for example. I hit a nail with a hammer. the
effect is identical with that produced by a mechani­
cally driven hammer. The work I can do through
the mechanics of my bones corresponds to an
activity that can be carried out without me. Un­
consclously. a connection arises between my own
physical mechanism and the laws of mechanics of
the world outside. This development enables the
child to construct logical trains of thought and to
perceive cause and effect in the processes. such as
are always present in craftwork. I immediately ex­
perience why a nail bends when I drive it in badly:
my observation teaches me and the outer reality
makes me correct my mistake. This knowledge
leads directly to the introduction of the speCialised
crafts at this age. It should not be done prema­
turely, because the limbs, the hands with their
knuckle bones still retain a remnant of their child
nature until the 12th/15th year. It is only then that
------------
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The development of the wrist joints of the child. from: A. K
'Evolulion ofrhe Human Being'.
During the craft and handwork lessons the s
d~nts are made familiar with the quite differ
methods of work, determined by the material us
Every material requires its own corresponding w
of handling. as well as the special. appropri
tools. If we survey the origin of our materials,
shall see a long line reaching as far as to the in
ganic kingdom. Wool. wax, silk and leather co
from animals. Wood, willow. cotton. hemp a
paper are gifts from the plant world. From the m
eral kingdom we receive our clay. the metals a
stones we dig from holes. quarries and mines.
The young children begin to work with wo
Soft. warm and pliant it feels good to the hands
whose warmth wax also becomes pliable. Wo
already demands the stronger hands of t
children in the middle school during the woo
carving and basket-weaving lessons.
The challenges increase in the High Scho
when metal work and stone masonry are intr
duced. The increasing hardness of the materia
their resistance to being shaped. corresponds
the developmental stages of the students and
the possibilities ariSing from them. Step by st
the children and adolescents are thus introduc
to the really practical and material life.
ally being recognisable as such.
It is only on rare occasions that we find a metal
in its pure, unmixed state 'true and genuine' in
the language of the miner. It is the precious met­
als. gold and silver, that are found In their pure
state and that were consequently used by
craftspeople and artists in ancient times. Copper
also is often found in its 'true and genuine' forms.
It was the most used metal during the copper/
bronze age. Only much later did iron come into Its
own, and later still the other metals whose extrac­
tion and production proved to be highly technical.
It Is almost Impossible to imagine our daily Ijfe
without metals. Despite the Increased use of.
artificial materials, metals still playa decisIve role
everywhere in our lives. How did people manage
without them in ancient times?
Successive epochs have been named after the
minerals/metals associated with them: the Stone
Age. Copper/Bronze Age. Iron Age. The metals were
also represented in mythology: the golden, silver
and brass ages.
Children recapitulate these ages. We may ob­
serve something akin to the ancient Greeks in our
Am/rca Pisallo, Campallile of (lie CacluJrJ/
ill FloretlCc. 1148 N 9
7ilb.. kaill:
b/acbmilll
Giotto. in the Campanile next to the Cathedr
of Florence. painted the activities of the children
Cain. Reproductions of these pictures in o
workshops provide the rooms with their speci
character and happily complement the practic
work of the students.
Copper and iron have proved to be the best me
als from a pedagogical and technological point
view. They are. after all. the most commonly us
metals. Three of their basic characteristics are
follows:
Metals can be cut: by sawing. chiselling. filin
drilling. cutting. grinding etc. This they share wi
other materials. such as wood.
Metals can be melted. We know the custom
lead-melting on New Year's Eve, and we mig
have visited a smelting plant. Metals allow them
selves to be changed from a solid to a liquid stat
which enables them to be poured into mould
cooled and rigidified in the required shape. Th
also mix with other metals in their liqUid star
forming the various alloys. We already know abo
melting in candle making. This property of mel
ing is typical of metals.
,-{.ldW ddvil
<111.1 Eve >pillli
 this way. It is fascinating to watch the brightly glow­ are pictures of processes that are unconscious
ing Iron bars being stretched and shaped into the working in human beings: dying and becomin
required rods in a manufacturing plant. Or to see purification in fire. re-birth at a higher level.
the gold stretched to such a degree that one gram Everybody should have this experience of watch
of it can be made Into a 2km long wire. We know ing the pouring of metals. Seeing the flow of melte
that It is possible to beat a piece of leaf ~old. the white glowing iron. raying out in the almost un
size of the point of a needle. into a 10cm area so bearable heat. affects us deeply. We feel as thoug
that it is transparent to light. thus giving it a quite taken to the beginning of a new creation. We sens
wonderful. greeny/blue colouring. will forces in the process of creation. In the liqu
Metals have the property of cohesion. They metal. matter itself becomes warmth-giVing ligh
differ In their qualities of brittleness or pliancy. and prior to the assumption of a new form.
the ways of working with them will have to Divisibility. meltability. elasticity are those speci
correspond to their properties. But they aU share properties of metals that distinguish them from oth
the three basic elements known in metallurgy as materials. On the one hand. their brittleness an
I· divisibility. malleability and elasticity. The students hardness resist the attempts of man: on the oth
are to perceive all these processes and, if possible. hand. they allow themselves to be dissolved as far a
execute them themselves. the liquid state and to be remoulded. Extreme hard
In copper work a piece is cut out, filed and pol­ ness (as in steel) and extreme dissolution stand ne
ished with emery paper. Here we have the first to each other. The human being has conquered them
element viz. the divisibility - cutting up. The metal and put them to his service. In between are th
is beaten on a special board and. through the possibilities of stretching and compressing that w
resulting stretching. the required form is produced. utilise In the work with copper and iron. In all thi
A goblet that gets its shape through being drawn. the participation of heat Is the prerequisite.
belongs to the category of compression. The han­ We now also become aware of the important ro
dle receives its required form through bending of the watery element during the Class 8 cra
we here experience the stretchability. lessons. especially in the form-giving processes
If they wish to connect parts of the metal e.g. . pottery. but also to a lesser extent in basket mak
the handle with the pot. the hanger with the wall Ing. The work with iron in Class 10 is undoubtedl
lamp. the spout with the watering can - the stu­ the high point of the Immediate experience of th
dents will learn the art of soldering. a process made intense heat; and the connection between thes
possible through the malleability of the metal. The and the upward surging will forces of the adoles
parts to be Joined are heated until the melting cent. so often referred to is clear: inner warmt
temperature of the solder Is reached. The liquid processes are challenged and called forth throug
solder flows into the cracks and binds the parts the activity with the outer forces of fire!
after coollng and hardening. The work with copper may be seen as
The students experience malleability in a much transition. as stretching and compression occu
more Impressive way during the pouring of metals in a cold condition (as with clay). heat merel
when they relInquish their previous form. melt. making the material easier to work with. withou
showing an even, mirror-like surface. and then fill actually affecting the shape. The heat of the flam
the desired hollow form. Really uplifting and at the loosens. softens what had become too rigid and
same time demanding respect. is the experience of hard through the use of the hammer. Thickenin
seeing metals like brass or bronze (which are hard and loosening are as In- and out-breathing and
to melt) being made liqUid in graphite containers. indeed. we shall discover the clenching and

rr- ...

 is compelled to pay heed - quite objectively to
-.
.
every necessary step of the work. He must be fully
awake and think of what he is doing. The more
complex the exercise. the stronger must be the
strength of the ego to hold things together.
WORKING WITH COPPER
Copper work is introduced in our school in Class
9, with at least 15 or 18 double lessons. To begin
with. the students are made familiar with the room
and the tools the hammers that require careful
handling. the cutting tools, files and tongues. They
are told of the sources of danger and, last but not
least. they are shown the material.
Copper is stored in the form of sheets. pipes,
wire and thick rods. When a sheet of copper is held
before them they Invariably exclaim: "Isn't It beau­
tiful!" "Just look what a great red'" The question
of its monetary worth also arises. The answer in­
creases their respect. The properties of the metal
are then enumerated: It warms quickly when held
in the hand - this they can immediately put to
the test and confirm. ThiS property is utilised in
the copper cable as the ideal conduit of electricity.
Awell rolled sheet is then heated and cooled down.
Again the amazement at the'softness and pliancy that
results from it; and at the restored hardness after It
has been worked with. Heating results in loss of col­
our - the metal turns black, oxidlses. But the blue
flame of the burner suddenly turns Into a beautiful
green. the dark surface of the copper shimmers in
yellow. green and blue colour hues. What a pity the
colours disappear during the cooHngl
The students now hear about the origin of
copper. It is not only found in the form of copper
ore, but also as reddish-golden shimmering metal.
without the foreign particles that would class it as
an are. What a wealth of pure copper exists in North
America. in Africa where the most beautifully
coloured copper ores are to be found in the depths
of the mines. especially malachite and azurite.
In Europe we frequently find the golden shim­
mering copper pyrites and the black copper oxide
in the red copper. Indeed, the goddesses had w
polished copper mirrors! We can fully understa
why the Greeks were looking for the birthplace
the goddess of beauty in the vicinity of the co
. per island - especially as copper was used
the making of ornaments and vessels rather th
for weapons. For a long time, this goddess w
known to be connected with the planet Venu
Her beauty radiated. as it were. in the copp
whose qualities were attributed to what emanat
from this planet. Today the attempt is made
investigate scientifically such connections b
tween planets and metals. 3 Amazing results a
already documented and could be discussed w
the students in an appropriate way, without
lapsing into old astrological views.
The way from are to metal is now describe
Occasionally it is possible to refer to the process
taking place in the furnace of an ironworks - har
ing back to the Main-lesson in Class 8 - where t
purifled metal is produced. liquidified. poured in
the bars, rolled and given the shape we see in o
workshop.
But how was this done in olden times? How d
the ancient Egyptians produce the 2m z sheet of
we see, beautifully crafted. at a burial site? Th
had no rollers. The smiths beat the poured ba
with hammers, stretching the metal until it reach
the required thickness. The master craftsm
pOinted to the right place and the journeymen
helpers beat the sheet - in rhythmical alternatio
- stretching it to an ever larger size. When har
ening, the metal had to be heated to make it plia
again. This is how the thickness used to be r
duced to its required thinness - less than 1mm
the case of tomb stones. It was skill at its highe
controlled technology.
The word 'technology' was then unknown.
meaning. translated from the Greek. is 'art', .ski
'inspired idea'. 'bringing about', even 'giving birt
'inventing' and. at the same time, ·manufacturing'
uniquely universal term for the way technology, t
crafts and arts used to be understood in those tim
One of the students happened to look at a bra
Cyprus) Into bronze; during the processes in the
foundry the zinc and lead (frequently found in
copper ores) were cleanly separated. In the face of
such mysteries even our most vociferous 'know-ails'
fall silent and become thoughtful. ..
We begin our work with the cutting out of round
or oval shapes from the copper sheet. The edges
are filed and finely polished. because of their
dangerous sharpness. Now the beating begins
that is to make the flat surface into a bowl. The
copper Is curved on a wooden base with the ham­
mer. proceeding from the outside to the inside in
spiral fashion. or radiating from the edges. beat­
Ing back any of the creases that may occur. The
form gradually grows. round upon round. through
'deepening up' as the process is called. The stu­
dents here learn to understand the basic property
of metals viz, their stretchability.
When the students succeeded in giving the cop­
per a satisfactory form. the process of planishing
(smoothing) begins. Here it is not the hefty ham­
mer blows. but the sensitively felt fine hammering
that is essential. The smoothing. planishing proc­ Planlshing
ess requires a uniform. loose. continuous and
patient hammering. demanding full concentration.
as not even a square millimetre must be overlooked. ending developmental stages of 'earth maturity'.
Too strong a hit may cause new unevennesses. The students are shown the different basic tech
The left hand must gUide the object to steady niques of working with copper. The uniform
the part that is worked with on the supporting base. unbroken hammering of a simple area (such as
Again great sensitivity of the fingers is essential bracelet or bookends) teaches them to be exac
and a constant alertness is needed. The work is the accurate bending of the material develops
done on a clean. even and finely polished iron sur­ feeling for form and symmetry.
face, called a fist or pin anvil. The soft, pliable copper makes It possible fo
We also practise other methods. working on a the yet inexperienced hands of the student to shap
wooden base. e.g. stretching the copper and shap­ the article simultaneously in convex and concav
ing It into a bowl - see the 1l1ustration - in which forms. Working in plasticine intensifies this feelin
the planishing process is included. for giving form to things. A capacity for giving form
The bowl - already the subject in woodwork is developed, based on the skills that are now ac
In Class 7 - has an Inner and outer space. The qUired and on the experience gained during th
students in Class 9 can be expected to work at It modelling with clay.
alternately from within and without. This one task It goes without saying that the accompanyin
- the making of a bowl. but in two different mate­ techniques. such as drilling. filing. riveting. solder
rials - goes hand in glove with the beginning and ing. punching, polishing etc. are also utilised so tha
 next block. An inner space is to be formed from
round base with a thickness of 1 or 1.2mm - aj
mug. pot. vase or bell. From the edges. we start
beating radiating creases into the plate. The bo
like shape almost forms itself during the proces
From the outside it is now worked at on a wood
(later also on an iron) base; the creases are ha
mered down. beat upon beat. the metal press
inwards. round upon round from the centre o
wards to the edges until an obtuse cone is form
Here too. the copper Is shaped in cold conditi
but this allows only for a limited degree of chan
The hard, beaten metal must then be heated a
this means the practising of the skills connec
with the handling of the Bunsen burner!
The heated object Is then cooled down in wa
and loses most of the resulting copper oxide
the process. This is followed by pickling off in
luted sulphuric acid. After rinsing with water.
beating is continued from the outSide. leaving
bottom untouched. the sides. however. grow
ever steeper. Much concentrated thinking is ag
essential. The students need help and explan
tions. such as gradually bringing the fingers
the outstretched hand together In order to sh
the narrowing of the sides. Or one could comp
the copper mass to be compressed with a c
form that is to be narrowed towards the top. H
too. the clay must be pushed together in order
avoid creases. The clay thickens. because of
bulk having to find somewhere to go. Howe

~
quickly one may imagine this process in clay. i
difficult to effect the narrowing with the blows
•. a hammer. The technique of raising demands qu
a lot of strength.
This strength does nor come from the muscl
'1 ,
l
but from the swing of the hammer that has to f
its mark securely and accurately. exactly at
place that pressed the material to the inside. T

~ I
hand holding the object supports it on the su
porting base in such a way that the force of the
is diverted from the already deepened part (see
II.! lustration. p. 112) to benefit the part that is pul
to the inside.
"~
r

j
 The technique of raising

{
'I

By utilising the laws of leverage. the work of

left hand, undoubtedly the more difficult part of
process, where it is more a matter of comprehe
sion than strength and perseverance, is made easi
With individual attention, each success or failure
a hammer blow must be Judged. possibly correct
and continued.
The necessary alertness. the 'slipping' Into a wo
process. the 'thinking with the fingers' are the thin
that cause the problems. and not the brute streng
This may explain why a 'dainty' girl can achieve
much or more than a strong boy when working a
vase or some other project, measuring the high a
low points of their successes. We can see how
shape here narrows, the bulk of the material co
presses, and we watch with astonishment how
material Increased its thickness by 30-50% of
original. When the form has been perfected t
smoothing and polishing begins. With a thicker ki
of material It Is possible to give the shape its fin
touches with a few hammer blows.

FROM COPPER TO IRON

At the beginning of this article we tried to build

bridge between the developmental stages of t
young and the craft materials corresponding
them. We saw that through the ages the meta
were used both in the cultural-artistic and t
practical areas, Their use and importance in tec
nology will continue.
When our students learn to work with copp
and iron. the two prime metals. and If. at the sam
;,
working at new forms, Such concepts as: meeting helmet and shield. The only thing it cannot do is
us, encouraging, engendering demonstrate how protect itself from rusting! In spite of its hardness
copper affects us from Without, the students' as cannot resist the onslaught of weather, it succum
well as the adults' will forces and imagination. This to the ravages of water more easily than the oak
-,:,
encounter with copper is enormously helpful to the elm or copper that outlasts the centuries.
students in Class 9, the age of the well known 'revo­
lutionary changes',
Hence. other metals must come to its assistan
- nickel. chrome, zinc, lead as additions
: I
In Class 10 a significant change occurs: the help coating.
;~
from outside is no longer deSired. The young man In all its uses. the malleability during heat d

or woman wishes to work from within out, rely­ pends on its solidity. Since the 18th century, d
ing on his own initiative and activity. It is no longer to the improvements in the methods of firing wi
a case...of 'being met by copper', but the self-willed bituminous coal. coke and bellows, its importan
intervention and doing that is reqUired when has increased by leaps and bounds. It has assum
working with iron. This urge is characteristic for an important place in our lives. Due to the use
., I
the time when puberty has been conquered.. iron, the 19th century became an age that w
Working with iron also gives directions in life. His­ strongly connected to the earth
;, torically speaking, the ~ransltion from the bronze Pelikan. In his book Seven Metals. draws aUf a
I
to the iron age also signifies a tremendous change. tention to many such aspects to which we ref
The constant use of fire during the work. condi­ only too briefly. concerning the polarities betwe
J tions and forces such qualities and activities of copper and iron. We shall. by considering t
the human being that add to the metal what it properties of these metals and the correspondi
~.~;~f cannot do by itself. This unattractive, hard, grey. . methods of working with them. discover how t
j,~
.:
~~"
'\<.
quickly rusting metal challenges us to change its forces of feeling and will of the adolescent can

'~
shape through energetic and determined hammer addressed and engendered. It is not merely the co
blows. When cold. it resists any attempt at change. nitive and aesthetic grasp of what exists in o
.•.
Only when red hot does It begin to be malleable. world that comprise our educational tasks, but al

~'"
;~ ;~"
does It submit to the hammer. What are the the actual working with iron. because this me
qualities iron demands of us? Exact observation. contains the effective "active strength that is sy
'.u
r','
absolute wakefulness. undivided attention. quick­ onymous with will" (Rudolf Steiner). a fact we fu
ness and courage. to know absolutely what experience during the work.
seconds later has to be done and last but not The follOWing report will address Itself to thiS
~~~:'.'~
!'~ ":
;

.
. ~~

Steiner. R.. 22.8.1922. d. also ParI Two. The Sllifl of Emp/la­

!.t.
'I~,
sis in the Craft Lessons during Ihe 12th Year.
2 Kipp. F. A., DIe Evolution des Menschen. Verlag Freles
of metal solutions upon one another. passing in the pro
ess through complicated colloidal-chemical changes. th
Geistesleben, 1991 they became sensitive to certain cosmic. constellation
, 3 "Especially important are L. Kolisko's experiments that From: W. Pelikan. Seven Metals.
. ;.:,'".. ..
could justifiably be called: the stars' effects on earth 4 d. ParI 5. Work and Rl1ythm.

• substances. She was able to show. in a series of reactions 5 c.f. Par! 2. Investigatillg tlle Nature of Wood.

/
'o.
f ~
tIIi
'11

sj

 gotten, and we can, years later, still evoke the smell
of the coal and sulphur fumes.
We wish to let our students experience something
of this mood during their work with iron. Such per­
ceptions, apart from the work itself, will impress
themselves deeply upon their souls. The sounds
themselves are given special importance. The rhyth­
mical swing of the hammer becomes the expression
of the healthy creative forces of this craft.
If we wish to introduce our students to the
blacksmith's trade it would be good to go beyond
the purely practical work into a sphere created
by the mood of the workshop: the 'old knowledge',
a term used by ancient craftsfolk, should be ex­
perienced and the students should be allowed to
trace its origin.
Preparation of the workpiece precedes the ac­
tual work, The students learn to know the most
Important tools as well as the properties of iron.
The concept 'iron' may be used to include the dif­
ferent steel alloys. as the following descriptions
apply to all workable types of alloy. Form, colour
and sound should be so experienced that the stu­
dents can gain an initial picture of the materiaL
During the actual working processes they will
become ever more familiar with its qualities. This
is one of the aims during this block.
The preparations include becoming familiar
with the room Itself. The tools to be used must be
within easy reach. The fire in the fUrnace must be
attended to attain an even, constant heat. As in
surgery, the single stages of the work must be
carried out quickly and surely; there is no time
for dithering, for searching for a hammer when
the iron is glowing red hot. Vice versa, as soon as
the iron Is In the fire the heating must be given
fullest concentration. This does not contradict the
possibility that the smith may have one piece in
the fire and at the same time be busying himself
with another; whatever else he might be do­
ing he will always be aware of what is going
on In the fire and will literally 'hear' when the
right temperature is reached.
--~-----------------------------
new ways to understand this craft and the prope
ties of the material.
This calls for a third aspect of preparation: th
of the indiVidual himself. The students must lea
to conquer their timidity and even fear, the fear
the effort to guide the hammer accurately, fear
the blazing. open fire close by, the fear of the glow
Ing iron.
The following method has proved itself in o
schooL
The students are asked to beat notches with th
fin of the hammer into one of the edges of a th
piece of cold iron, about 50-60 cm long. Zcm wid
and 3mm thick.
In this the students learn:
- to get to know the hammer's two sides. The
. are the 'track'. made point by point, where th
forces are distributed in a radiating way an
the 'fin' that gives the direction of the distrib
tion of forces:
- to aim and hit acurately;
- the way they must face the anvil (posture du
ing work). in order to work without tiring.
They also learn to know the 'soft' iron and ho
hard they must beat it in order to get results.
they work rhythmically, they will experience a ha
moniSing effect that will save strength.
Working in this way, the students will discov
their own individual rhythm of hammering.
This rhythm will be tested by hearing, by th
sounds of the hammer; one can actually hear
the iron has been hit in a way that it is shaped
full sound) or if the beat was a timid one, merel
touching the surface (a shrill, painful sound).
During these preparatory exercises the studen
learn to know the processes of movement in th
work with iron Without having to work too quickly
they are able to concentrate fully on these proc
esses. This will be a condition for the work wit
hot iron where quickness is required if success
to be achieved.
In working with hot iron the care of the fire an
the right heat of the iron are additional learnin
 Bick ~
FOOL
stages. The working place and the material will b
prepared in the same way as during the work wit
Base cold iron.
The preparation of the forge is unfamiliar. Th
students are here offered an entirely new and wid
field of hitherto unknown impressions. They mus
remain fully awake In their observations. and on
can easily see how deeply they are affected by thes
experiences.
The fire is lit with the help of paper. cardboar
, or sawdust; if available. charcoal is added and the
coke.
We shall soon hear strange sizzling and crack
ling noises, accompanied by the hiss of the win
. blown from below by the bellows or a turbine. Dense
yellow-white fumes are rising from the coal. slowl
spreading like a thick colour across the furnace. The
are so heavy that they drop from the edge of th
furnace to the ground. allowing the students care
fully to push them up with their hands. The sense
of hearing. sight and smell- the fumes and smell o
sulphur simultaneously participate in the proc
ess. As soon as the flames rise from the coal th
show ceases. It is the eye that Is now addressed: th
observation of spectacular colours. of the ever bright
ening glow rising from the dark coal. If the fire i
burning well and constantly. the upper layer of th

~
coal may be cooled down (sprinkling with water)
. an important measure that allows the heat to b
"
conserved and not be torn away by the flames.
All the conditions are now met for the start o
'\ our work with heated iron, The students now learn
to know another side of iron viz. its appearanc
and qualities In this condition. Watching the col

:\
;
ours and feeling the warmth with the palms ofthei
hands makes them more sensitive. Needless to say
this is not the actual touching of the hot iron. bu
the holding of the hands slightly above the sur
.,'~
~ Detail face. by which they feel the rising warmth,
Why do we emphasise this?

,~
..

Because iron reacts most sensitively when heated
to the blue colour stage, one should stop working.
when it Is red hot. lest it snap at a place where it
has been overheated.
The students experience the different grades of
softness of the iron, dependent on the colour pro­
duced by the heat. The ease with which it can be
worked corresponds to the degree of softness. If
one wants to save one's energy, work must pro­
ceed sWiftly before the temperature changes. To
succeed in this the students must know every stage
of the work before they begin: they must know in
what way they wish to make use of the 'warmth'
when it reaches the reqUired temperature.
A decisive factor here is courage. They already
had to show some courage during the work with
cold Iron. It is not easy to use enough force on the
hammer and at the same time aim accurately. To
do this with the hot iron is an even greater chal­
lenge the greatest concentration and strength of
will are necessary if every hammer blow Is to find
its mark.
Watching a student at this work, we can see
transformations: from the initially timid and hesi­
tating youngster to an independently practiSing
apprentice. He or she is gripped by this craft, loses
all sense of time and keeps on working, hour after
hour. The skill in the handling of tools Increases,
as well as the control of the fire.
If, due to lack of concentration, the iron should
be overheated to the white-glowing stage, it will
have reached the melting point (welding heat) and.
beginning at the surface, will turn liqUid. Sharply
contoured stars spark from the heap. If the stu­
dent withdraws his piece of work from the fire he
will have a glistening, white-sparking 'torch' - the
shape and inner structure of the iron are dissolved.
This brings many a student close to tears. The iron
has actually burnt; it has become victim of the fire.
'Wo/fs mouth' pliers
One of the students described the ways ir
reacts to the different temperatures in this wa
"The cold. black-grey iron is as though dea
Fire awakens it to life - as we can see in t
changing colours. If it actually burns. its colou
change to white and 'stars' become visible. Ir
then dissolves into a 'spiritual condition'."
He experienced, quite consciously, this pictu
from black (death) via the other colours to wh
(spirit) and was able to express this in words.
would be difficult to imagine a more beautifu
expressive account of this experience.
If the iron has burnt. the student must beg
afresh. He will. however. realise - perhaps help
by the sympathetic. consoling teacher - that t
new work will have to be done differently. H
experience and the skills he has gained w
strengthen his self-confidence; the new work w
be better and more quickly achieved. Such
experience not only strengthens his self confidenc
observation and concentration, but also the actu
skills involved.
Once the work is finished. an important ed
cational aspect is added: with hindsight, the st
dent can perceive his ability to persevere with t
original idea - its design and execution - un
'the successful completion of the work. Surveyi
his experiences he is able to evaluate the diffe
ent stages of the work as well as the quality
the end product. A further perception is that
economy. Cleverly chosen projects allow for th
practising of economy and social interaction
economy in the sense that the student is to mak
do with as few tools as possible, as In olden time
He may. for example, work with objects th
can be produced with one hammer witho
relinquishing their necessary functions and form
Imagination and fantasy here come into their ow
replacing the so frequently heard current demand
 that, because of its speed appears to be merely a
up and down one, is a further inner movement trig
gered by what Rudolf Steiner called: "Will is ide
understood as strength (force) .....
Harness smithy.
If we wish to make anything useful from thi
Copper print by A. Trost. 1. KoctJ (I 689).
tough material we must. with all our available in
from: SchmithalslKlemm. 'Crafts and Tectmology:

ner and outer strength. so swing the hammer as

we wanted to beat the anvil right 'into the ground
It is a matter of forging into the iron and not. a
was made clear In the very first lesson. merel
working on its surface. Initially the students bea
for 'specialised tools' for each stage of the work. only as far as to the point they can see whe
Instead. the students embark on a 'journey of dis­ raising the hammer for the next beat. This, after
covery' with their simple tools. experiencing their while. will be experienced as painful. because th
potential. This strengthens the frequent lack of hammer. through its weight, is pulled down to th
strength in imagination and the students realise the work piece. while the hand and arm movement
'maturity' of a simple tool as. for example. the smith's already following the upward Impulse. Cramps i
hammer. and know how to use it meaningfully. The
same applies to other such simple tools.
Working with iron is a modelling. sculpturing
craft! It is not only the material itself but also the
students who are formed. This is quite clear al­
ready during the preparatory work with a group
of several students. The social work is especially
cultivated when they are asked to shape a larger
piece of iron. As in olden times also. without the
use of machines. the smith had to shape the Iron
together with his apprentices and journeymen, so
now the students can learn this working together
"1.:

1 I
with small groups. The student. whose work piece
is to be shaped, not only indicates with his ham.,
w mer the rhythmical beat. but also points to the
,:~
places where the iron is to be hit. His helpers

:,

:r.:
swing their hammers in a truly wonderful rhythm.
working in unison on one piece. So that every­
body may experience this. each student gets a
turn.

THE SEQUENCE OF MOVEMENTS

'~

We have several times referred to this in our report.

We shall now show how H affects the students.

l~~'
Generally speaking. the student faces the anvil
in a way that the arm holding the hammer may
'Figure of eight' movement

"
U

ing the course of the will forces, we can perceive totality and inwardly formed. The forces of co
how these forces. directed by the Iron and. through centration. of awareness. the physical movemen
the anvil. to the earth, return in a transformed the aim-directed actions, and particularly the so
way. The giving and returning forces and ener­ widening experiences. constitute a healthy balan
gies cross at exactly the spot where the shaping to today's predominantly academically orienta
of the iron takes place. If this were not so, the subjects. The necessary corrections during the w
material would merely bend or resist any attempt lead the students to experiences that awaken a
at giving it the required form. engender their will impulses. The fact that the w
The form of the hand and arm movement is a . with iron can also stimulate the moral forces
lemniscate. The crossing point is in the work piece. beautifully described by Abraham a Santa Clara
One half leads through the left hand and arm which a report written in 1699:
holds the piece. passing through the respiratory .. Because of the hardness of the horseshoe
area, in order to give the right arm and hand its blacksmith cannot be 'polite' when shaping
new impulse to return to the crOSSing point. It con­ These people, working long hours. have little ti
tinues - in the other half - through the earth. . for fun in front of the fire. It is a miracle that
stre;aming back again transformed as physically few get burnt by the sparks hitting their fac
perceptible energy. from below through the anvil The fact that they are black and sooty does
towards the worker. harm their honour. as It is a sign of their ind
The students experience how. through the giv­ try and, hidden behind their black shirts, i
ing right and the receiving left hand. they are placed white conscience. They can also learn ma
Into the harmony of the forces of the "governing beautiful things in their sooty workshops as.
wlll"z and the earth. The impulses for form rising example. gratitude to the bellows because. wh
from spiritual Inspiration can thus. with the help their bellies are filled. they thank the blacksm
of the harmonious-rhythmical breathing. the beat by blowing and kindling their fire .. " 3

1 Homologous for left handers who will face the anvil cor
spondingly.
2 Steiner. R.. GA 134. 28.12.1911.
3 Santa Clara. A.. Something {or Everyone. Wi.lrzhurg. 1699
 of the rooms cannot but affect the person entering
them in their special way.
1 Copperwork needs many tools. finely honed
and polished where they touch and form .the
material. A mark in the hammer immediately
impresses itself on the copper - just as a tuck in
the edge of a carving chisel would on the final
touches on the wood.
This is why the steel must not be allowed to rust
Le. the air must be dry and the floor ought to be
made of hard wood that does not harm a tool or
workpiece should it drop. The acoustics should be
such that the noise of the hammering does n'ot
become unbearable. That is something the teacheJ
should be able to deduce from the sound of the
hammer beats or the screech of a file whenever a
student is handling his tools In the right way. It is
essential that ceiling and walls are soundproofed.
It is also important that the daylight is not too
bright and that it is entering the room obliquely. It
is impossible to see the delicate traces made by
the hammer on copper if the light is too bright. All
this may perhaps indicate the strong effect of the
work processes on the outer form of the room.
A soft twilight in the copper smithy from which
the red and golden glistening metal shines forth is
IdeaL This makes for an almost mysterious mood.
intenSified by the colourful copper minerals in a
cabinet, by the jugs. bowls. lamps. gOblets and
,
boxes on the shelves. as well as by the reflected
light of the wall lamps. This effect can be increased
by the conscIous use of the colours of the metal in
connection with light.
In contrast to this delicate. sensitive mood in the
copper smithy. the iron smithy appears to be crude.
uncouth. elementary. In the centre. the fire as such
1 asks for a quite different environment; it not only
has to be stoked. but must be kept going and con­
., trolled. This requires the firmness of the fireproof
stone. the hardness of the floor. the lining of the
furnace with iron. and much more. The master smith
cares for the air. water and smoke and controls them.
Darkness. heat and soot are as much part of this
I typical atmosphere as the characteristic smells and
senses the necessary application of tamed energ
The natural. hearty freshness emanating fr
the finished articles round about immediately a
peals to our sense of life.
The Austrian writer Peter Rosegger rememb
how. as a boy. he experienced a visit to a smi
where scythes used to be made. The mood Roseg
managed to evoke could well be the basis for
way blacksmith shops might be installed in o
schools. The following is an abridged version.
"What I saw first was a sparkling piece of
sun that was taken from the howling furna
and thrown on the anvil. soundless as thou
it were a piece of dough. And then. as the ha
mer raised itself on a massive lever-beam a
dropped down on this soft lump. a whole oce
of sparks shot through the room. Frightened
death. I quickly hid behind my father's ba
but the sparks had already hit my shirt an
was surprised that It did nor burst into nam
and that my hands didn't hurt when these fi
gnats hit them. The second and third beat
the hammer again chased a whole army
sparks into the room but the flatter the lump
iron became. and the quicker the beats fell. t
less did the sparks fly. The blacksmilh sto
there, holding the iron with long-handled p
ers, turning it this way and that. until all t
cinder was hammered away. The white gl
turned red and then quite dull and finally ju
looked like iron does: grey, The man threw It
the floor and the hammer stopped.
I plucked up some courage and took a go
look at all the things. although the room w
quite dark without the fire. Above all else I n
ticed a large leather box that 'breathed',
was the bellows that. filled with air - throu
hydraulic power blew through pipes in
the furnace. All sorts of pieces of iron we
lying on the floor. Rows and rows of tongu
hammers. mallets. fiies. axes and things
didn't know were along the walls. I now al
noticed the blacksmiths themselves whose fac
and bare chests were covered with swe
 Do I glow. exhaust my being.
Into light turns what I'm grasping,
Into coal what I leave gasping:
Yes, a flame I. no denying!
gliihe and verzehr' ich mich.
Licht wird alles. was ich fasse,
Kahle aJJse, was ich lasse:
Flame bin ich sicherlich!
(Friedrich Nietzsche)

Rosegger. P.. Als iell noeh der Waldbauern bub war (When
was a Peasant Boy in the Forest). date unknown,

- - -_________
r·

puts the parts of wood together In order to create

things people need in their homes - cabinets. clos­ LESSON ONE - CUTTING OUT THE WOOD
ets, shelves. storage boxes in which the many
household articles may be stored or displayed and In front of us is a heap of timber resting on slats
tables and chairs to allow us to eat our meals In a allow the air to circulate. On the sides of the 24m
dignified way. It is important and interesting to thick boards. bark can still be seen. I make su
learn how a method of work has developed by that the timber Is dry (6-8%). Many an unplea
which the several parts are perfectly joined. We ant surprise (warping) is thereby avoided.
may say that certain rules have come about by I generally use pine. a native timber. whose r
which the single stages of work can be mastered inous quality makes for easy work. It also sme
and. provided the students obey these rules. they good, is relatively inexpensive and has a liv
will succeed In their work as well as any profes­ graining: the sapwood bright and the heartwo
sional. The tailor's cloth and the joiner's boards reddish-brown.
both are only semi-finished materials. likewise, The students now lay several boards on the pla
the task of going beyond the mere usefulness of ing benches.
the articles in making them also beautiful is com­ I now measure the correct lengths. adding 3
mon to both crafts. 4cm. and taking into consideration the grainin
We shall take our starting point from the colouring. knots and cracks. The measurements a
basic material 'wood' and not immediately from drawn with a piece of marking chalk and ready
the artificial materials developed during the age of be manually sawn by the students.
machinery veneers. plywood etc. We use the frame saw. a typicaljoiner's tool a
For the work with wood, the joining of boards to very different from any other kind of saw. I de
larger sizes. it is necessary to apply three tech­ . onstrate its use: the blade is guided along the thum
niques that have been developed long ago and are of the left hand; once the initial incision is mad
still in use today: . we continue sawing along the marked line. nev
dove-tailing pressing the saw downwards. and always using t
joints entire length of the blade. Before finishing the c
slotting and pegging. I stop and ask the students if they had noticed an
He who has mastered these basic joinery skills thing special in the blade. "It is straight. but at
can build a piece of furniture. I show my students angle. Why?". ·So that the carpenter may alwa
what they are to make during the block: a small see the line!~ The students will notice later th
carrying box. a wooden suitcase. a tool box. a dove­ this also creates a space between the plank a
tailed stool or a storage trunk. l The basic form of the saw. allowing enough room for the sawn
all of them is the dove-tailed box that can be modi­ pieces to drop down.
fied according to the use of the article. What do the students notice in the teeth of t
The blocks themselves take 5 or 6 weeks. three blade? They are filed in the direction of the 'thru
double lessons each week. 22 to 29 actual hours movement. The emphasis during sawing is towar
when we take into account that a lesson is no longer the front. The teeth also alternate from left to rig
than 45 minutes. This relatively short time means. Why? They widen the cut. making it easier for t
careful planning by the teacher Ifhe wishes to com­ blade to pass along without getting stuck. I th
plete the course and If each student is to finish his give further hints about such things as holding t
or her piece of work. When the students have cho­ saw correctly and finishing the cut cleanly. Wi
sen their projects and the corresponding size has out damaging the board.
been determined. the dimensions of the boards to I always use the terminology of the trade. givi
 Frame saw

Division of the bO;Jrd wuh (he bark

r ----- ... .
Side boards
, /~, \
, Right \

Middle boards Heart board

I
Right I
I

..... _--..".

_________________________

'Fistlng'
the work a professional touch. The saws. are now
shared out and the work begins. The students try
their best, some are better, some a little clumsy. I
assist and encourage. The lesson soon ends, the
'!II floor is swept and the students are told that they
will start with the squaring of the boards in the
" following session.
.. ~
LESSON 1WO - SQUARING AND CUTTING
THE TIMBER IN PREPARATION
FOR GLUING
II
i
The boards, cut to the right lengths. are now ready
for the next stage. I place a board on the planing
bench, narrow side uppermost. Next to the bark, I
. ~ draw a straight line along the entire length. Since
most of the boards are slightly warped and cracked.
the damaged parts must be removed another line
; is drawn.
-1
understand their logic. Here the saw is not guide
along the straight line. there it wobbles or ge
jammed. Some students have problems in startin
the cut.
The challenge for the teacher is to guide h
students in the right direction and to insist on pro
fessional work and accuracy.
The students are fully engrossed in their activ
ties, but must learn, for the sake of the matter
hand, to control their bodies.
Beginning with the placing of the feet. with th
posture and arm movements to the head, includin
the alert eye. Cutting vertically already touches the
limits. Although we have only just begun, they hav
already learnt to respect their work and the skills
their teacher.
. Occasionally a student is working too fast.
notice this on hearing the unrhythmical. machine
like noise of the blade. This impatience results i
breathlessness and rapid exhaustion.
The teacher explains that the secret of goo
. workmanship lies in the rhythmical movements tha
prevent tiredness and assure perseverance.
For the separation of the boards in the centre,
show the students another way of sawing. as prac
tised earlier on by the joiner: 'fisting'! The boar
is fastened to the bench. one half extending ove
TO BE GLUED '8
~ wood

The boards are now ready to be joined and

& Marrow chann
put on three or four benches. We look at them
and I select several for our first project Le. like
side to like side (heart or sapwood), with the
correct side on top. We also pay attention to
colour and graining. Correct joining means a
knowledge of the qualities of the wood. and I
take the opportunity of telling my students a
little of this. I might draw the cross section,
reminding them that the most living part of ' '
the tree is at its periphery. In the younger ?~~....._
sapwood the sap rises as far as into the crown,
streaming down again in the bast fibres be­
tween wood and bark. The consolidation of
the wood takes place within the cambium ­
the 'living' layer, a quite mysterious process.
During spring we get the'early wood', the re­
sult of qUick, loose cell growth. and during
summer the far denser 'late wood', Together
they form the annual rings. In the annual rings
of our cross section we read the tree's biogra­
phy in picture form, It is really a miracle to
see how the wood of different trees produce
their characteristic graining, colour and smell.
My diagram of the cross section shows how
the centre is significantly denser than the pe­
riphery, resultIng In the different drying times
of the boards. The 'right' side I.e. the side
directed to the centre Is drying in a slightly
convex way; that directed to the bark (the
'left' side) in a concave way. This must be
taken into account in the joining.
When all the parts have been put together
(adding a little for each Joint) we have com­ Joining board
pleted our preparation for the actual joining
(gluing).

LESSON FOUR JOINING THE BOARDS

Each student begins by inserting the so-called
'joining board' Into the vice, And each one of

--- _.

along In a lateral way on the bench and. during
~~ the work. pressed against the boards, so that the
edge tends to be slightly concave (l/lQmm). The
final thrust of the plane should ideally result in a
.~ piece of shaving that extends to the entire length
of the edge.
, rough plane begins.
\ We test our work by holding it against the light,
pressing two of the joint edges together. The two
~~ ends are close together. in the centre the light may
shine through a hair-pin crack (no more than l/smm).
Now the time has come for the students to try
;~ their own hands in this Joining process. They have.
as yet, no Idea of the precision demanded of them
but the success of the work will depend on it.
This lesson is especially taxing. It demands the
'~ full engagement of skills and strength. I must point
to the differences in the displacement of pressures
during the planing. If the work Is to succeed the
.~ students must be able to muster enough concen­
tration at each thrust of the plane, in order to carry
out the movements correctly, to get 'the feel of it'.
'~ Constant repetition I.e. practice. will help win the
day.
ment rods, controlling the extent the boards hav
warped. This must now be corrected by planing it.
Working diagonally across the board wit
the double plane, the irregularities are roughl
corrected. As soon as a semblance of evenness
apparent. the delicate work with the acutely shar
I work along the length of the grain. The straigh
'direction-giving plank' allows for accuracy. Th
plank must always touch the board at every par
be it lying lengthwise, diagonally or straight acros
There must be a constant alternating of planing
measuring. correcting, controlling. skill in handlin
the tools and clear observation. The work is rhyth
mical: the main direction is horizontal.
The students are now ready to plane the
individual boards. It is interesting to see the harmo
nious work within the group. always relevant to th
work. Even though effort is needed and difficultie
encountered. they seem to feel the need to reac
their aim viz. to have a perfectly even board. Whe
at last they sweep up the shavings. the sound re
minds us of the rustle of leaves in autumn - and th
smell of the pine resin wafts through the room.

LESSON FIVE COMPLETING THE JOINING LESSON SEVEN PLANING II

.~ AND GLUING OF THE BOARDS
Our lessons often overlap. The recapitulation an
The joining must be completed by the end of the repetition of the work consolidates what has bee
.~ first half of the 5th lesson. I help whenever neces­ learnt.
sary by correcting inaccurate work. Everything is The board must be perfect even before the wor
then prepared for the gluing: clamps, gluing planks. can be passed as finished. The students are en
the glue itself. hammer and a few nails. I show the couraged to help each other.
:~
,
group the necessary skills. the correct placement I now show them how the joiner marks the de
of the parts, the right amount of glue. the use of sired thickness of the boards along the edges. usin
the square. the exact pressure of the clamps. the a special tool (see Illus.) and proceeding from th
use of the hammer in evening out the jOints and planed area.
the measures taken against warping during the I am continually surprised and even despa
drying time by the use of one or two nails in the when I see the problems our students have wit
right place. Keen observation is essentiaL . this stage of work that seems so easy. Many o
\ After a period of practising, the students begin themjust cannot guide the marking tool evenly an
gluing their boards. No-one is allowed to be idle. at the same time trace the line into the wood wit
They work as a team, helping each other. Only the metal point. I must keep a wary eye on ever

1 when the last board is completed are they allowed student to avoid inexact ..'.'ork. I have to repea
to tidy up and leave. showing and helping them.

\
L
 important moment arrives: I hammer the teeth i
the dove-tails which fit without any gaps - pro
ing to the students that the meticulous attenti
to detail Is worth it.

. It is best to refrain from critiCising the stude

during the preparatory exercises. but rather to
them learn through their mistakes. This increa
The great challenge here is the will to persevere. their attention to detail in the succeeding work. Ea
and I do my best to develop this faculty in them. of them is working as well as he or she can. sho
Planing begins with an 'inclined' phase on all ing me the results.
the edges, up to the marked line. The rough parts , Opportunity is given for a second and indepen
can be cleaned off. Shortly before the desired thick­ ent practice, and I draw their attention to pOSSi
ness Is reached I use the rough plane that allows mistakes.
me to reach the correct thickness without going
beyond it. We then control the evenness with the LESSON NINE COMPLETION OF THE
alignment rod. If It lies completely flat on the board PRACTICE IN JOINING
our target Is reached and the work completed.
The practical exercises in joining should be co
LESSON EIGHT - FIRST PRACTICE pleted half-way through this lesson. It is time
AT DOVE-TAILING proceed to the actual projects. The students mu
be quite clear about the aims of their work. I retra
The first thing the students are reqUired to do . the stages ofwork from the first lesson to the prese
when entering the room is to get their tools ready one. Each of them is described: the fitting of the me
for work: two chisels (10 and 16mm), a wooden parts. lacquering, priming, grinding and polishin
mallet. saw, clamps, small supporting boards, gluing of the joints, Everybody is aware of the ne
hardboard (to protect the bench surface), square, for determination - time must not be wasted. I fu
sharp pencil and alignment tool. rely on each student's will to do his or her best.
Again I demonstrate by taking apart the dove-tailed
Joint. On one board we can see the teeth, on the other
the dove-tails. The students can easily see the use­
fulness of this very practical method of joining.
I continue my demonstration by going through
all the stages of this work. The boards are put ver­
tically at the right angle on the bench. the good
side to the outside. I draw the Joiner's triangle sign
at the edges, fIXing the right order. The places where
the teeth and dove-tails are to be cut out are now
exactly traced out.
I now put the board vertically into the vice and
start sawing along the pencil line. alternating be­
tween the left and right side of it, so that exactly
half of this line can be seen. This is the greatest
challenge for the students.
 boxes glued together (team work). Only then, when
every box is finished. are the students allowed to
tidy up and leave.

LESSONS THIRTEEN AND FOURTEEN ­

THE FINAL TOUCHES GIVEN TO THE JOINTS
AND SURFACE PRIMING THE BOARDS

During the 3rd year of apprenticeship, the

apprentice learns to use the polishing plane. Our
students get an idea of this skill when they try their
hand at smoothing the joints with this very deli­
cately adjusted and sharp bladed plane. Should the
graining be too rough. I must come to the rescue.
At last. the surface is polished and primed. It must
be allowed to dry. ready for the next lesson.

LESSON FIFTEEN - VARNISHING

The surface is smoothed with fine emery paper. We ,

place a piece of carpet under the boxes - the deli­
cate surface must not be allowed to get damaged.
Feeling the boards with the palms of their hands,

.~
, I

.,
1

"

'"
 Writing desk. front and back view

Hanging cupboard with shelves

 Some of them have to be fitted with metal To begin with. I let the students recapitulate ­

~
hinges. a handle (on a carrying box) or some kind Without my help - the dovetail joint they learnt in
of catch or lock. The use of a screwdriver needs - Class 9. This is a quiet lesson for the teacher, dur
practice. Time flies during this last lesson. Those ing which he can spend all his time observing: h
finishing early spend the remaining time in must at all cost refrain from intervening.
:~, smoothing out even the slightest unevennesses. My demonstrations in Class 10 are, as a rule
They all look relieved at having actually succeeded always attentively observed by the students and
and they proudly take their projects home to show the work they do afterwards is carried out profes
~. their families. .
The work done was beneficial to both head and
sionally.
The work in Class 10 is thus consolidated through
limbs. Vague thinking and wrong mental picturing recapitulation and taken further and enhanced by
Immediately showed in the work; an understand­ practising new methods. One could say that it i
':.iJ.
1~'1
ing for causal connections awakened. In this way, only during this second block that the student
. Joinery also serves other subjects. as the faculties develop proper faculties: the more superficial proc
gained - skills. exactitude. social interaction etc. esses In Class 9 now gain the necessary depth.
are qualities that apply also to other areas. Students opting for individual projects concen
The students' horizon was enlarged and it be­ trate on the stylistic side of the work. They are
came quite clear during the work what a student allowed to choose anyone of the crafts availabl
could or could not do, and that good will alone is at the school, as well as the possibilities within
not enough. Thinking and doing met in the proc­ that craft. In the case of carpentry they might pre
esses, leading to self knowledge - very therapeutlc fer working with wood. inlaid wood or veneers.
and also sobering at this age. Neither is feeling ne­ Our illustrations are of work resulting from sug
glected: each tool demands a delicate feeling touch gestions made by smaller groups at the end of thi
In order to do justice to the material. wood. second block. It corresponds to a year's work. 2

I c.f. illustration on p.127.

2 Many Waldorf schools encourage individual projects i
Class 8 and!or Class 12. chosen by the students. Although
supervised by the teacher. the students do most of the work
in their spare time. The projects may be in any of the avail
able subjects.
 its effect on us are absolutely different from those to a room in which woodcarving is done. In
of carving: they represent two qUite different former we can feel a direct stream leading fr
worlds. nature into the human sphere: in the latter we en
In a carpentry room we have neatly stacked a highly delicate stage of human creativity t
boards (rough at first. later planed) of exactly the enables us to establish a truly artistic and sp
same length. width and thickness. We may add to itual culture. as soon as the merely construct
them if we wish. The colour and graining of the . element. justifiable whenever it is in the ri
surface is even more important than in the wood place, is overcome.
we use for carving. Otherwise there is little that . In the carpentry workshop the pictures on
reminds us of the original trees they come from. It walls may include diagrams of construction.
is doubtful whether someone who had never seen productions of antique furniture and old tools, la
a tree would be able to imagine onejust by looking photographs of forests. the felling of trees and
at the boards? The annual rings might. perhaps. milling of timber. attempts at new styles in fur
provide a due... The split. massive. curved natural ture that liberate them from their straight li
wood chunks are in sharp contrast to the evenness and thus meet our human needs again. It is a
of the boards. They are unique, original. individual. desirable to fix panels of different woods or r
the other repeatable; machines may be used to veneers from distant countries to the walls.
produce them better and more efficiently than our The mood in a woodcarving room might be
hands. The task of our hands is to create original gendered by pictures of trees and forest anim
objects. Exact repetitions have to be learnt, a skill bugs, cones and fruit. by cross sections of ste
taking years of practice. It makes far greater sense with their original growth forms and all the thi
to mass produce with machines, the teacher himself might bring Into the room
The board, the joiner's material, challenges the the result of his discoveries in the forest ab
carpenter to develop ever better methods of joining. which he speaks to his class. Illustrations of
Thousands of years experience are utilised. The right carvings and everyday wooden utensils are a
angle plays an almost exclusive role in this work. suitable wall decorations - while the humoro
Might we assume that the people living in the touch should never be forgotten.
Middle Ages were actually afraid of the straight line. The reality of a school will not often allow fo
the exact even surface as they fitted the uneven strict separation of the two. But we might agree
boards into their half-timbered houses, that made principles. on the ideal. What is important is
them construct the streets of their towns in gently ability to perceive the mood and attitude of
curved lines? Were they afraid of the sobering teacher on entering his workshop. And this ope
coldness of right angled constructions? Did they up inexhaustible opportunities.
have a premonition of the steel structures of
our present time? Were they worried about the Who's an apprentice? Wer ist Lehrling?
necessity of developing the ad infinitum repeat­ Everyman. Jedermann.
able sameness at the expense of losing the Who a journeyman? Wer 1st Geselle?
elementary/natural qualities? Le Corbusier l said: He who can. Der was kann.
"In the history of form the straight line is a late A Master though. Wer 1st Meister?
product", He brings it into connection with the rec­ the inventive man. Der' ersann.
tangle as the culmination of our era. Goe

I Le Corbusier. TlIe Poetry of Ardlitecture.

1""'
. _. ___________
 MICHAEL MARTIN
The tasks of the arts in the high school: reports
from lessons in modelling and shaded drawing
"It Is our destiny and task to recognise polarities
accurately, initially as polarities. but later as poles
of a totality" (Herman Hesse). Once aware of this
truth. one cannot let go of it: we continually dis­
cover in all the phenomena surrounding us their
underlying contrasting elements that not only
dramatically interact with each other but also
determine both the life around us and the way
we express our innate soul and spiritual nature.
We touch here on a deep mystery of the world,
familiar to ancient cultures. In Genesis we read
how God created light from chaos as His first
deed. bringing about the separation from dark­
ness, and how He placed these archetypal
polarities In their measured rhythms as the
basis of all subsequent creative acts.
The quote from Hesse points. however, to a far
greater and more difficult task than the mere rec­
ognition of the world's polarities viz. where can
we find their union?
We see espeCially our young people during the
time of earth maturity living in the extremes of their
soul life - from heavenly ecstasy to the deepest
depression. We all know their delicate feeling for
justice while. in the next moment. being shocked
by their pitiless dismissal of someone whose
offence may really be no greater than anyone else ·s.
We observe. at the one end of the scale. a deep
laziness. while. at the other end. the fullest com­
mitment to a recognised goal that takes them to
the point of self sacrifice. We may despair at the
lethargy of their limbs and yet be surprised at their
untiring endurance in sport
"
The fresh and living movements during early
childhood seem to have vanished during puberty.
being replaced by a frequently alarming clumsiness
and resistance to activity. The previous gracefulness.
with its appealing child innocence. visible in the
physiognomy. becomes withdrawn and complerely
transformed. Between joy and pain. symparhy and
.antipathy. arrogance and depression. we observe
the beginning of a world of feelings that provides
the soul with all her colouring. manifoldness and
inner breadth.
All these tensions in body and soul are caused
by the emergence. the becoming aware of ·urges.
desires and passions' in the individual soul - nor
negative qualities. but quite generally stimulating.
desiring. enthusing energies that engender inner
activity and mobility. and kindle liveliness if taken
up and directed towards the proper channels.
To create the necessary inner space. however. is
only possible through defining boundaries, through
separating.
Unavoidably. this makes for a new r~lation with
the world outsIde; a disrancing by which the en­
vironment can be perceived as though through
new. different eyes. objectively. soberly. fact~ally.
The inner as well as the outer world opens up to
the adolescent; he or she is trying to find a new
connection to both. to discover himself in them.
In order to develop this inner life. it is necessary
to become separated from wider and greater con­
nections. Hand in glove with this process go the
dangers of egotism and loneliness. With loneliness
comes introspection. causing the world around to
J 31
 Every separation or distancing by forming
sheaths around oneself needs a firm physical
basis - the liquid element does not really allow
inner space to develop and every attempt to do
so would Immediately fail. Hence. we can see the
'consolidation' of the adolescent's body as corre­
sponding to his soul development.
Loneliness. darkness. heaviness - a depressing
condition? Again, Rudolf Steiner has given us a clue
to understand it: "What makes the will mobile? The
fact that the soul experiences heaviness through
the body". 1
The heaviness of the body must first be there:
the soul has first to feel it in order to set the will in
motion to counter it. Development of will is always
a matter of meeting resistance! Heaviness and
lightness. darkness and light. death and resurrec­
tion - these are primal motifs shining behind the
age of adolescence. Is the young person able to
"kindle" that "sun" which engenders new Inner
forces. or will he drown in the temptations of a
merely.:materialistlc world? This is the decisive
question.
This pOints to a most significant and important
educational aim. Does the world in which the
young find themselves exhaust itself in purely
materially comprehensible events. or is it perme­
ated by elemental formative processes processes
Beginning of School Attendance
Eurythmy • 7 years
:" breathing I blood
Physical Education
'"
• 9 113 years
blood / muscles
Crans / Gardening • 11 213 years
muscles I bones
14 years
.~~_~
Earth Maturity"
~ .. ­
ally creating! Words could all too easily result
either acceptance or rejection. belief or disbelie
In the actual activity they become. if successfu
convincing experience. Then it may happen th
during the 20's one will again be received
the world from which one was expelled durin
puberty. One must be received again. one mu
find the connection. because without it on
cannot master life. This connection must be foun
by each of us. independently. Against this bac
ground. the necessity of the formative/artist
subjects will become obvious. as well as th
reason why these subjects are allotted so muc
space in the High School.
PRINCIPLES ARISING FROM A KNOWLEDGE OF
THE HUMAN BEING
There are but scant indications by Rudolf Stein
concerning the curriculum of the formative/arti
tic subjects In the High School. Shaded draWin
was to be done in Classes 9 and 10. as well
modelling in plasticine. Simple carpentry and pain
ing were to be added In Classes 11 and 12.
We shall. however. discover a meaningful stru
ture by again looking at the developmental stag
of the child's organism of movement. We shal
therefore. briefly recapitulate how these process
Personality
21 years •
IndividualiSing ~.
~.
18213years
E="1/"8 J,"",
e'···
16 113 years .,!,
Enlivening Class 12 Stone sculpting. Painting
Class 11 Carving. Painting
.... =:.
e ,....", \....~. . . . Class!O Modelling. light-dark
Class 9 Modelling. light-dark
 ~".;'
"1{(
{-.,
1st exercise 2nd exercise
At the 12th year, the muscles incline to the bone
structure. grasping and moving this hard system
forcefully, heavily, obeying the laws of mechanics,
Bearing these developmental stages tn mind. a
new subject is Introduced at the correct time that
supports these processes and intends to help de­
velop them in a healthy way. In an inner picture we
can follow the child's organism passing through the
elements. a descent from the warm sphere of the
soul via the airy and watery as far as its connection
with the rigid, the earthy: a densification process.
We can observe how the externally perceptible
.. ~ changes in the child's posture and movements
directly correspond to its inner development and how
this is accurately met in the curriculum.
~,
The adolescent, after haying passed through the
experience ofthe earth's gravity, may. now through
an inner effort. enliven the course of his or her
movements and formative development. During this
'~ work. the muscles can. after their slack phase.
begin to make the movements more delicate and
flexible. Later. as the germinating soul forces be- .
~
come stronger. they will ensoul the movements and
individualise them through their own will.
We need not stress the fact that our description
of the course of development is an ideal one and
that it may be coloured and altered in all direc­
tions by life situations. such as the environment. A
sensitive observer will. however, already see the
opposite path in the High School students to that
of children in the Lower School. in that the bodies
of the former separate ever more from their tie to
gravity and mechaniCS. and pass via a moved, en­
livened element to an ensouled one. but without
Clay is a substance that lies heavy and cool i
the hand. A ball Is to be shaped from it, as the hand
can directly hold and enclose it. The yet shapeles
material responds to the most sensitive pressure
Gradually the skin on the surface of the ball deve
ops through the sense of touch by which the form
comes about. It is really not possible to place
spherical object on a table - it is not suited to it.
Spherical objects and plane are strong opposites
in need of a mediator. such as a bowl In which
spherical object can be placed. Yet this is still no
satisfactory: in order to make its roundness vali
to all sides we would have to suspend it from
hook. Even this does not go far enough. because
does not let itself be imparted Into our spatial d
mensions: it has neither a left nor a right. an abov
nor below. and is therefore. a stranger to our thre
dimensional space, does not participate in it. In
stead. it turns its only plane towards its own centre
It would. in fact. hover or move freely in space
like the heavenly bodies. Are there purely spheri
cal objects in nature? And where are they to b
found? We might think of fruit. tubers, water drops
seeds. buds. egg~ or of the shape of the human head
These always occur where new life is to arise. sti
undifferentiated. coming to rest in themselves.
We now alter the even roundness. stretching It
little flatter. curving it a little more so that a form
with several curved planes is produced. but still re
maining within the convex. hilI-like arched sphere
A third exercise may stretch the initial spherica
shape at one end, leaving the other absolutely round
When we have completed all these exercises an
. displayed our work in three groups we can experi
ence how the spherical objects come to rest side b
side. each perfect in itself. We can relate the shape
of the second group to each other - they are livelie
and can communicate with each other. The thir
group seems to point outside itself. seems to show
an interest in the environment.
An unexpected polarity arises: there are form
that come to rest in themselves. as spheres; an
there are forms that tend to stretch, becomin
awake for their surroundings.
 If we continue these exercises in a way that
roundIng off and stretching out arise in rhythmical
sequences. longer here. pressed together there. we
see animal forms arise that can easily be devel­
oped more realistic animal forms by adding a mouth
or ears. But what is real?
It is the animal's urges and instincts that de­
termine its movements and behaviour. This is
different In each species. It is because of this that
their shapes also differ. If an urge is excited b
some outer happening - the weather. a noise
any other perception - the whole of the anim
responds, it becomes eye. ear or smell: its who
organism trembles. Suddenly it speeds off. o
slinks away the perception becomes moveme
as though sucked in by a target a long distanc
away. outside itself. All these lurking or instin
tively moving animals do not stretch - if seen
 end of the block we frequently choose the the
'Two people' or 'Human and Animal' where
students could in an independent. indiVidual w
express the harmony between the opposing em
tions and the movements of two or more figure
this way, they have their point of calm or
gravity outside themselves.
Another animal is produc'ed, one that changes
into a shape that expresses calm that appears
to be rolling into a ball. turning inwards, sleep­
ing, Observers assure us that a cat stretching
out on the floor is not sleeping as deeply as the
one that contracts into a round form. A wealth
of new observations! By doing such exercises.
if our students can experience or at least sense
that processes of calmness principally employ
rounded forms, whereas movements in the
organic world caused by urges and instincts
can show these only in outstretched forms, a
direct bridge will be built to the manifold
mysteries in our world that. within its infinite
wealth of forms. expresses such laws that tes­
tify everywhere to effective formative forces.
Whilst the qualities of calm and mobility
essentially determine the physical form of the If the polarities of calmness and movement
animal. the human being stretches himself in his the subject in Class 9, a stronger inwardness
entire form. Without, however, allOWing himself to experienced in Class 10 coming to expression
be formatively determined by anyone urge or a different polarity through concave and conv
instinct. but by bringing his growth to a close in forms. Calmness and movement manifest in
the round. calming form of the head at the top. human form as a contrast between above a
Simultaneously. in the human being we have forms below: concavity and convexity are localised
of both calm and movement - in the head and limbs the sphere of the soul in the middle part a
being alternating activities, always in a reserved receive their life from the opposites of within a
balance, either in the movement of the limbs to the without. In this they are connected with brea
outside or in the inwardly turned functions of the sense ing and with all rhythmical human activiti
organs. These are mainly concentrated in the head, Ancient cultures knew of this and expressed th
leading us into the sphere of thinking and reflection, in human forms considered 'abstract' today.
Physical and spiritual/mental activities of the Rudolf Steiner made us conscious of these la
human being express themselves in quite different through his blackboard drawings during lectur
physical postures and gestures. This can take us He described in detail the threefold nature of
to as many different projects: a man. for example, human form in head, chest and limbs. z
carrying a heavy load will brace himself against The polarity of concave and convex forms w
the weight - the overcoming of weight here be­ be the topiC for Class lD. To begin with. we sha
comes visible. A person reading will remain in a a form whose energies surge as though from wit
resting posture; he will be either sitting on a chair sho\ving themselves exclusively in convex surfac
 ca 2000 BC bronze fact that the students can. although firmly tied
Spain height: 15.4cm the theme of the subject. invent an incredible wea
oHorms. The important thing is to understand t
the forms themselves are speaking a language t
Rudolf Steiner:
emanates from themselves and that can be lear
from. Study of the Human Being
In their concavities and convexities they expres
'mood', just as a definite and objective mood
created by red or blue. major or minor that can
Concentration,
rounding. described in words.
calm We now attempt to shape two human fac
each from these same form elements. each on
sidedly. Here. too. we recognise the same effe
Concav~...­ Convex emanating from either concave or convex form
But quite unexpected new effects are added. T
Movem~~t one is not only softer. more living and dreamin
'Seretchlng but seems also to be younger. happier. freer a
I I
inclined to female features. The other appears
be older. morose. serious and decidedly male. A
we experience with astonishment the connectio
between the whole range of feelings. between j
and pain. the life conditions between old a
young and the polarity male-female with the co
cave and convex form elements.
The whole thing becomes even more exciting wh
we transfer our experiences of these extreme form
tive experiments to nature. We already are fami
with the round. flowing forms so strongly related
,~- ....-;:... ... ; . the watery element. we know the use nature mak
of them for allowing all living beings a time of ca
of rest during the embryonic period that may last
long as a year. as in the leaf buds of trees.
We can further experience how the spheri
forms break open. differentiate and spread in ord
finally. to assume the characteristic of hollowed o
and exhausted forms in the shape of dried up leav
cracked cones. gnawed wood. bony skeletons e
forms we had previously modelled. The forces
'consuming forms' are, indeed. ageing forces th
often come to expression at the end of a sequen
~ of developmental stages in living beings.

We become espeCially aware of the fact that t

ageing process in a human face is synonymous w
a 'becoming awake'. This allows us to understa
 Leaf buds of the stalk oak

Wilted leaves of topinambar

that the development of consciousness necessI­

tates the diminishing of life forces: "ConscIous­
ness is a small and partial death: death Is a great
and total consciousness. an awakening of the whole
being tn Its Innermost depths". 3 .
A look at contemporary sculptures makes it clear'
that the 'form-consuming' forces dominate. fre­
quently to the point of destruction, or show merely
some traces of matter. What would be the effect of
such a sculpture in a school playground? The fact
that other attempts at form are made comforts us
a little. Far more convincing is the harmonising of
the polarities in the 'opening' of the form without
losing Itself In space.
It goes without saying that we are trying on the
one hand to utilise our experiences and knowledge . Old olive tree
gained. and on the other hand to look for a balance
between the polarities and. through it, to arrive at a
heightening of our formative work.
 animal that comes close to this. To be directed to 'arrived' on the earth and the content of t
such an 'open mystery' can be significant for the opening verses of the Gospel of St. John. A divin
students. spiritual spark takes hold of the physical-materi
Forms can be felt. touched by the hands. Beyond will this light be able to shine in the darkness? T
their direct reach. the eyes take over the hands' confrontation with light and darkness in shad
• ! drawing can express this battle dramatically a
become a sustaining element during this age.
Francesco Somalni
(b. 1926) ­ SHADED DRAWING
'iron 5925'

A group of class niners is sitting in front of m

They ask: .. Drawing ... ? Whatever for ... ?"
Let us discover the polarities. We shall find t
most intense darkness in a cave 'deep dow
where the light of day does not penetrate. If w
are standing absolutely still in darkness the e
periem::e of space is lost. Unless we are famil
with the cave. without light we cannot percei
its width and proportions. And if complete silen
surrounds us. uninterrupted by even the sound
dripping water. consciousness of time also is mo
Henry Moore or less extinguished. Darkness removes us fro
(b.1S98)
time and space, The source of light. the sun. ca
inner and Outer Forms,
clay,
not be dl,rectly perceived by our eyes: we may lo
height: 190cm 1952153 at it only through a piece of darkened glass. A
yet we have experiences of light. of immeasu
able degrees of brightness that correspond to o
opposite experiences of deepest darkness.
Barbara Hepworth People whose souls have been loosened fro
(b. 1903) ­ their bodies during an accident. a fall from a roc
Marble. height: 65cm. a near drowning etc .. speak of an indescribab
two forms
wonderful brightness that does not blind. but
experienced as comforting. as enveloping and su
taining Similar to the experience of falling aslee
but without losing consciousness. a fact whi
allowed them to speak about it.
Darkness and light exist at the threshold of
different consciousness that takes us from o
daily life to another region bordering on it. W
now begin to understand why it is easier for us
fall asleep in a dark room: in our sleep we als
cross over to another stage of consciousness b
yond space and time. The fear many people hav
 zu begrussen'),· .
Everywhere. in connection with light and
darkness, we find the motif of refreshment and revi­

;:,
~~.~
taUsation; we can extend our vision and become
attentive to these every day. although unconscious
and unnoticed phenomena around us, And we are
always led to processes of transition, not of actual mood of light. All of them stimulated by the variet
being, but of becoming of origins and progreSSion. of experiences of the world of mountains.

~}~ As in modelling. we can here also meet with an Very few, if any. of the students would find an
infinite wealth of phenomena with which the stu­ . answer to the question; What else can you see i
dents of Class 9 can easily identify. and it is these pictures besides mountains, night, light and
not difficult for the teacher to set them the task of perhaps clouds?
;J".
t­ observing well during their walk from school to lL is the air - seen here clear. there misty. th
.
1 home. and of reporting their discoveries on the . result of either sharp or indistinct contours of th
following day, mountains. We discover that the fading of the hill
I have found it helpful to begin the lesson with into the background is again one of the effects o
a simple exercise: draWing with a piece of black air! Near and distance take us. unconsciously. int
charcoal so that the brightness at the top of a our breathing processes: nearness, with its dearl
piece of white paper gradually passes into recognisable and separated objects, with th
},
j
densifying darkness towards the lower half. de­ contrast of light and shade. asks also for a dear
scending and experienced as heaviness as it does objective. logical consciousness. In the distance
;:3
so. During this work we discover that if we overdo the single objects seem diffused into a mor
,It it. the darkness will shut out the light. The dark­ general element; the sharpness of shadows blurs
ness must be restrained and assume a receptive the contours merge into the sky at the horizon: w
form or else the light cannot partiCipate in the are inclined to look dreamily at [hem.
process. In a second exercise the same theme Is As we draw our pictures we become aware of th
",~.
~:";
repeated. but in definite stages of grey. so that air that seems to play a significant part in them
,
the light can really be received by the darkness. as the producer of 'light-perspective', A space-lik
Looking at the pictures - all of them displayed impression is produced Without linear perspectiv
"~ on the wall we realise that the dark seems to which we take great pains to avoid in this technique
press forward and that [he light enters the draw­ As a result our drawings appear to be lifted abov
ing from the depth of the background. We have, the merely natural. embedded as though tn a pri
added to the opposites above/below. from which mal creative process, often by an elemental force .
.. ~ we began, a new one: distance and nearness. A The attentive student will soon notice that h
third dimension. depth and space has arisen. In will be more successful if standing in a postur
those draWings where especially delicate transi­ that supports his body. This assures a calm. rhyth
.~ tions from light to darkness is achieved. one can mical breathing during the work. The arm holdin
have the Impression of light shining into darkness: the pencil becomes looser when sustained as
light is created! Light and space are our first were by the vertical spinal column. This allows th
'achievements'. in addition to ever darker gradua­ breath to flow more freely. This 'taut looseness
~ ..
tions. This now becomes the basis for a new theme: during the drawing is combinl.:!d 'vvith the activit
e.g. 'light shining across mountains'. A dull, brood­ of tile eyes follOWing the sequence~ of the strokes
ing student or one driven by his unconscious will white, black and grey tones are sobering. clarify
; forces will produce a 'night' picture: a reserved/ ing, often Llramatic experiences Tile drawing. a
wakeful student will draw a picture with a delicate it I}j()gl{~sses. tllllS cOllstltllteS a unity of eye. han

~

" ~ in a person playing the piano when the sou
These iI1ustralions are or students' drawings in charcoal
During the time of earth maturity (puberty
shaded drawing is really therapeutical becaus
during the process the breathing grows int
mately together with the more delicat
reserved. almost mechanical movements
arms and hands. This allows the soul. with th
help of the rhythmical-airy element, to perme
, ate and vita lise the middle system of the bod
/' An almost identical process can be observe
through the artist's hands. is induced
express itself in mUSiC by means of a mo
deltcate albeit lifeless mechanism.
If the teacher is able to progress to suc
knowledge. based on his own experience. h
will attain the inner conviction that allows him
to draw meaningfully with this age group.
Let us return to our drawings!
Via the light, air and mountains. we hav
entered, almost by chance. the realm of th
elements that are now to be enlarged step b
step by adding trees. douds. etc. Water is als
added. the technique having already bee
acquired. It lends a new attraction through th
mirroring, reflecting effect. The Important as
pect, however. will always be the way ligh
and air weave around the objects. giving th
landscape. as simply as can be represented
its characteristic mood. This mood come
about through the looseness and livelines
of the strokes. through full attention to th
formative processes, through the faculty o
inventiveness and patient practice.
We arrive at a new stage in our work whe
we succeed in producing a definite and enclose
space and in drawing the light entering an in
ner space through a window. where we becom
aware of the fact that the light and shade ar
themselves invisible, until falling on the walls an
other objects just as the soul remains invisible
until perceived together with our sense expressions
We have taken a path that led from the wid
expanse of landscape to an inner space: tha
 ,
. I
i

:;, ,i

,
. I
I
constitutes the transition to Class 10. While, in
Class 9. we confronted the light coming from the
cosmos. which determined the great rhythmical
Shading is the formative means for represen
ing not only light. air and water. but also rigidi
and sharpness. If our concern is with the repr

,
temporal situations on earth. we now turn our eyes
to the light that belongs to the physical world: we
~ I draw a square lit up by lamps, the inner reflec­
tion of light in a crystal. the light shed by fire, or
by a candle: a snowy landscape may be included,
sentation of an obJeCl. we ought to make use
the line. since thiS gives us a clearly contoure
and unmistakable picture of it. But the object.
so represented, will be standing in an airle
and abstract space. Contoured outlines cann

'.
c_!

.~
i
because the earth covered with snow. shin'es
brighter than the sky itself. The theme of our work
also leads us from the distance to what is close at
hand. from the cosmos to the earth - in tune with
the developmental stages of the young. .
represent day or night. summer or Winter. Th
play of light and darkness in air and cloud
opens up the surface that during the process
densification and loosening, through borderin
and transition, leads us into elemental processe

"

'. l

:,

:,

"it

 ing into each other. but by remaining strictly side by
side - a strong black and white contrast is produced
between them. The effect of this method is a very
active one. in contrast to the gently formed surface
drawn with the side of a piece of chalk. that gives the
impression' of relaxed out breathing, By using the
rectangular drawing chalk (medium hard and hard)
one can produce the most delicate. as well as the
deepest black colour tones (through ·veiling').
There are art teachers working with many tech­
niques who assert that shaded drawing does not
allow for individual expression. in that all draw­
ings look alike, I could respond by saying that when
a hundred people are playing the piano it will still
sound like a piano. It is ultimately the choice of
music one plays - Mozart or Chopin - and espe­
Cially how one plays it. The teacher certainly will
soon Identify the drawing with the student the
characteristic strokes and the manner in which they
form their pictures are different even though they
'only' use this method.
Behind the artistic subjects we have briefly
outlined. Herman Hesse's words. quoted at the
beginning of this article assume an especial sig­
nificance. We become aware of the contrasts of
enclosing and stretching out, of concavity and
convexity; we discover them in our own physi·
cal form, as well as In the objects around us. Do
light and darkness also apply to human beings?
We can experience them in the contrast of spirit
and body - not merely as contrast, but evident
in the radiating, elucidating quality we experi­
ence in our physical bodies. Similarly we can
discover light and darkness in the inner contrast
of thinking and Willing, whenever we earnestly
make the effort to enter into these experiences
deeply. We here confront the contrast of head
and 11mb that our thinking and willing produced
for themselves as organs for their activities. We
may comprehend how the forms and light/dark­
ness emanate from the same roots, shaping the
formative forces externally. through what in the
sphere of the soul is active within.
Nothing is within. nothing is without
For what's in. is also outside.
Nichts ist drinnen, nichts ist draussen:
Denn was innen. das ist aussen:
Goeth
Of course. this is not the way to discuss thes
things with the students themselves: how far on
can go in such matters will always depend o
the mood, the situation and the human being
themselves. What Is important is for the teache
to discover such connections between the huma
being and the world - it is this that will provid
the sustaining foundation for the lessons.
POLARITY AND UNITY
Let us consider again the polarity of black an
white. Where do we find their unity? By mixin
them we lose the polarity and, with it, the frUitfu
tension between them: what we get is grey. Grey
the outer expression of a static situation, corre
sponding to a sitting position: heavy. burdensome
inert. lazy. If the poles are attracted by the centr
and shaped in grey tones. including black an
white, a living, stimulating process will arise. eve
anew Changeable, ever progressing in the formin
of new spaces. In shaded drawing there is no mix
ing, the contrast is retained through dark stroke
on a white background. strong tension but. at th
same time. producing a permeable loosening.
If the concave and convex surfaces are bal
anced, a flat plane arises. without tension. losin
the plastic quality. having only an indeterminat
expansion on all sides. The unity in which th
poles are grasped and melted into a form withou
losing their character. comes about through stimu
lating that 'force at the centre' that may lead to
an Intensification through the artistic taming o
the poles. The life of our soul is principally di
rected to two sides. not only during puberty. Bu
the adult has a different access to the 'force a
 When sitting. the polarity working in movemen
is cancelled. the labile. active condition tha
;~ continuously arises anew, is changed into
the centre'. provided he has developed it in him­ stable. inert one. Once we have grasped the sig
self! It reaches maturity at the age of 21 . nificance and meaning of our physical processes
.;~ At the beginning of the third seven-year period; we shall not find it difficult to understand tha
the educator must. therefore. be attentive to two nec­ inner movements arise in the sphere of our sou
essary aspects. On the one hand, he must try to . that challenge the centre.

:~~
tease forth the new, delicate. seed-like soul forces. If. my friend. within you dwell
hidden behind a still brittle shell, to give them nour­ Forces that oppose each other,
ishment by which they may unfold. On the other Keep them all! Just fuse them well!
hand. 'the force at the centre't the individual ego of Neither break them. Neither smother.
.~. the young man or woman, must become ever more
Hast duo Freund. In deiner Natur
effective, so that. at 21. she has attained sufficient
Krafre. die sich wldersprechen.
sovereignty to determine her own life. There is wis­
Wolle sie nicht aneinander brechen!
-J dom in the fact that the 'comlng of age' used to be Behiillte sie aIle! Verschme/ze sie nur!
.'.~
,
identified with the 21st year.
But both these processes - the unfolding of soul
Conrad Ferdinand Meye

forces and the emergence of the ego - are parallel. SYMMETRY AND A-SYMMETRY

:i~ This is because the ego can only become active when
placed in the midst of polarity and when challenged During our moving (walking). a state of balance
by It. It is born from an inner situation of tension brought about that can only be produced by
.:~ that the human being actively addresses herself to. continuous balancing of the physical weight and i
The ego as such is not as yet present. It Is in status corresponding physical energies. This happens i
nascendi - in a state of continuous becoming through . movement. When standing. this balance approache

~
inner effort. energy and the will to be active. It dies. the ideal. The top of our skull and the soles of ou
as it were, in Inner lassitude. As such it is living within feet are above one another along the line of gravit
. an extremely unstable state, with the possibility of that passes through the human being and is directe

~.
intensifying and heightening. or extinguishing itself, towards the centre of the earth. In this state of res
a state that may appropriately be characterised as the body Is placed Into absolute symmetry. If w
'presence of mind'. wish to take a step. movement can only arise b
Let us try to become more conscious of this disturbing thiS relation. As we push one foot for
process by observing how the human being moves, ward. everything begins to enter into the flow of

It-
1
Walking is a special expression of the ego. We wealth of a-symmetries that 'contradict' themselve
can here accurately follow and experience in the in their polarities as described earlier. Only thi
physical body how the centre is sustained by the makes our movements possible.
'1[ polarity. The decisive factor is the centre that. invisibly. car
When we walk. in every step we take. the weight ries the a-symmetrical processes in a rhythmical way
of the body is alternately moved to the left and Rhythm here appears to provide the opportunit
right and the spinal column between them qui­ of saving the a-symmetries from falling apart: th

.Jr
i
etly moves ahead. Added to this is the fact that inner sustaining force of the centre makes use of th
each foot is doing exactly the opposite of the other: rhythm in order to trapsfer its forward striving will t
when the right foot separates from the ground the the physical a~symmetrical corporal processes with

~
left surrenders to the weight: when the left foot is .out Josing control of them. Walking thus become
carrying the weight of the body, the right foot is the physical realisation of the human ego.

,­
'­
sation. Our hands are capable of carrying out a
task, independently of each other. One hand can
do the job of the other if this should be warranted
- even though each hand is formed a-symmetri­
cally. Continuing with our observation, we are
amazed at the freedom of movement given us purely
organically for our activities. This high degree of
freedom is due to the strongly pronounced. yet re­
straining centre. our spinal column. Through its
strictly symmetrically formed structure - towards
left and right it sustains and carries our most
mobile and free organs viz. our hands.
Our hands have also emancipated themselves
from any rhythmical sequence of movements - nec­
essary for our legs. And yet they are connected to
our breathing and blood circulation. the quintes­
sentially rhythmical system.
We already spoke of the soul expressing itself
organically in our breathing. Inner stirrings can.
however. also live in physical movements - spon­
taneously in the little child. instinctively In the
animal. Here they enter the body more strongly.
albeit more externally. Breath is soul activity tied
to the body; the movements of arms and hands
are at its disposal.
What is essential for us is that the soul is physi­
cally active in our organisation of rhythm and
movement; the soul is active everywhere in a-sym­
metrical forms. This means that. in the sphere of
the soul, there Is the possibillty of turbulence and
instability, because of the 'centre' biding its time,
waiting behind the scenes until It is either called
upon to enter the battle or ignored I.e. if the per­
son concerned prefers to be driven by the contrasts
of Instincts and desires. Wishes and antipathies.
The more powerful the confrontation. inner mo­
bility and drama, the stronger will the a-symmetry
appear. The harmonising centre will be challenged
as in the activity of walking. This can become
sense-perceptible in the arts: the light. diminish­
ing In brightness, vanishing into the distance - the
dark. encompassing itself. confining. surrendering
to weight; the force in a sculpture. urging from
_. __.. _ ________
itual centre In order to keep the two opposing forc
in their places. We can clearly see their
symmetrical form. their polar structure. the interflo
of forces In the central figure that shows itse1f to th
onlooker in its a-symmetrical posture. powerful
producing the centre in the viewer.
Because of our participation in these cosm
powers. we carry these contrasts, these polariti
within our inner organisation. From there the
radiate through our physical form. We have con
vinced ourselves of their necessity for. witho
them. we could not take a step forward. They pro
vide our soul life with the inner tension and breadt
All they reqUired is the master who controls them
Overcoming them does not mean destroying them
but rather to muster the strength to hold them
place. to harness and subdue them.
How else could we make a drawing if there we
neither black nor white. how else could we liv
without either day nor night. thinking and willing
Agirl wrote about her ego experience in her diar
"A new world has been opened for me, into whic
I am occaSionally allowed to take a look. in
which I am allowed to enter. It is an infinite dep
into which one is allowed to immerse oneself.
was on a Sunday when I experienced this th
first time. I saw it quite clearly in the picture
the golden staff with the black and white se
pents. A wonderful great light was in one of them
Before this I was asleep. now I have woken up
(A.M. 16 3/ 4 years-old
HEIGHTENING - INTENSIFICATION
In the art subjects of Classes Il and 12. the prev
ously learnt skills are now deepened and applie
more freely by the students in painting. carvin
and stone masonry.
If one has the opportunity of seeing black an
white drawings side by side with colourful paint
ings one will experience the tremendous step from
the sobering. yet life-filled severity and restrain
of the light/dark shaded draWings to the breadt
.,
-~

~ and liberating openness of colours. Goethe re­

ferred to them as "the deeds and suffering of light",
careful and correct veiling (layering) of the w
colours. Again a path leading across polaritie
ranging from the mysterious blue to the radiating their natural mixture, right up to a heightening

:~ quality of yellow, from the breadth of light and space to the fea

:, We have already dealt thoroughly with the

subject of painting in a previous book, 5 We shall,
therefore. only briefly sketch the way it fits into
the structure of the curriculum. After they have
been made familiar with the basic colour exer­
tures in a human face in \vhich the individuali
finds its most manifest expression.
At the same time. as we painted we passe
through the plant cycle: the green lets u
experience the sprouring of leaves. A new impuls

.~
cises. the theme takes the students via the paint­ manifests in the great variety of blossoms th

,
,
1
ing of trees. landscapes. nature moods and flow­
ers. to the painting of the human countenance in
Class 12. Without noticing it. we paSSed through
the whole of Goethe's colour circle. beginning
with yellow/blue. by which green is naturally
produced through their mixing. providing the
bring the cosmic forces of light to the earth
pushing back the green in leaves and stem
transrorming it. Outer growth appears to be mo
vigorously restrained in the seed, made inward
containing the whole energy of a new plant. Con
nected with this state of 'individuation'. the retre

'; general basis for all plant life. The experience of into oneself. is the frequent glimmer of purple o

,
light and darkness in yellow and blue provides the early spring buds, the bursting shoots. the un
the immediate continuation of the shaded draw­ folding leaves, Friedrich Schiller challenges us t
ing in previous blocks. The added red densifies take conSciously such steps that live unconsciousl

,
the green to brown and effects the firmness of
the trunks of the trees. Gradually there unfolds
a differentiated range of colours in the trees dur­
ing the seasons. during sunrise and in the moods
within the plant's growth:
Growth - blossom - seed. They correspond wit
the progreSSion from body to soul anu spirit. Schill
saw in the external step by step de\'elopment of th

, created by the moon. The wealth of colour tones

then begins to live in the flO\vers and blossoms
as though in an intoxicated forest.
Purple, opposite green in the colour circle. is
the basis for the 'incarnation' colour of the hu
man (Caucasian) skill This colour is produced,
not by mixing. but by an intensification, a height­
plant what can be made in\\'ard by the human be
ing and can, thereby, be of the greatest Significanc

Ate you searching for the greatC'st, the highes

The plam can tea~h :[ :0 you.

In order ro achie\-e \l)l!r aim,

What it does Wit!IOlH \\i!ling,

," ened interdClion of both colour st tt:'ams in the YULI should elu \'. it:' d ',',il!:
 Sllchst du das Grosste, das H6cilste,
sional arts is continued in Class 11 (wood carving
Die Pflanze kann es dir Iehren.
and brought to a close In Class 12 (stone sculp
Was sie wilIenslas ist.
ture). The projects concentrate on the human form
Sei dll es vollends, - das ist'sl
Why is it important to indulge in such theoreti­
cal digressions? Quite apart from the fact that
botany and cell structures are important subjects
in Class 11. that all areas of natural science lead to
a comprehension of the human being in Class 12,
we can see how, in the art subjects, the world
emerges from the ocean of forms - light/dark. the
colour phenomena, how the world in which we live.
with which we are interwoven, of which we are a
part. shapes and forms. reaching into the deepest
levels of life.
We may see from this that there is more to art
than its aesthetic nature. that it wishes and is able
to lead us into the mysterious processes of devel­
opment, of becoming. processes out of which our
world even today ever creates itself anew and by
which it is maintained. Paul Klee said: "Art does
not reproduce the visible - it makes visible".
Through the creative artist. forces and processes
are made visible that would otherwise remain in­
visible. hidden If we see the encouragement of a
comprehensive interest in the phenomena of
the world as our educcltional task in the High
School, it wil! be clear that this can [w awakened
by artistic <1ctivitips
The now of \\:ork in thp plClstic. rlln'e dimen­
or abstract work, form for form's sake. not copie
from nature. This intensification of the work arise
from the material itself as well as from the youn
students' will to create forms.
Referring to clay. Rudolf Steiner said that th
condition for an understanding of the formativ
forces of life as such. is provided by the way thi
soft. flex.ible substance is handled through th
sense of touch. Indeed. it is not only the wate
that makes clay malleable. but also the processe
that bring it close to an organic substance. Woo
is more closely related to the sphere of the sou
this is the reason why older cultures. concerne
with giving expression to the soul. preferre
wood for their scul ptures. frequently in a co
oured setting or mounting. or they worked I
stone in the way one does with wood as. for ex
ample. during the late Middle Ages in Europe
The colour. smell. the grain. its rhythm of tli
annual rings and even the degree of hardnes
are all expressions of soul forces.
I\'fore than any other material. the stone chal
lenges the wil\. the commitment of the personality
Nothing but clear. unequivocal structures rule th
day structllres hpwll from this lifeless. hard sub
stancr witl! ;:1 h'.'an· llli:1er's hammer in order t
give it shape [nC'.\or.lbh the stone will break if the
cllisel is \\'rut 01' if' a Imer 113s not been
 As the basis of our modern, scientifically orien­
tated consciousness, mathematical laws take us in a
general way to the thought connections in the world.
However, the laws of form, colour. sound. movement.
rhythm etc. of an object or process connect us
to the activities and life in everything that immedi­
ately surrounds us. Both complement each other:
what matters is their correct harmonising. This
points to the task a Waldorf school must set itself:
"In our work. our task will be always to call
upon the whol,; of the human being. We could
not do this without paying attention to the de­
velopment of artistic feeling slumbering in all
of us. By doing this we shall encourage our
students to have a real and deep Interest in
the whole world. an interest they will retain
and carry into later life "_ 6
This is how Rudolf Steiner expressed it in 1919.
Only by devoting oneself to the world can one act
responsibly, i.e. from knowledge. and take one's
assigned place in a positive. meaningful way_ By
endeavouring to combine the polarities of the world
in their unity. ultimately we may discover our cen­
tre of gravity in the spiritual strength of our ego.
COMMENTS ON THE FOLLOWING REPORTS
All the dovetailed wooden boxes made by different
people will be Identical if correctly and carefully
made. The making of the joints follows definite
long-established rules. The traditional techniques
I
ing and modelling. In the section on working with
plasticine the subject was treated as a kind o
'knowledge of forms' that led to the artistic. In
Anna-Sophia Gross's contribution The Idea o
Metamorphosis and the Modelling Lessons in the
Waldorf School, the metamorphosis of form up to
Class 12 is given special prominence. Modelling
will again come to the fore in close connection
with drawing and stone carving in the article on
Stone Sculpture in the High School. This will pro­
vide ever different ways of understanding the priri­
cipal elements of the plastic arts. They will be
found in each contribution in specific ways. Wha
is important is the attempt to find the formative
changing. vitalising elements in education during
the 3rd seven-year period, especially during pu
berty. Our contributions are intended as stimul
for this.
We included the article on shaded drawing be
cause of its close relation to the plastic arts. Both
have their roots in the etheric-elementary world
modelling in the watery-moist, shaded drawing
in the airy-light element. Forms cannot be sepa­
rated from light and shade; light and dark not from
the formative and dissolving processes.
At the same time, we are aware of the scan
attention paid to painting in the higher classes
(Part 4. Intensification - Heightening, p 144) and
refer the reader to M. JCmemann's and F. Weit­
mann's book in which this vast subject is
addressed in detail.
I Steiner. R. Theosophy AP.
2 Steiner. R. GA 291. Lecture 6.10.12.1920
3 Steiner. R. CA 303, Lecture 13.
4 Erziehullgskullsl. May/June! 952.
5 jUnemalln, M./Weitrnann F. The Art Subjects ill c/w Waldor
School Palllling ami Drallillg. Hawthorn Press, 1994.
6 Steiner. R. GA 294. Lecture 1
 have recourse to the forces that revitalise nature. De­
structive forces must be confronted with an increased
understanding of the mysterious laws of formative
forces in nature and in the human being. This alone
will make it possible for us to influence the dying life
.1 forces In a positive way. This task is well begun with
II
I a study of natural science as shown by Goethe. Ex­
act observation of the plants led him to a knowledge
of the fundamental principles of plant growth: his
idea of the archetypal plant. His descriptions of the
single stages in plant life allow us to recognise the
metamorphoses and sense the active being of the
plant in Its continuous transformations. I
Rudolf Steiner extended the idea of metamor­
phoSiS to all living nature processes, including the
human soul in her step by step transformation. He
described the development of the child, with
changes occurring not only in the body but also in
the soul. Body and soul are closely linked during
childhood. Educational measures that affect the
child's soul via the body (food, daily rhythm, mean­
Ingful activities and medical treatment) and those
that affect the body via soul and spirit (pre-occu­
pation with mental images, thoughts appropriate
to the age and artistic activities) all contribute to
the child's harmonious development. It is only the
adult who is able to educate himself through the
strength of his ego, in which case he will continue
to transform his inner life in old age. not, however,
by virtue of natural conditions, but through the
strength of his own spiritual striving.
Art connects these two sides of human devel­
opment. nature and soul/spirit. Rudolf Steiner ap­
plied the idea of metamorphosis to the arts as a
new Impulse. He graphically demonstrated the way
this can be done in the sphere of sculpture in the
first Goetheanum. Even today, through studying the
models of the large aUditorium, we can see how
the motifs of the pedestals transformed step by
step from the first to the second pillar, intensified
and connected by the mighty architrave. And so
on, everyone of the seven pillars, with its charac­
teristic form. being an intrinsic part of the whole.
_______
realism. was under threat of lOSing its original l
Rudolf Steiner gave us the opportunity to devel
an art of sculpture that connects again to acti
life forces in nature and the human being. An o
ganic sculpture is. according to him. neither a co
nor a Simplification of outer nature - as practis
e.g., during the 'Jugendstil' period (at the turn
the century, and continued by anthroposophis
as the critics would have it) - but is developed o
of the experience of formative forces in the wor
Rudolf Steiner put Goethe's words as motto fo
future aesthetics: "Beauty as manifestation of my
terious natural laws that would, without it, rema
hidden" According to Goethe. the artist's task is
make the hidden spiritual tendencies in nature pe
ceptible to the senses, allowing the totality
emerge from the formative possibilities of a sing
part. He or she must try to break the spell of wh
is mysteriously enchanted in nature, unable
unfold In It. "Only that wll1 be experienced as bea
tiful which appears to be more perfect than n
ture, where the object grows beyond Itself on t
basis of what is hidden behind it." 2
Rudolf Steiner gave us an example of this:
described the form tendencies to be discovered
the human being, that can be developed in an a
tistic process - where a-symmetry could come
the fore to a greater degree than is made visible
nature. The ossifying form of the head could,
accordance with its tendencies, develop a head w
strong, mobile elements. The form-creating force
active in human nature either as hardenin
rigidifying or as mobile. volatile elements are to
brought out as 'spiritual forms', Rudolf Steiner a
tempted this in his wooden sculpture for t
Dornach Goetheanum building.
We may dimly sense the creative possibilities
this artistic impulse. We stand at a new beginnin
What Rudolf Steiner wrote in connection with t
plastic forms of the Goetheanum applies to th
new approach to the art of sculpture: "The nat
ral. wherever it unfolds in a living way. works
forms that grow from each other. In artistic wo
 lessons. The so-called Man and Animal
block (Class 4) is a prime example: When
penguins have been discussed. the chil­
dren willjoyfully shape these birds. even
if several weeks later. The experience will
still live in them, becoming the motivation for shap­
ing the animals. We see the most diverse shapes of
penguins formed - fat ones. skinny ones. large and
small headed. Some of them seem to look about
with curiosity, others appear to be quite calm and
phlegmatic. We see a wealth of possibilities of
movements and expressions, Exceptionally quick
workers mIght add one or two chicks the given
subject Is differently and individually addressed,
Every child is still, in her mind, in the workshop
even though she may have gone to do something
else.
In one class. the question was repeatedly asked:
"When can we make swans?" I did not initially re­
spond because of the difficulty for the beginners to
succeed in shaping the thin necks, But they Insisted.
When I found out that swans had been the subject
of a lesson the previous year. I at last gave In and
they were satisfied. I clearly experienced the chil­
dren's need to actually shape what had been learnt
and seen, and this at a definite time after the event.
1 Vice versa, modelling has a tremendously
enlivening and ensouling effect on physical sight
through watching the hands' activities, By per­
1 ceiVing the forms produced, the eyes awaken for
the perception of the environment, the children
take a greater interest in the things around them
'"
if they were introduced at the right age and in the
right way to the forming of three-dimensional
objects!
If one wishes to put this effect on physical sight
to the test one could try and model a form with closed
eyes or feel an unknown object with the fingers, aile
will discover one's strong wish to visualise what the
hands are doing, In this experiment. the will im­
1 pulses one can feel in the eyes, allow us. afterwards.
to look at the world with greater wakefulness. Our
interest in everything we do increases.
I He or she who has experienced the conrH~C
I
tion between seeing and modelling can. out
true understanding. motivate children to mod
The only question is whether we notice and suppo
the events that are important for our children's d
velopment. A happy incident gave me an examp
furnished by daily life.
We were in the mountains: a heavy downpo
kept us Indoors, As soon as the rain stopped w
went outside and looked at the black mud that h
washed down from the pine wood further up.
soon as the seven year-old boy saw it. to his mot
er's horror, he knelt down in the wet grass and p
both his hands in the mud "Look'" he cried Jub
lantly. "You can make things with it. All you ha
to do is to mix it with some dry earth l " The fa
that the mud would crack when dry did not both
him. The joy in shaping was the decisive factor,
Building sand castles at the beach or in the sa
box is an important experience for young childre
They have to get the sand moist enough for th
castles, mountains. roads, tunnels. caves and lak
The children's formative forces wish to be used an
if nothing else is available. they will make do w
the mud in puddles. The result is of secondary im
portance; the dOing is aiL
Water plays an essential part in getting the co
sistency right. Be it in nature or in the modelli
room, it makes it POSSible for the living formati
forces to enter the otherwise lifeless substanc
Unformed matter, clay. is given shape throu
water: it lets itself be kneaded. is enclosed in a sk
Yet it is only [he human being who can give it
'taut' surface: it never just happens by itself. T
formarive penetration of matter engenders the ch
dren's growing into the world.
Rudolf Steiner suggested that clay modelli
should begirt at about the !Jth or 10th year. Befo
that. 1H't's\\,ilx is preferahl.~. The child' s i flner r
IcHioll lu tile t'flvironmem changes CO! ;sider-ab
during this time. Up to now he did not experience
himself strongly as being separated from the world
around; whereas now it is possible for him to feel
apart from it and he must find ne'v\' ways to relate
to his family. home and nature.
The new subjects of nature study and history
are a great help for this. as well as artistic/practi­
cal activities.
Woodcarving is introduced in the middle school
and complemented by formative exercises. The
work with wood should not exhaust itself in the
practical doing. but appeal to the children's sense
of form. They should be brought to the point \vhere
they only like useful articles if they are beautifully
shaped. While we need tools for the work we do.
the uniqueness in modelling lies in the fact that we
can shape the material directly and f'Xc!usively with
OUf hands. During the work. the faculties of these
most human of all organs are unfolded in differen­
tiated ways. It does not make any sense. therefore.
to use modelling sticks in this subject
The children gradually Jearn to appreciate the
truly wonderful structure of their hands. Arched
forms are shaped with the palms. with the pro­
nounced arched and muscular balls of our hands,
we transform the shapes. are able to produce
sltghtly hollowed surfaces The wealth of angular
forms is already there in the bony structure of the
fingers. Just as the complementary copy of the col­
ourful environment arises in our eyes, so do form
and hands complement each other to a unity dur­
ing modelling. With our concave palms we experi­
ence the convex form. feel its wish to expand. ami
we retreat from it. With the balls of our hands and
with our fingers we enter actively into the mate­
rial. force it back. Through this. the form assumes
a receptive character. Out of the reCiprocal inter·
play of polarly active forces the apparentl\ l:ving
plastic form arises
Our first exercises in the practical/artistic les
sons in Classes 5 and 6 are animals and people
just big enough to be enclosed by the hands. Withi
thi<; spacf' of our \v;:rrn hands. from the enclose
ball of clay, roundish animals emerge' sirting birds
frogs, hedgehogs. rabbits. baby sheep are all sui
able subjects. their simplified shapes especial
<:lllowing the expression of convex forms. Durin
the transforming process the beautifully stretche
surface of the ball of clay should not be destroyed
If the surface is roughly handled by inserting th
fingernails in it. there will be problems in restorin
the broken 'skin' afterwards. Less haste. more spee
i<; a sound prinCiple. We can already see in th
exercise how a form differentiates itself as it deve
ops. A little help will encourage the children to te
themselves again Without concentration. withou
being engrossed in the hands' activities. an en
closed surfRce will not corne about. Any hectic stat
must be avoided. A pleasant and calm workin
mood is produced when the chlldren immers
themselves inlo the process of feeling by touch.
Not all children find modelling easy. And it
the more important to see to it that their joy doe
not wane, that they do not despair by the all to
common" I can't do it!" The essential thing is no
what one can uo. but what one can develor throug
practice.
We progress from the roundish animal forms t
the stretched ones. The fish has always proved itse
as a transition The fish is formed through the wav
movements of its surrounding; it speeds ahea
through the beAt of its lateral fins. We get a clea
picture of the archetypal movements of the fish,
horizontally ronvard striving righUleft movement. An
the children can directly see how the movements w
give to our <lnifllals also express their very soul.
litlle bird may look s<:1dly downwards or cheekily up
wards. C8n look to the front 8S it greedily reaches fo
 I the fingers during the work. When making cats

1 I,
we start with the semi-spherical backs that
gradually develop into playing kittens. Their
movements must be carefully harmonised if a

1
cohesive group is to be the result. In a fox or
bear emerging from a cave the forms comple­
ment each other in an ideal way; as the cave
is modelled the animal's body almost happens

~ to arise from it. It is not only the plastic forms

that meet in a harmonious unison. but animal
and surroundings can also be experienced in
their close connection.
Developing our work further to include hu­
man figures - simple at first - we may suggest
the modelling of a shepherd with a few sheep,
or a man or woman and dog. This allows the
children to give individual expression to their
relation to animals. We get shepherds who
caringly bend down to their sheep. shepherds
who hold a sheep in their arms. or shepherds
standing upright. watching over their flock. A
phlegmatic child might insist on his shepherd
having a rest.
As soon as we model upright standing figures
we must find the balance within the form that
corresponds to the balance in walking or stand­

,
,
ing.In modelling we intenSively use those senses
Rudolf Steiner called the 'unconscious night
senses' or 'will sense' - the sense of touch. move­
ment and balance. We are hardly ever conscious
of them and yet we could not take a step without
their continuous presence. As we touch an object

~
or exert pressure on it from within our bodies.
the sense of touch lets us perceive the surfa,ce of
the skin. We knock. as it were. against the
world outside. Our sense of movement tells us
of the movements carried out by our body. our
limbs. or changes in the space around us. The
sense of balance provides us with the pOSSibil­
'1 ity of relating to the directions in space, espe­
cially to the vertical. 3 These experiences of
the energy relationships are a pre-condition
for the ability to perceive them also in sculpting
I and architecture. Fluctuating movements within

us are brought to a static condition in a sculpture.
When the main-lesson in Class 8 deals with the
study of anatomy it is appropriate and stimulating
to model bones. We try to shape the flat top of the
skull, a vertebra and tubular bone. We shall easily
discover the formative forces in the chest vertebrae
finding the balance between these opposite tenden­
cies. One of our students once brought a vertebra
bone to school to keep us from making a mistake. It
proved to be a bonus as we were able to study ex­
actly how the small bones beautifully interlock.
In order to avoid mere copying I tried to lead to
the natural forms by a gradual. developing process.
We began with the basic form of a lemniscate.
densifylng It towards the inner part of [he body. re­
sulting in supporting vertebrae. At the same time.
the protecting cavity of the hole in the vertebra
formed Itself. Added to this arrangement in the hori­
zontal are the vertical connections of the bordering
vertebrae and the right/left transitions to the ribs
through the appendices of the vertebrae. The polar
opposites of form. most clearly manifested in the
enclosed concave shape of the head and the tubu­
lar bones of the legs as vertical props. are only
assistance in mastering life.
At the beginning of puberty the students ask fo
more concrete projects. The free forces of imagi
nation give way to the forces of reasoning and in
telligence that now develop as independent enti
ties. It is our task during this time. when thinkin
is assuming a realistiC and analytical character
when the video culture either threatens to extin
guish the remnants of the forces of imagination o
turns them into an unhealthy. fantastic world o
pictures. to develop the appropriate forces of im
agination through the arts. With few exceptions
the students are unable to respond to a free. indi
vidual theme. Past experiences are of no use; w
must begin anew. But this offers a great opportu
nity. The individual students now show us quit
new aspects of their personality. During the cours
of the High School the t~ach~r is continuously sur
prised by them. Very slowly. new formative force
keep emerging from the chrysalis of formlessness
I would now like to show. with the help of som
illustrations. what I attempted to achieve with m
High School students with the exercises in the plas
tic arts. Every teacher will, of course, find his o
her individual methods. depending on the point o
departure. Experience with students. study of th
 , are. as it were. asked to see through the sense of touch
We feel changes taking place. with the pulse of life i
them. The simpler the basic exercises. the stronge
will be the faculty to observe. A more dimcult exer
cise would be counter-productive to the learning o

,
the basic phenomena in the formative arts.
During the second half of the block I work i
..
.;
the opposite way. After the main-lesson on th
. history of art. we practise observing and experi
encing proportions.
We derive the sitting figure of an Egyptia

:~ scribe from the totality of the form of a pyramid

, Afterwards we model a standing figure. a\lowin

ourselves to be stimulated by ancient Greek cul
ture. In the process. the geometrical rigidity of th
sitting Egyptian figure with its clearly perceptibl
forces of gravity must give way to a harmoniously
living uprightness. A truly wonderful levity i

~ present in the Greek Korea. As present day stu

. dents have problems with the attempt at risin
to the vertical. at lifting the heaviness and pen
human being and personal artistic formative abili­ etrating it with formative strength. the makin
,1,
, ties will provide the basis on which lessons will be of an upright figure Is therapeutic for them.
founded and sustained.
The previous exercises of 'feeling by touch' 'in In Class 10 I ask the students to model animals onc
the earlier classes are now raised to a higher level again. shapes in which soul forces come to expres
in Class 10 - to a free shaping of forms arising sion. What are the movements by which the ani
from a number of transformations of the sphere. mal's soul expresses itself? We refer to Franz Marc'

~
The shaping of surfaces. their stretching as far as art. In our first free exercise we show the forward
to the production of edges are exactly observed and movement. We usually get the most amazing vari
practised. Art, too. is based on craftsmanship. ety of quite anCient primal animal gestures. It is now
Rounded forms with their qualities of growth and Interesting to discover the specific animals that can
~ expansion radiate strength and life. Hollow. con­ be developed from them. What we get. to begin with
cave forms with their enveloping and receptive are animals that are more closely connected to th
qualities 'breathe' definite soul moods. Both of them ground: a fish. a whale. a beaver. a weasel: imagi
.• '~ through a wealth of reciprocal interplay. shape the nation is kindled. Later. during the modelling of
plastic forms. We begin to pay attention to the tran­ wild animal. much will become clear. Looking from
sitions joining the single forms. What kind of curve above. we can see the symmetrical-rhythmical ar
are we dealing with here? Is it convex? Is it rangements. Expanding and contracting parts of th

"*t
concave? It is both: doubly curved. Convex and con­ body alternate with each other. In the play of forms
cave curves lead. through their working together. the organisation of each part of the oody become
to a heightening of the polar formation of surfaces. visible. shared by all animals. but different in thei
The moving element. the process of becoming in a proportions. The rhythm of the spatial animal bod
form is must clearly visihle if I rrw doubly curved (seen from the side) is intensified by the line along
experience movement as much as their massive
form Impressed on them by strong. vital processes.
The wishes of the students should be responded
to. In our times when our inner connection to na­
ture is almost non-existent. where animals have been
reduced to mere economic units. it seems to me ever
more important in the context of artistic sub­
jects In the High School to occupy ourselves with
the animal as a living and ensollled being.
Our Class 10 students are working with t
two aspects of the human head. The qu
wonderfully rounded head of a Iinle ch
expresses most strongly the growth forc
active in building the physical body Futu
formative faculties lie hidden in the faces
young children. We must proceed caring
and cautiously when modelling them. Ind
cations are sufficient.
As foundation for the head of an adult w
begin with a concave form. The very first ste
already indicate the temperament, giving d
rection towards the next stage. We always wo
with one hand from within and the other fro
without. Only then can the reciprocal intera
tion of forces be grasped. The enclosed an
 moving. driving force capable of developing
During the process of becoming. of developing,
wealth of forms from Itself.

the artist's own formative forces in the head are .

A number of possibilities were conSidered an
gently vibrating along as he works; there is a deli­
put to the test: movement leading from weight
cate feeling by touch of them, be it consciously or
lightness. A pronouncedly voluminous. seed-li
subconsciously experienced. No wonder. then. round form develops into a bud-like one. grow

,when the first freely shaped head turns out to be upwards and unfolds into its surroundings. Th
almost a self p o r t r a i t . ' we connect to the plant world. A round form c
In most cases. we shall perceive in the sculptures then be gradually changed into a concave one; th
the inner mood corresponding to their creators. For will lead to forms that allow us to think of the d
me it is important that the students only learn to see. velopment of inner human organs.
in their first attempt. the proportions, the two a-sym­ Another example: a pronounced voluminous for
metrical halves of the face. without trying to express stretches in a horizontal movement. The freely form
soul conditions. such asjoy and pain that show them­ shape will express the animal nature. Depending
selves not so much in the physiognomy but in ges­ the degree of mobility in mental picturing the sing
tures and mimicry. There will. of course. always be parts may be lying close together. or the transform
an expression, but it is of secondary importance; it tion may be so strong that the onlooker himself
would tax the students too much. If. as a result of the asked to bring movement into his imagination.
work. the students tell me that they had observed the And it is just this that makes the work so val
faces of fellow travellers on the bus more attentively. able. because it is here that one begins to feel wh
a healthy basis has been established for independent nature is accomplishing when for example. it met
work. The students experience this block as the cul­ morphoses the petals of the poppy blossoms in
mination of their modelling lessons. the seed capSUles.
,'". '~ ,,
 ·I
...

_______
r
,

.L.

 I consider the exercises in metamorphosis to be Modelling in clay is. on the one hand. practice an
a good preparation for stone sculpting. During stimulation for the life-buildIng forces of the chi
stone sculpting - if done with the pointed chisel in and. on the other hand. preparation for the wo
the classical Greek tradition ~. one will experience In durable materials. A world of form. closely co
in a truly wonderful way the closing of the circle of nected with human nature. Is opened up. The nee
our exercises: an undifferentiated round or upright may. perhaps. arise from this to harmonise th
figure. depending on the shape of the stone. gradu­ things around us In our homes with the huma
ally transforms. becomes open to a variety of forms being. They should. In future. not only radiate
and yet retains its organic wholeness. gebmetrical objectivity that excludes us or leav
Again we experience growth forces. The work at a us cold. but have a vitalising effect on human b
surface. point after point with a pointed chisel. so ings of all ages. especially children. If our childre
that one can no longer see any arbitrariness. demands do not get the opportunity of relating their souls
the greatest attention of the students. If, during the . the things around them. later in life they will lac
previous years, he had not noticed what constitutes sodal faculties: insufficient soul development du
a stretched, formed surface - and this can happen in ing childhood leads to isolation, to an inability
spite of the teacher's efforts - he certainly will now. relate. to connect to the world. In this sense w
The weaving softness given to the form by the can see in the modelling lessons of the Waldo
'pointed' surface produces the semblance ofUfe, and school more than just a balancing of the predom
this more intenSively as one would expect. nating Intellectual demands made on the student

I v, Goethe. J W, The Metamorphosis of the Plant,

2 Steiner. R., GA 27\. 911.1888: 17.2.1918: GA 30

16.8.1923.

3 Aeppli. W. The Care and Development of the Senses. SSE 198

adhesives that allow 'adding to the stone' a true
sculptor will agree with Michelangelo and do with­
out them.
This means. of course. that the stone carver may
have to change the original plan if a piece of stone
breaks off and he still adheres to Michelangelo's
dictum.
It further means - and this can easily be con­
firmed if we watch a stone mason or sculptor at
work - that fullest concentration must be directed
to the point of the chisel. The sculptor must quickly
discover the way the layers are lying and how the
stone can be chIselled without cracking or breaking
them. Presence of mInd and clear consciousness
are asked for. It is only practice and experience
that will lead to the necessary knowledge of the
material. Every kind of stone reacts differently to
the chisel, but all of them directly and inexorably.
be it to the crude. hard blows of the hammer or the
delicate work on the 'skin' of the surface.
But how may a student succeed in this art
without the necessary preparatory training? Our
observations during the years show that Waldorf
students do. in fact. meet the conditions for
working In stone. Their previous work in the crafts
develops the faculty of seeing the consequences of
each activity. and stone carving demands this fac­
ulty. Stone carving disciplines and concentrates'
through itself.
Added to this is the entirely new experience for
Our students that induces them to set to work with
caution, even with a certain reverence for the stone.
These two aspects may be sufficient to point to the
pedagogical Significance 'of stone carving. They
clearly show that the students are given the means
to educate themselves. For this they are ready only
in Classes 11 and 12.
Stone masonry can be understood as merely a
craft or trade.
As such it can be taught already in Class 10 when
craftsmanship receives a dominant place. A project
could be the making of a base from a piece of rock
taken from a quarry.
The students must make themselves familiar ,:"ith
level surface? On which side should the first ed
be started in order to get a level surface, how d
transfer this edge to the other side of the rock? W
must I do in order to achieve this perfectly smoo
surface; how can I get rid ofthe bumps? What m
be taken into account so that the edges are n
higher than the enclosed area?
Different types of chisels have their special u
The first complete project is to be undertaken. T
allows the students to gain experience, to discov
the properties of his or her rock. its degree of har
ness. Its structure, layers etc. It does not mat
too much If this first project the rectangular
square base is not exactly smooth and accura
for later. it may be re-worked Into an animal shap
.This Is again a new way of dealing with anim
forms. The students has modelled animals from c
in Class 9; they were supposed to express the ch
acteristic qualities of an animal Modelling In c
is not appropriate to Class 10 students. The deto
via the stone allows them to gain a new relation
this task.
They get excited as they see the animal devel
in the stone, and their enthusiasm gives life to t
otherwise lifeless substanc/:!. The animals rise
though liberated from the rock. leaving all hea
ness behind. seeming to enter the light of day w
wonder and amazement. This immediacy in t
outer appearance is due to the students' inabil
to perceive and reproduce the correct anatomi
structure of their animals, as well as to their lovi
devotion to their new activity. The initially mer
technical preoccupation is passing Into a new a
tistic confrontation.
In Class 12 the approach is quite different. ev
if the students has not worked in stone before. Th
first project will be the shaping of a head. In Cla
11 they had modelled heads in clay. studied t
corresponding laws of proportions etc. Doing so
stone necessitates a different 'coming to grips' w
their task. The clay head was made by adding cla
in stone it is a subtracting process. The single form
their effect on each other. the effect of the who
must be consciously considered before the wo
------
, radial method. changes will always be po
sible, The chisel is always pointed to th
centre of the form, is heir! vertically to it an
must not penetrate deeply into the materia
The disadvantage of the tangential metho
is the difficulty of making corrections
improvementS because of the quicker an
definite emergence of the single forms.
using radial strokes. the students could lo
tangential line radial guidance
themselves in their tasks temporally as we
of [he chisel
as in the forms themselves.
The student'; always work Without a di
This indicates that. next to the formal aspects. gram or model i.e. the heads emerge from th
new artistic formative questions are beginning to stone - neither previously modelled in clay n
occupy the students. sketched in a drawing but purely out of th
....
[The last illustration on p. 161 is of a project do
for the Technical College Certificate (Fac
hochschulreife} .\
The work with stone. copper and iron does not STONE AND TOOLS
feature in the original Waldorf school curricu­
lum. It was added after the necessary conditions The Material
were met and the teachers found. In common.
they have a connection with modelling. albeit Stone is available practically everywhere. Man
under special conditions; and they are tremen­ the natural stone industries. especially when t
dous challenges for manual skills. own their own quarries. have offcuts that can
In stone carving the emphasis is on method used in our work. Their depots often include sto
and a clear idea of the aims. based on rules that from many parts of the world. including pieces f
can always be followed. We shall indicate the restored churches that make for truly beaut
extent to which the work can be gUided. the point . exhibits. By taking a good look at the immed
where the sphere of freedom (independent work) environment of the school one will probably
begins and how the handling of freedom with­ enough usable material. There are parts of Germ
out arbitrariness can be heightened to Independ­ where volcanic rock, such as tuff (or tufa), is fou
ence. Since artistic work must never be a copy Its softness Is especlal1y suIted to the Initial w
of a model. we shall pay special attention to the Delicate. 'soft' sandstone or chalk are also popu
free artistic activities In this subject. . Although stone has no grain, such as wood
A successful course will take its start from the does have layers. It is advisable to keep these l
condirions of the craft. as well as from the given ers horizontally during the work, since the st
themes. We begin with the technical methods cor­ cracks or breaks more easily along the layers t
responding to the material and the correct use of against or across them_ It is a pity if, for that r
the tools. and point out the fact that these meth­ son, pieces 'happen' to drop off. There are
ods were also used by Michelangelo. course, harder rocks close to being homogen
In our school, stone carving precedes the ar­ where this rule does not apply. If stone Is expo
chitecture main-lesson In Class 12. ending with to weather and the layers happen to be vertica
a trip to places such as Tuscany. We visit the disintegrates more qUickly' while, If they are r
quarry at Carrera. The students take small pieces ning horizontally, the effect Is not unlike tha
of marble and work with them afterwards in the roof shingles: they oppose the weather; water
hostel where we are staying. We had already snow do not penetrate as much.
done some preparatory exercises in school. Ex­ We usually begin with a softer stone, like tuff
ercises in drawing and modelllng are connected get used to the methods. Sandstone is next,
with stone carving. This work. supplemented preparation for the much harder marble. T
by short talks and trips to cultural places, such
as Florence and Siena. helps the students to get
a lively picture of these places and their
Significance for occidental culture. We are here
working in a practical artistic way in a place from
which our modern, natural-scientifically formed
life style emerged. Stone carving is thus directly
connected to modelling and drawing and consti­
tutes the final work in the arts and crafts before
the students leave school at the end of Class 12.
in order either to find a job or to transfer to an
examination class.
teacher should. of course. be familiar with the dif­
ferent rocks and be at home with the geological·
features of the envIronment.

The Tools
Illustration 1. 1 Is of the pointed chisel used by stone
masons.
Ill. 1.2 is of the same chisel. but flattened at the
top. the corners poInted. It used to be called the lIIus 4
'buffer chisel' and is hardly known today. Its his­
tory goes back to Ancient Greece. 1 It allows the
layers to be removed rather quickly. The flat chisel.
as sold in shops, is not suited to our work (ilL 2.1).
It Is used for smoothing out the rough surface made
by the pointed chisel. In any case. three different
kinds would be needed; their basic form Is similar
to a fish's tall. They are known as toothed chisels
(Ill. 2.3). flat chisel (Ill. 2.2) and curved flat chisel
(Ill. 2.4), the latter for chiselling concave forms.
Wood and iron mallets are best; each has ad­
vantages and disadvantages. If an iron mallet is
used (1000 gram, Ill. 3.1) the handle should be
removed and the iron head softened by heating
it. The rule is: soft hammer, hard head. so that.
for reasons of safety. the surface need not be
continuously repolished. An edge soon forms.
and splinters may easily break off. causing In­
jury (Ill. 4).
III. 3.2 is of a wooden mallet that can easily be
made from red or white beech. Its advantage is that
It does not Widen the head of the chisel and form
sharp edges. Its beat is sorter. its weight lighter - a
blessing for some of the girls. But its bulk is greater.
making it clumsy.
The jack on which the work is done (Ill. 5) comes .
from an old Italian tradition. It consists of three
tubular sticks of an arm's thickness and Is made
from hard wood. They are tied together at the top
with rope or wire. The bottom ends are opened up
, of 40-60 mm). Its use is to chip out the rough form

,
of the stone.
When working with soft stones we used kitchen
cleavers and found them very good indeed.
We found no use for the basic hammer ­
often the only one used in the trade. It hinders
the craftsmanship-like work and does little else lIlus 6.2
but systematIcally grinding up the stone.
For soft stones and smaller marble work the
one- or two-pointed axe Is suitable. The former
can easily be made from a 350g. heavy locksmith's
hammer (1lI. 1). ,
The number of tools can. of course, be increased.
but certainly not be reduced If one wishes to pro­ U1us 7
duce work of a professional standard. It Is most

, valuable for the students to know that the tools

can be made by themselves during the blacksmith's
block. They will have a more Intimate connection
to them and use them with care and enthusiasm.

STONE CARVING IN CLASS 11

" Experience taught us to develop the work in the
plastic arts In several stages: modelling allows the . considerably from the original. Therefore
students to familiarise themselves with the theme order to increase their confidence. the studen
of the work. without having to worry about tech­ concentrate on their drawings rather than on t
nical aspects of the craft. They can concentrate original, improving them by emphasising t
fully on the given project. three dimensional effect.
Drawing what has been modelled gives the pos­ This exercise shows them the disadvantage
sibility of perceiving soberly what has been done. drawing contours. that it is far better to start
There are two ways of doing this: a painting-lIke. two dimensional way from t
1) They draw the sculpture with its natural light centre towards the periphery. allowing the out

,
and shadow effects. which are heightened If the contours to arise in this way. Practice strengt
light is shown as coming from the observer. We ens observation: the basic form will become mo
refer to this as 'thinking drawing'. Since. as a accurate.
rule. the light shines quite differently on the Modelling with clay is the preparation for sto
object drawn. the form itself must first be com­ carving. The artistic process. started with clay
prehended. before it is drawn. The position of then transferred to the stone. Very soon the sto
the light is changed so that. what is closest to will show its inexorable character. as everythi
us is made brightest (e.g. IlL 10. n. 13. 15. etc.) chipped off Is Inevitably lost. Corrections are po
2) In his drawing the student goes beyond what sible only by altering the shape of the whole. Sin
appears in his sculptures: does not merely there is no definite or specific end result. as in a
copy. but improves on the original. In prac­ chitecture. such corrections on an artistic level a

,
1 tice this may result in the drawings differing possible. The definitive element in stone carvin

1.
The difference lies in the fact that, while in the recognisable as a 'concrete reality'.
drawn line we have a trace of movement. when I Pointed forms may be applied either regul
model a specific object I am dealing with surfaces or Irregularly. One can start from a spherical f
that are placed Into space. The sphere, represent­ leading to points and corners. It is a rigidify
ing everything that is round, has but one surface: paralysing process we can experience at the s
the tetrahedron. consisting of the finest straight apparently vanishing surface of the sphere. In c
surfaces, has four. The one extreme pole is the trast to the straight surfaces. against whose ed
sphere. the other the tetrahedron, cube etc. are al­ one. as it were. collides.
ways characterised by consisting of sections needed Ill. 9. 1 4 show the metamorphoses from
by the centre as its sheath. The sheath becomes sphere to a cube. Similar stages are possible
visible if we lengthen the surfaces of a cube (III. 8).all the Platonic solids. In modelling them. w
The surfaces interpenetrate. thereby determin­ out turning the work-piece. one will experie
ing edges and corners. It makes sense to begin from most vividly the three directions in space:
this primal polarity in three dimensional bodies. down. frontMback. right-left. When one turns
A perfectly round sphere is possible only as an clay these directions will be as though ex
Idea. by realising that every point on the surface is guished; all one experiences is surfaces and edg
equidistant from the centre. Correspondingly. the It is possible to think of other. quite fre
precision of the form of a cube lies in the number shaped forms consisting of straight surfaces
and distances of its corners. the length of its edges. edges. One of these could be the interpenetrat
its angles, etc. of freely formed architectural and sculptural
jects. The characteristic feature of these fo
PREPARATORY MODELLING corresponds to the regular bodies that are form
towards the outside (Ill. 9. 7 - 9). It is possibl
It Is the teacher's intention and aims and the chi 1-. reverse this: from out to inside (Ill. 9.5. 9.6
dren themselves that will determine how this 10). This will allow us to experience quite stron
subject Is Introduced. Pointed forms tend to the scaffold-like. Jifeles.;; nature of such for

II1us 8 /
 95 9.6

9.7

However interesting the composition may be. its
nature will not be changed by it.
Rounded forms can be modeIled by proceeding
1 from a spherical object._.a cube or an irregular
polygon. Such exercises need? general rule for the
correct method. since rounded forms, as we have
1 learnt. (end towards formlessness. disintegration ..
The freedom hidden in and slumbering in rounded
forms must first be conquered by the students if
they are not to degenerate into arbitrariness. They
1 must develop a much greater measure of the will
underlying the formative processes than during
the work with pointed forms that already incline
1 towards order. Following a rule - and there are sev­
eral - makes for a kind of binding objectivity that
can be tested at all times. And yet we shall never
see two identical forms. The progression would be:
structures, One of these ideas could be the divisi
of a round form: This can gradually transform it
thoroughly that a form with the characteristics
growth is the result. What matters Is the empha
on the vertical and. through it. the overcoming
gravity. The illustrations on the next page show (h
In Ill. 11.1 (page 168) we see the line of division th
is executed in 11.2. It could. of course, also take
different direction. It leads'to a division of the fo
in the direction up-down and left-right. In Ill. II
we have another line of division at any desired a
gie to the first one that brings the whole of the for
into motion, resulting in the emphasis on the ver
cal. The last of the rules states that all the forms a
to stream into anothel' without making edges. Th
example offers inexhaustible.opportunities that le
to ever new tasks. Clay allmvs itself to be stretch

,
1 take a rule to be followed as starting point and. in
the process. to develop one's own idea.
The rounded archetypal form. our second scarring
point. is to stimulate an idea as basis for further
and compressed without rlifficulry. so that su
forms can result.
The students mllst be told that. despite the
rules. the forms cannot be predicted; all one c

-
 lIIus 111 11.2

lL3
11.4

I! 5

._ . ~_. __._. ________

 do is to persevere and await the outcome. The truth
of this amazes them every time. IlIus 13.1 J 3.2

DRAWING

The students could be asked to draw either stages

of the work or the completed clay model. Its pur­
pose is to advance the artistic process, hitherto
only partly conscious, by creating the form
anew through exact observation. The ideal Is the
expression of something the sculpture cannot do
by itself. We recommend four views of the
modelling, so that the students can perceive the
transformation of the form at one glance - some­
thing that is otherwise only perceptible as the Illus 13.3 13.4
work progresses: the development of a form from
one movement to the next. The students are often
surprised at the differences of the four views that
mIght lead one to assume that they are of four
different pieces of modelling.
We could. indeed. say that the greater the dif­
ferences In the individual drawings of the same
1 object, the richer and more living it Is. An even
more objective experience will result from the stu­
dents drawing each other's work. Again they are
1
,
surprised at the way somebody else sees It.
After these reflections on drawing and model­ llIus 13.5 13.6
ling as preparation for stone carving we can now
take a look at this activity.

, CARVING IN STONE

The conditions for this work will be different if we

use tuff or soapstone rather than sandstone or
marble.
Tuff is best used when taken straight from its
1 place of origin. still damp. The problems are al­
ways caused by the sand and basalt grains, as IlJus 13.7
the sand tends to drop out. leaving holes, and the
1 harder basalt does not let itself be ground and

1
 J1\us 14.3
poltshed. Dried tuff becomes very light, increas­
ing its hardness by 40%. It can quickly be made
soft again and acquire its original 'freshness' by
Immersing it in a basin of water, An added ad­
vantage is that there is no dust during the work.
Its degree of hardness is comparable with that of
concrete one day-old.
We begin by removing the rough edges with a
kitchen deaver. Guiding it tangentially and obliquely
across the stone and away from the centre, a rough.
rounded surface is produced. This will prevent the
stone from cracking as the result of too violent vi­
brations (Ill. 12.1. page 169), Once the corners and
edges have been roughly removed, the surface ten­
sion can be produced through quick. light beats from
the wrist In a radial direction towards the centre.
This will result in a quite beautiful form, even If the
surface itself remains rather rough. (III. 12.2).
The stonewiH be lying on the sandbag on top of
the three-legged jack. as described on p. 165. A
siliceous-like initial form emerges not unlike that
formed by a stream. We have to discover the pos­
sibilities in this basic form that must now be newly
divided and shaped according to a 'rule of form­
ing' that arises almost naturally. We draw a line
with a wax crayon - Indicating the idea - on the
stone as a kind of boundary.
We already know this process from our model­
ling lessons. The students. familiar with this way
of developing forms. can therefore begin their work
14.4
with some confidence. The unyielding quality o
the stone demands thinking ahead - what is don
cannot be undone, as in clay, but only altered
This meanS self-discipline and dear thinkin
through concrete forces of imagination: What wi
the form look like if I chip off this piece? The stu
dents must be told that what applies to all lif
also applies to the arts: transformation is essen
tial for the creation of something new. The form
of the siliceous stone must be transformed. mus
differentiate itself; one must be able to relinquis
it, in order to chisel from it an idea and making
visible. In the same way, youth cannot remain
where it is, but must leave it behind and pass int
maturer years. A blossom must progress to fruit
as it fades and the seed ripens, it reaches a highe
stage of life. If such things are discussed befor
the work begins. there wm be few problems.
In Ill. 13, 1 and 2 (page 169) we see the path o
the line of idea whose beginning and end should
not meet. Ill. 13,3 and 4 show the side views. Wha
inclines to the onlooker from the top left is turned
in the opposite direction at the bottom right. The
other side is done in the opposite way (III. 13.4)
In addition. a turning form arose in both parts. The
direction of the dividing line on the bottom of the
stone produces a very mobile play of forms tha
can affect the whole of the work if it is transferred
to the top surface as impulse of movement (III. 13
5 and 6).

 ence and challenges the students' full initiative,
if it is to be successfuL It also presupposes some·
. experience in both clay modelling and stone carv­
ing. The raw piece of stone (III. 14.1) without any
previous planning shaped, with the help of a
hatchet, into a composition of straight edges and
surfaces. It is the stone itself that will stimulate'
the students and suggest each step to.be taken
(Ill, 14,2 4). The final touches are again made
with the toothed and flat chisels.
, lIlus 15.1
"
,
,
,
lIlus 15.4
so that he becomes conscious of whatever he
doing. There are cases where students will ne
to be encouraged to persist because their Imag
nation has been paralysed by the flood
impressions and mental imageries from without, an
the poim where their own initiative awakens m
be long in coming. In such situations the wo
will be therapeutic. But the human being is
constituted that everything slumbering in hi
15.2
15,3
 lIlus 17.1 17.2 17.3

can In time awaken. Because of this, diligent work ar:e clearly distinguished from the roundly grou
appropriate to a specific age Is essential; it is not a edges and. if one so wishes. one can Increase th
matter of the students' lack of will. but of their In­ convexity to the point where they pass to the oth
ability to work Independently and be fully awake. side (III. 16. 1 3). Another possibility would be
Our aim can best be expressed by a quote from starting from the round ly ground edges. so that
Rudolf Steiner's lecture on the acanthus leaf: 1 new form arises (IlL 17. 1 3). Similar to a . han
"It is only in hindsight that we can think about flatterer'. It is advisable to protect the hand that hol
what ought to arise as artistic form. If we under­ the stone with a glove. Such forms can be left pointe
stand It first and carry it out afterwards it will be of The effort of grinding and polishing would be u
no use, If we create from concepts and Ideas, the warranted. The size of the piece does not allow t
result will have no value whatsoever", use of the toothed or flat chisel. A dearly point
If earlier on we spoke of an Introductory idea surface can. because of its sortly fading structur
leadtng to the artistic process, this Idea is no more . be quite beautiful.
than the key to the artistic process whose end one
cannot pre-think Hence the reason for doing the SIDNE CARVING IN CLASS 12
drawing at the end, creating the sculpture anew in
a two-dimensional picture, and thereby prompt­ This course culminates in Class 12 with subjec
Ing recognition of what has been produced. taken from the world of animals and the huma
Rules and ideas are here merely signals. The figure. Modelling and stone carving here reach
process of becoming can thus be made conscious. new level of syntheSIS.
but only by retracing it afterwards. We may use a The students are asked to observe accuratel
rule or idea as a help in feeling our way; what ac­ They can agree on the value of clear observatio
tually happens in the process Is something we can in all areas of life, not only in sculpting or mode
understand and know only afterwards. ling; it will help them to perceive and understan
better,
A brief 'interim project' will make visible further pos­ They must understand at least the rudiments
sibilities. It can be done without any complicated animal anatomy for this exercise; it is one of th
technical means. with just one tool held In the hol­ conditions for the work - the other is the ability
low of the hand. Even marble can be worked In this translate this knowledge into plastic forms.
way, provided we have the patience. During our trip An overview of the work will show that we ar
to Seravezza near Carrara we collected several pol­ dealing with an artistic understanding of th
ished pieces of marble. the size of a hand. from the four natural kingdoms. something that has to b
riverbed. We shaped them with a one-pOinted ham­ learnt. To begin with. we get the principal form
mer (III. 7), It reminds us of the hammer used by in the sharp edges and points. This is the
geologiSts. but it is easier to use. It allows one. for dissolved into the rounded. swelling forms w
instance, to work concave shapes into surfaces that discover as archetypal gestures in the buds an
fruits of plants. These forms then stretch into
the verttcal to enlivened plant-like shapes. The
animal loosens itself through its movements from
Its ties to the earth; its form structure becomes
the expression of an Instinctive Inner life. Finally.
the human being unites within himself the rigid.
enlivened. ensouled elements of the three natural
kingdoms and expresses his personality in his
upright posture, his restrained movements and
controlled and ensouled gestures.
ANIMAL FORMS
The work with animal forms. here shown, is in
preparation for the carving of human figures which
we do during the three weeks long art block In Italy.
Animal forms are first modelled in clay. One
way Is the copying of animals depicted in ancient
cultures. In order to get the feel for this sub­
Ject. I found Eskimo sculptures and also modern
ones by artists such as Ewald Mature useful. The
students may immediately begin to model in clay.
Ill. 18 shows a selection of animal forms in the
Etruscan museum at Volterra. Similar sculptures
can be seen in Greece and elsewhere. We can see
the simplicity of the forms without their losing the
original characteristics of these animals. But the
students must understand that such forms are not
appropriate for stone sculpting. Ill. 19 shows such
a development. The last two indicate inner ges­
tures. The animal 'wants' something. it follows its
instinct. It is the Simplest form of an animal and is
modelled in the hand. As preparatory exercises.
three types of animals are carved in stone: l
down, crouching and freely moving.
The work. can either be quite simple in its
ementary gestures or more sophisticated (Ill.
page 176).
. Ill. 19 and 20 (pages 174 and 175) clearly sh
the way this can be done. The forms carve
stone must remain simple, but Without lOSing
essential element. We select one of the clay
ures we wish to transfer to stone. It serves
gUide - as did the rules we followed during
modelling of free forms What is, therefore, n
essary Is to reduce the animal form to its b
essentials. in order to make this POSSible.
We select a piece of storie, 1.5 to 2 times la
than the clay sculpture. The layers should li
horizontal as possible. The stone Is then reduc
with a cracking chisel - to the correct basic
and shape. The outline of the clay modellS dr
on the side and then generously hewn' from
stone.
The next step is the fixing of the animal's mo
ment as it manifests in the spine. This movem
can be shaped along the body in the form o
·S'. Beginning at the head. the main form is t
differentiated. layer after layer. all the parts b
chiselled out in accordance with this movem
In order not to lose the overview. It is advis
to draw the Hne of the spine on the stone. We m
be aware that head and pelvis constitute the
movable parts on this line. that every movem
must emanate from the neck. chest and tail. W
the clay model we started from the body (sph
·1
I

lIIus 19

and egg) and proceeded to head and limbs. Now feel that their first attempt Is enough - only to b
we begin with the lateral view of the total figure. surprised at the difficulty one of their friends (wh
determine the gesture of the head and proceed from shirked a more complicated project) experience
there to the body. In, the sculpting of such a simple shape as that
The final touches can be carried out by alter­ a chicken.
nating the tools used. The teacher wishing to make a success of th
The pointed chisel will produce a shaggy pelt. work is advised to practise as much as possib
the toothed chisel a pleasant contrast at the base, himself. because of the unexpected problems en
the flat chisel Is especially suitable for carving of countered by the different group of students. On
a flatttsh mouth. Animals. such as seals. almost experience maketh the master. And it Is good f
ask to be polished smoothly all over. Under the the students to know that their teacher is still learn
belly and between the legs the stone should be Ing. They are impressed by their teacher's abili
left as a prop, without being too noticeable i.e. it to produce two or three animals during the tim
Is shaped concavely. making It an integral part of they are struggling with just one. A great deal
the total form. asked of the teacher who dares to touch this sub
It Is not the naturalistic form we have In mind. , ject. But working with the students is so exciting
but the representation of a typical characteristic and the variety and strength of expression so amaz
feature of the animal. A little mishap can some­ ing. that it is well worth while to give all one can
times prove to be a bleSSing. Some students may it. A more intensive work can hardly be imagined
 laughing or singing will have a communicating
gesture. opening out; a person in despair or a
. thinker. one of contracting. concentrating. Between
these extremes we get a whole range of feelings.
The easiest way of dealing with this problem is
to start by expressing a feeling or gesture abstractly.
an axe. Ill. 24 (page 177) shows the same meth
for a crouching figure. One only needs to have
rough idea of what one is aiming at. the rest w
develop from the activity itself.
As with animal sculptures. here. too. it is pos
ble to make use of drawing as a preliminary stag

'I
.~

,~

,
1

t Illus 20

1
\
There are many most interesting examples of quite must have proceeded from a free composition
simple sculptures of human beings in the history forms. in order ,gradually to bring out the mot
of art. The drawings shown in Ill. 25 (page 177) The Matthew sculpture (in the Academy of Flo
are the result of studies in the Etruscan Museum ence) has long been the teaching model for ge
in Volterra, erations of sculptors, Tradition has it that. wi
this preparatory work in stone carving can be this sculpture. Michelangelo emphasised t
done In several ways, If we use a wood or clay need of keeping the parts of the composition
model as starting pOint. we must select an appro­ an unfixed state as long as possible. In order
priately shaped piece of stone. Its size must be such . be able to change them if necessary.
that the steps leading to the gesture can be chis­ The Pieta Rondanini shows that he kept faithf
elled out. After the preliminary work it will be a to this prinCiple to the end of his life. It is his la
matter of directly teasing forth the required shape work; he continued to make alterations until short
from the stone, In this way. the process of becom­ before his death. leaving a part of the group -
ing can be based on previous experiences, before right arm - without its body. He used yet anoth
continuing to the finished product. method in the sculpture of his Slave (Florence Aca
We can heighten this approach by trying to emy) where he chiselled directly the single parts

lI1us 22

--------~-------- ____________
1
lHus 24

IIlus 25
the body. leaving the viewer the Job of arrangi
them into the whole.
In a lecture given on 16.10.1920 Rudolf Stei
said:W ••• if one shapes the human figure plastica
from stone or similar material. It Is necessary
proceed from [he face. from (he head... and t
rest of the figure Is. artistically speaking. really
more than an appendix of the head. One must no
sin against the natural forms of the head. and o
has to sculpt the whole of the limbs and trunk o
ganism from what is disposed in the head. T
marble. the stone demands this of the sculptor"
Experience shows that it is easiest to carve su
figures by taking the hand as starting pOint - sim
lar to the way the human being develops his bo
during the first seven years. The essential thing
to remain in the gesture and not to lose oneself
details. We can learn much from Ernst Barlach
whose sculptures the gestures mature only throu
face. hands and feet to full expression.
Ill. 26 (page 118) shows the attempt at worki
with stone by thinking a different form into each
the views. The forms are then furlher thought o
and taken to their final stage viz. simple groups
people. The sketches represent merely a series
variations that could be added to and done also
clay. With practice. dr-awing will prove itself a

IIlus 26

_______________
 the way a lesson develops: we arrive well prepared,
and only discover afterwards the direction the les­
son took. This makes it into an artistic process
parallel with that of stone sculpting. It Is a process
that is beyond the possibilities of most of the Class
12 students. but the teacher himself. again and
again, should practise and strive towards it. It is
important for him to address himself not to what
his students are. but to what they could be in or­
der to tease forth a heightening. an intensification.
This makes it necessary for the teacher to be fully
immersed in the artistic process, to try to work in
the way Schiller indicated: "Just imagine what they
could be if you had an effect on them ... Wherever
1
2 Steiner. R. GA 288. Lecture 4.1610.1920
1
j
If we work artistically in the way we are attem
ing. we are superimposing an ideal element up
the material or. better expressed. we develop
ideal element out of the stone. clay or line. Ma
is thereby raised to a higher stage. something hig
rays from the artistic form. It Is the reflection of
process attempted In Waldorf education. Rud
Steiner summarised it as follows: "The task of e
cation. spiritually understood, is the harmonis
of the soul/spirit with the physical/corporeal bo
They have to be attuned to each other. because
the time of birth they are not as yet In harmo
The task of the teacher and of education is to h
monise them-. 4
I Steiner. R.GA 286. 7.6.1914.
3 Schiller. F.. Tile A~stlletic Educalioll of the Human Be
Letter 9.
4 Rudolf Steiner. The Foundations of Human Experience. L
lure2!8 1919.AP. 1996.
have a choice between painting/drawing and that it was because of this that this specific them
woodcarving. Their previous work in clay. wood was chosen for our art course. But what was th
and stone is the pre-condition for wood carving 'essential element' in the course?
In Class 13. The carving or whittling of a simple Our main concern was to discover a reasonab
figure in Class 6 is the first step in this direction. relation between our practical activities - th
The time allotted to our course is three quarters concrete artistic work and the study of gener
of the year. with 3 lessons a week. The theme of questions In the world of art, in order to arrive
the work Is the human figure. carved in vertically the really important and, for us. essential que
grown wood. tions. Again and again we met with this 'essentia
The students select their piece of wood and element. It became clear already at the beginnin
gradually develop the Idea of form in Its structure when we looked at the blocks of wood and dl
and shape; or they start with an idea and look for 'cussed the basic sculptural forms. What. indee
the piece of wood corresponding to it. and attempt are edges. surfaces. curves and where are the
to force the Idea on it. Experience will show points of origin? We learnt that an edge must n
that both approaches are necessary ~ as a kind arbitrarily be 'pulled' from a surface, but that
of interplay between them. Carving becomes a
tentative conversation (through touch) between
the Intention and the deed, between the wish and
the fact. Rigid ideas and mental pictures become
mobile; while vague, indefinite ones assume con­
tours. In the search for the essential elements in
carving successful forms are found and recognised
as such. During a reflective conversation, the stu­
dents learn how the quality of form arises through
divisions. proportions and the direction of sur­
faces. making possible its essential expression in
the harmony between idea and wood. Looking at
art works and studying the sayings of artists are
a great help. Such a quote was used by a student
for the following report. It was the theme for the
examination project. The quote is from A. de Saint­
Exupery's Tile Little Prince. In the paragraphs
accompanying the illustrations of their sculptures.
the students themselves are expressing their
thoughts concerning their work.

THE ATTEMPT AT MAKING THE HEART SEE

"It is only with the heart that we may see well. The
essential remains invisible to the eye". These are
the parting words of the fox to the Little Prince.
And. as in this story by Saint-Exupery. so we too
have to leave everything we had done in our school

-.-------.. . - - - - - - - -_______
 connection to the heart. since the perception of an
object through the hands pre-supposes stronger
feelings and experience. This faculty is especially
strongly developed in blind people.
We agreed that in art the decisive matter is not
the outer view of e.g. a piece of sculpture. but the
inner movement and stirrings effected by it; "it is
always with the heart that one sees well Through
n.
this work, the artist thus must succeed in im­
parting his ideas, feelings and intentions so that
the person looking at it may feel and experience
beyond the visual impressions what the artist ex­
perienced before him. In this sense. art becomes
connection. communication. language. .
L ..
1
practice. Both these popular urges in the hum
being - that of matter which characterises the
ing transitoriness of feelings. the sensuous p
in us; and the urge of forms that could perh
be described as spiritual and moral strength
form - both. according to Schiller. suppress u
one-sidedly developed. The same applies to
neither a brick nor a lump of rock will be seen
a 'work of art': only one of these principles dom
nate in them.
What matters. therefore. during an artistic
tivity. is to work simultaneously at the whole a
the detail. attentive to the moment while at
same time cognisant of the idea. of the inner
chetype whose copy one wishes to produce. O
In this way will i( be possible to express the ess
tial on the one hand. and the necessary, on
other. What always matters in art - and In thi
will be recognised as such - is the connection
tween the temporal and the eternal. matter a
idea. Art in this sense is uniting.
Schiller extended his rhoughts on aesthetics
the social life. [he art of living lOgether. Look
about lOday in. say. either a museum or on
street. we will easily be convinced of the truth
his thoughts. Far too many people see merely w
their eyes; they lose themselves in the world
colour and cannot see. perceive the essential. L
of direction. of purpose, and aimlessness t
ensues lead to depression. the dominant illn
today - a phenomenon of our time. If
take heed of Saint-Exupery's idea. admit
necessity of seeing with our hearts. we shall
enabled to form judgements about the worth a
nature of things. How can this be done?
Surely only by training oneself to see and expr
the important and essential. This is obligatory
art. Is it. therefore. possible to develop social fac
ties through artistic activities, faculties that open
eyes. so that we may perceive our fellow bei
behind the outer physical appearance? I believe
Schiller would surely nod his head enthusiastica
In this way I understand the art lessons in our sch
as an attempt. an exercise. to make the heart s
 Joy
I know of two possibilities of looking at thing
the everyday one is a disinterested look at
strange object. the other Is a perception of th
permeating life; it flashes through the whole
the human being as joy. Carving at my sculptu
was a continuous wrestling with the second
these possibilities. Because only this. as inn
interaction and conversation with the wood. l
to its form.

Roman

Turning away (alJenation)

. As the work proceeded it became ever clearer to m

that the sense of touch was far more essential tha
I had thought. By touching the sculpture. its beaut
the Interplay of surfaces. the forming and dissol
ing of edges all things that constitute the quali
of fl sculpture - can be recognised and Judged. On
of the most successful surfaces of my sculpture co
tinues from the back of the right shoulder. I wou
love to invite people to experience the Interplay
form in my sculpture with the sense of touch.

Bernhard

. ,i
 Deep in thought

The translation of my idea into a piece of wood

happened in a very naturalistic way that did not
satisfy me at all. the less so the more naturalistic it
became. Almost by chance I made a discoyery. The
left arm had the effect of life. even though It con­
sisted only of a shape that turned within itself. very
abstract and not at all naturalistic. By building on
the experience that edges and surfaces are more
Important than exact copying. I then attempted to
realtse this also In various places of my sculpture.

Felicitas J.

:. I

I
i

Listening Mother
During the carving of my piece of elm. a surface
, soon showed itself at the centre that could be in­
J terpreted as 'hands'. It was protective quality that
prompted me to think of the name. The surfaces
which arose. and my ideas which I found difficult
to realise. resulted in a reCiprocal interplay. lead­
ing to the overall form of the figure.

Thomas W
r !
OrlglnaHy I Intended to carve an abstract sculpture.
I Imagined that I could satisfactorily represent a
commanding gesture in an abstract way - a few
surfaces. from which new edges would arise ... But
I had forgotten one thing. I had never tried my
hand at carving a naturalistic form. Questions
arose. such as "What indeed is the essential ele­
ment of an arm?"
I gradually pushed my first idea aside. with the
result that the overall sculpture became 'essential'.
In this way I could thoroughly practise the effects
of carved and other surfaces.

Sonja I

I abandoned all attempts at a naturalistic copy by

trying to shape my sculpture as an organic struc­
ture emanating from the stream of form with all its
movements of turning and whirling - as Is present
In the form of a human being or in an animal bone.

Kathe S.

--------------------
J HERBERT SEUFERT
t Work and rhythm
A statement of Rudolf Steiner's during the
Konferenzen held with the teachers touches on the
age-old custom of singing during work:
.if you try ... and this is an ideaL .. to bring.
ft . .
what is called rhythm Into the work; If yciu try to
connect the musical - singing - eurythmy les­
sons with the craft and handwork lessons. The
effect on the children would be extraordinarily
beneficial. I recommend Karl Bucher's Work and
Rhythm to you. 1 It should be in the school library.
All work used to proceed from music, be it thresh­
Ing, Iron forging or laying cobble stones. It Is rarely
practised today. But if you had gone to the coun­
,
try even a few years ago and heard the people
threshing their wheat: you would have noticed the
rhythm by which it was done, I believe we could
do this again In our lessons. This Is what I in­
tended when I said that ~plrit should again enter
our work". Z
But Is this not backward looking, mere nostal­
gia, if we let our children sing during their
1 handwork and craft lessons? Would they indeed
wish to enter the spirit of the 'muse', especially
today. when the radio does all the entertaining at
each and every work place? And if we were to try it
out. how would we go about It?
A dozen boys and girls are preoccupied in cop­
per work in Class 9. They are hammering away at
1 their bowls. It is hardly possible to make oneself
heard: the cacophony of the hammer blows on the
hard metal. the typical ping-ping-ping fills the
room. Suddenly we hear over there two or three
children hammering in unison. Others follow and
soon all of them are hammering to the same beat.
After a while the beat is lost: one student stops,
the rest continue and, again, the unison is there.
1 1
Then, one of the boys or girls starts whistli
a rhythmical melody. and everyone begins
hammer to It. It stimulates, is almost contagio
nobody now stops work: and the muod continu
for quite a while.
Every student experiences this In our copp
beating blocks, and they are always amazed
tHe fact that a common work rhythm com
about. positively influencing the work. Soon t
questions come. Some of them remember the
farming block in Class 3 when they were allow
to thresh the wheat they had sown and harveste
They sang the traditional Threshers' Song as th
worked with a will until it was all done:
Can you hear the threshers,
Their beat as they worked,
Snip-snip-snap
snip-snip-snap
snip-snip-snip-snap!
Hare ihr die Drescher.
sie dreschen 1m Take,
klipp-klipp-kJapp
klipp-klipp-kJapp
klipp-kllpp-klipp-klapp/
Such memories lead to the discussion of earli
ways of working and as we shall show to the
value today. Our previous school caretaker lear
his joinery trade at the beginning of the centur
During his last years with us he remembered h
apprenticeship days and. every time he entered t
carpentry shop, he burst into a song, a modific
tion of the well-known Joiners' Bench Song:
And isn't this a joiner's bench, joiner's bench
Ooh aah you lovely joiner's bench
Short and long
Short and long.
 Transporting the statue of Thuthotep. From K. Bucller - Work and Rhythm
Is des net e Hobelbank. Hobelbank
ei-ei-ei die scheene Hobelbank
kurz und lang
kurz'und lang
And then he would tell us how, as an appren­
tice, he was taught to use the plane. to push
it forward and draw it back, to the rhythm of this
song. They kept singing this and similar songs as
they worked. Depending on the type of work they
replaced the words 'joiner's bench' with 'garden
gate'. 'kitchen bench', 'closet' etc, There was good
sense behind this singing during work, Why? If I
work too fast I tire quickly; If I work too slowly I
don't get the necessary momentum needed for a
dean shaving, In both cases I get short of breath.
and the quality of my work suffers.
Behind it all is the ancient 'law' that maintains
the need of all work to harmonise with the pulse
beat and the rhythm in breathing: the work will
then be good and the worker will not easily be ex­
hausted. Songs animate, engender Imagination:
many a merry song was written and composed
during work,
The same happened in the blacksmith's shop.
The master smith led the beat, his two helpers
took it up and a three beat rhythm ensued. Most
of their songs have this rhythm. Goethe used it
Greek terracolta_
Baking hr('ari to tile accompaniment of flu/C music.
Louvre. PariS
--.--.... --.. - ---------------___
in the Smith's Song in Pandora: "Light ye the fi
men, fire is burning then" ("Zundel das Feuer a
Feuer ist oben an... "). Richard Wagner gives th
rhythm to Siegfried to sing: "Forge, oh my ham
mer a hard edged sword!" ("Schmied mein Ham
mer ein hartes Schwert! ")
C. F. Meyer used the iambic beat for the rhyth
in sowing in his poem: "Take care each step. ea
move just right, the earth will stay quite fresh an
bright. a seed drops here" {"Bemesst den Schrt
bemesst den Schwung. die Erde bleibt noch lange jun
dore (alit ein Korn 'J.
The sower puts his hand into the sack of see
and scatters them across the field. Putting the han
in. scattering evenly. the momentum, the streng
is directed to the throwing, In this rhythm he pr
ceeds across the field.
The pleasure the Ancient Egyptians. Greeks an
Romans took in making pictures and sculptures
their activities allows us to know the methods th
used in the construction of their massive buil
Ings. An Egyptian sandstone relief depicts a giga
tic statue being pulled on runners by a multitu
of workers. A man is standing on a rock, gesturin
wildly. with his mouth open - singing! At every a
cented beat of his song, the workers strain at th
rope and pull the massive statue forward. Is o
 could be! During the building of the Assam dam
j the rock temple of Abu-Simbel was removed in Its·
entirety and rebuilt further up the valley. The whole
building was sawn into blocks and moved. One day.
the mechanical lifts broke down just as one of the
blocks was to be moved. The engineers discussed
the situation in their tent: to get a replacement or
the necessary parts would take at least four days.
Outside the tent the workers were singing, in the
opinion of the engineers a waste of time. Imagine
their surprise when. on leaving the tent, the rock
had gone! Just as 4000 years before. the workers.
led by their foreman and 'foresinger' in rhythmical
singing and corresponding movements had trans­
ported the rock through human strength.
Towing their boats upstream hard work indeed
the boatmen were helped by their special songs.
They were mostly deeply melancholic and mo­
notonous, sung as they trudged along the towpath.
The best known of them is that of the Volga boat­
men. J. Repin's painting shows most impressively
and movingly the raggedly dressed, haggard and
pitiful men as they pull the heavy cargo boat up­
stream, harnessed to leather belts, a day's work
that would not be possible to endure without the
I help of singing.
In former times, there was hardly any work done
. cannot harmonise with it.
in which singing did not feature. The Greek terracotta
group shown on page 186 shows several women
kneading dough to the rhythm of flute music. It
helped to make the consistency of the dough even.
Imagine a choleric. phlegmatic, sanguine and mel­
ancholic person working side by side without this
rhythm! What would have been the result?
All our examples - and many more could be added
- show the effect of rhythmical singing. It indicates
the best speed for relating the movements necessi­
tated by daily toil to the rhythms in breathing and
blood Circulation. And the students quickly noticed:
singing strengthens their perseverance! And it guar­
antees and even improves the quality of the work.
We began by mentioning the students' expe­
rience during copper work. It provides the
opportunity of telling them about methods used
rhythm, in order to establish steady continuity e.g
In a rowing competition. The latter provides th
opportunity of mentioning the galley slaves.
The students also discover that rhythm increase
the efficiency of the indiVidual and especially o
the group. The concentrated co-operation of all th
energies during a rhythmical song or beat make
POSSible unpredictable achievements that ca
border on the miraculous - as was obviously th
case with the rock figures in Aku Aku.
We also notice the effect of rhythm on the qua
ity of the product. This Is yet a subject unde
investigation whose results may deeply affect ou
life processes.
It is good to mention such things in order to a
low the students to understand these processe
We hardly ever find rhythmical work processe
today, Since most of them have been replaced b
the continuous movements of machines. Gadge
are used in drilling, sawing, slicing bread and eve
cleaning our teeth. AU that's left for us to do is t
use and control them; rhythm has no place there
Mechanisation of work paralyses our life, insofa
as lungs, blood circulation, our rhythmical organ
no longer vibrate along our organism of movemen
It is our nerve/sense and limb/muscles activ
ties that tire US, never pulse and breathing, tha
continue to be active throughout our lives. T
adapt the working conditions to this rhythm is no
only an economical measure, but also a matter o
hygiene and therapy.
Every healthy rhythm sustains life! The balance
alternation of day and night, waking and sleeping
movement and rest. in-and outbreathing. althoug
not often conSciously noticed and appreciated. i
a vital support for our physical health.
In the Waldorf school, rhythmical movements i
connection with language and sound are cultivate
in a variety of ways. In our workshops. the forgin
of iron. the planing of wood. hammering and saw
ing always challenge rhythmical processes, but onl
in small groups of two, or when working by oneself
It is already significant for the student, whe
 slfied! Quite different from sawing a piece of wood
where the to and fro movements have to find their
correct measure oftime, determined by the breath­
ing and pulse beat of the worker, his physical build.
but also by the wood's resistance. the kind of saw
used and the arrangement of its teeth.
II
----------------------------
pates in it - and this allows 'spirit to enter', as Rud
Steiner pointed out. A monotonous, continuous be
tires the worker; rhythm. overcoming this. enlive
refreshes and liberates us from the possib
oppressive burden of work if it is carried out mere
mechanically through the strength of our muscle
1. Bucher. K.• Hork and Rhyllml.
2. Steiner. R. Conferences with Teachers. Vol. L SSr. 1993.
 A look into the world of plants will open our eyes to
the inexhaustible wealth of form structures. We can
observe the continuous metamorphoses of plant
forms. starting from the shoot. via the unfolding of
leaves and blossoms, to the mature seed, First are
I simple, spherical shapes: buds, seeds, tubers. bul~s.
Comparative processes take place in animals and
human beings, All organic forms emanate pften from
very tiny. yet undifferentiated and more or less
rounded for ins, very similar to each other.
The basic forms modelled in Class 4 and 5. also
look Similar, due to their being true to the organiC
formative processes. From the pressure of the ball
of the hands, the fingers, the palm, the iump of
clay gradually differentiates itself into an arche­
typal animal shape. There the back compresses into
]
//.--;{~J 61)
the shoulders. the head inclines threateningly. at
the ready: here it slinks away. soundlessly and cau­
tiously: tn yet another work. the archetypal form
1 of a fox, bull or dog emerge from the greedy, scent­
Ing Instincts leading to a pointed, scenting mouth.
Such forms emerge through the teacher's gUidance.

/~II
The qualities of movement in crawling or slinking
I away. or the alert paise in the region of the sense
organs are brought to the children's attention. who
experience and then model them. The shape and

,
form of the animal is already hidden in the human
hand and It IS, therefore, not at all difflcult to dis­
cover that It presses and forms at the right places.
produces protuberances and indentations. in or­
der to find the characteristic form of an animal. --- '\ ~\
'.;;-­
'----~
GUided by their teacher, the children set to work
out of the movements of the basic gestures Oump- '
ing. slinking. lurking. swimming etc.) and not from
the memory of a particular animaL In the process
it gradually becomes clear to which animal the In his lectures on the curriculum. Rudolf Stein
activity will lead. It is the inner experience of the encouraged this approach for the drawing lesson
way the form develops that leads to the shape, and extending it immediately afterwards to painting a
not the conceptual idea or picture of a specific crafts. 1
animal. From the creative variety of the moving (and All imaginable form elements should be pra
moved) world of form, the different animals arise, tised 'out of the form itself in order to give t
mediated. as it were. through the universal forma­ children the immediate experience of round, co
tive forces of the hands. In the process. each child cave. pointed. straight and sharp forms. For roun
also spontaneously expresses his or her tempera­ convex forms have a different effect than point
ment and individuality. ones; they come from different formative force
 paintings and modelling. Awakening step
step to their surroundings (at age 9 and
and during puberty). they will re-disco
these forms, carried within their inner sph
of experiences in their environment.
In their discovery of forms and lines. t
salute their environment as something w
which they are familiar. something t
already know. They experience the wo
around them. not as a strange, but a fam
iar. intimate one. insofar as it is alre
present within themselves. albeit in
unconscious way. The Objects outside h
merely assumed another substantiality.
other reality.
Once aware of this motif. we teachers
see our educational tasks having this asp
The children's individuality is to be led
the objectively Visible world of space; p
sonality and world are then no longer po
opposites, but the human being experien
himself in many ways interwoven into
world: both physical and inner (soul) life h
their foundation in whatever the wo
presents The opposites of subject and
ject are conditioned by our modern mat
alistic consciousness that makes it diffic
for our children to relate to their envir
ment,3 The adolescent especially runs
danger of looking for an understanding
himself only and not for the connections w

~hh

the world into which he must grow, A d

gerous 'retreating into himself' can be
result; or he might lose himself in the ma
rialistic temptations of the environment.
" On the other hand. a 13 year-old boy describ
his feelings of complete oneness between him
and the world. causing him the greatest happine
"The fact that a boy was lying on his back amon
heather or some\vhere. this interesting situat
that in similar situations - enriches the life
every young person would not have remained
my memory if it had not served as framework
 whole of nature had become transparent
had thrown off its mask. Everything that had
been dark, dead and material had vanished
and things revealed their eternal nature, as
living light and life and, indeed. as the very
same light and life that was also within my­
self: it was the one and the same conscious
ness, the one and same substance in mysel
and in them. The one and the same band
connected me with them and them with me
there was no longer anything hostile. any­
thing foreign In the whole. large creation
My heart glowed and I experienced some
thing of the Joy of someone who suddenly
recognises In strangers whom he had learn
to love his very own brothers and sisters ... -
I must emphasise that thiS descrlptton Is
of an exceptional change of consciousness
But it does dearly demonstrate that the
duaHty of the world and the I. necessary fo
the development of the personality. can. a
a higher stage, pass Into a state of concord
and harmony. Can artistic exercises contrtb
ute to the bridging of this necessary distance
between ~ubject and object, and establisry a
balance between inner and outer world as
condition for every real 'interest'? .
The theme of the simple animal sculptures
e.g.. made in the hollow space of the chil­
dren's hands in Class 4 or 5. is taken up
again in the High School leading to differen­
tiated projects in which the students can
express their Individual feelings of forms
and show their individual creative ability. As
before. they begin with the archetype. the
characteristic form: this is brought into
movements in which the instinctive life
of the animal lives. The students must try to
experience this movement, in order to find the
corresponding form that will be convincing to
anyone seeing the sculpture. It Is quite easy to dis­
tinguish 'whether [he carving is just the animal's
physical appearance or one in which the gestures
have arisen from its inner instinctive urges.
The consciousness of the sculptor di rects his
 cover their inner world expressed in the worl
outside through valid forms. The thing
rumbling within are not 'taken OUt', bu
transformed. The students will not indulg
in subJectlve forms that may impress a
'modern art' or individual fanCies. Thre
guidelines by the sculptor Hans Wimmer (
1907) will make clear what we mean:
... HAre you thinking of the work,
Or are you looking at yourself In the mirror
To efface yourself Is essential:
Self-assertion through self-renunciation".
Herein lies a source for misunderstanding
It Is not the Intention of Waldorf educatio
to awaken the young artist's quest for his o
her specific forms of expression, just as
does not implant the seed ofthe future crafts
man during the carpentry or blacksmit
blocks. Neither are the arts and craft lesson
merely taught as a balance for the academi
work, They become themselves a method b
which a bridge is built for the students, an
across which they may pass from their ow
world to the world in which they will late
find their meaningful places.
The little child grows In the same way
through the learning of the alpha bet, into th
written work of the world. She can do thi
only by willingly accepting the laws of spell
Ing and grammar. in order to be able to mak
individual use of them later. And althoug
the tetters have objective characteristics, thi
does not prevent the development of indi
vidual handwriting. There are many suc
examples that show how the starting poin
of an objective activity, that has to be learnt. be
comes the basis for the unfolding of the indiVidua
element of the human being.

Unlike wood, stone or metal. clay lends itse

for free and varied forms. This is mainl\' due t
its substance which is not tied to any ~ specifi
form. Because of this. it is a preferred materia
for modelling, Always changeable because of it

~.". -­
, niques and materials in the art subjects as do other
schools. We do not seek the individuation of our
students so much in the choice of different tech­
niques. but rather provide the individuality itself
free scope within' a given theme and a given tech­
nique -. as we also do In written work. It is the .
structuring of form that individualises, and not the
technique.
The present contributions may have shown the
.1 importance of the described methods and mate- .
rials for the training and maturing of our students.
We chose them according to the principle: how
may the developmental stages of the students be
meaningfully supported? Tackling too many tech­
·nlques w1ll be at the expense of thoroughness and
.L / may easIly lead to the Ulusion of having mastered
I / something that one has only superficially dab­
/ bled In. An Intensive connection seems to be more
important today than rapid changes: and this con­
ditions the selection of a few basic techniques.
Lack of time does not allow for more.
A similar case to that made out here for model­
ling would apply also to painting and shaded
drawing. In all of them. methods are used that
materials and forms. We meet such methods in th
area of handwork - such as basket weaving. met
work. joinery and tailoring - practised in the Hi
School. It is there that the preparatory stages f
methods used In technological productions. Is
be found.
The organic principle develOps its living form
tion actively from oneness to differentiated form
without renouncing its Inner totality. It does not sy
thesise from single parts. but forms from the whol
This organiC quality in our students' artistic wo
radiates something of a livIng harmony and inn
calm the onlooker experiences as beneficial an
perhaps, unexpectedly so. There are such criti
who maintain that this does not correspond to th
tensions of our technological age! We respon
because of thiS; our understanding of the reality
the organic-living world Is in danger of being los
Our environment and our social life are toda
largely determined by human beings. Is it not tim
to work at a new picture of the human being th
understands not only the technology around u
but also - and largely through artistic activities
the organiC laws in the world?
L Steiner. R.. Practical Advice to Teachers, RSP. 1976.
2. Ibid.
3. In this connection the following statement by Jaqu
Lusseyran might be interesting: "Everything happened
though the light were no longer an object of the ou
world. no longer this strange shedding of light. no long
this natural phenomenon that mayor may not be the
over which we have such little power; but as though th
light from now on was enveloping both the outer wor
and myself with just one grasp. HaVing no phYSical Sig
I was not able to say whether the light I perceived cam
from Without. Neither could [ say whether it came fro
within. Indeed. Inside and outside had become inadequa
.concepts. When. much later during my studies. I was ta
of the difference between objective and subjective Cac
this did not satisfy me: I saw only too dearly that such
difference rested on an erroneous conception of the w
we perceive ...
Jaques Lusseyran. Blindness - a new way of SCl'iIlg the Wor
4. Wiesenhutter. E.. A View to Beyond. n.d.
5. Wimmer. H.. OIl Sculpting.
only by passing via the artistic to the developing of perhaps have remained active through their bei
the Intellect". used. The loss of receptivity for such things is
Rudolf Steiner's sentences. spoken during the . lqss of happIness and may well be of disadvanta
Study of Man lectures. 1 are a kind of milestone for for the intellect, and even more so for the mo
education. Although spoken in ·1919, they are life. since it weakens that part of our nature th
hardly understood today by the general public. This can be stimulated by the heart forces", 3
is understandable. seeing that the 'Intellectual edu­ The deeply tragic note overshadowing these se
cation' to which Rudolf Steiner refers Is practised tences has become. 100 years later. the symbol
everywhere and successfully so, without the de­ our times. The laborious acquisition and applic
velopment and cultivation of the children's life of tion of the intellect not only stunts our forces
will and without artistic activities In most schools. wlll and feelings, as Darwin experienced H, but
It Is no longer a matter of surprise when a 9 year­ was also correct In realiSing the negative effe
old child passes his High School leaving certificate on the intellect itself. For, although the pure int
or a 13 year-old excels tn the study of mathemat- lect Is able to grasp clearly and astutely the thin
1cs. 2 Such faculties can be awakened quite early' and facts of our world, it can merely describe th
and systematically heightened, Rudolf Steiner em­ outer phySical nature, In this It loses the conne
phatically spoke of the Inadvlsabillty of both the tion with the environment. from which it separat
premature and the one-sided development of the all objects in order to examine them in their is
Intellect. It is not easy to prove their negative lated state. Everything of a mere logical natu
consequences in individual cases. The follOWIng tends towards clear border lines. This can also
example may show the direction in which such seen In the teaching methods that have develope
harm can be found. A year before hIs death In 1882. Already 18 years ago. on the occasion of the thi
Charles Darwin in a self critical passage wrote an inter-schools exhibition in Dortmund. one of t
evaluation of his mental faculties: exhibits was an egg-shaped plastic cell containi
. "I mentioned the change my mental/spiritual a comfortable chair and all the necessary techn
mood underwent during the last 20 or 30 years. logical media In use today, The 'swottlng egg',
Until my 30th year or so I took great pleasure in this mobile learning studio Is called is so protect
poetry; r enjoyed Shakespeare when a boy, espe­ from the outside that the student may learn Wit
cially hIs Histories. I used to love paintings and out being influenced by any outer influence
music. And now, during the last years, I cannot bear Learning has become degraded to a process th
even a line of poetry. I recently tried to re-read Shake­ is removed from life.
speare's plays and found them unbearably boring; The frequently windowless speciality rooms
they almost made me sick, And I also, more or less, schools. the Insulated lecture halls of our univers
lost my enjoyment of paintings and muslc .. .It Is as ties are, just as the 'swotting egg', conseque
though my mind had become a machine that grinds developments of the Town Hall of Laleburg. T
out universal laws from collections of facts. Why Lalebook. published in 1597. tells of the window
this should have been caused by the atrophy of those . less building. the forerunner of the Schildburger Bo
parts of my brain on which the higher sensations of (the wise men of Gotham) published a year late
taste depend I cannot understand. I Imagine that Both became very popular. 4 What today is co
somebody endowed with a more highly organised scious intention, was then a prank: The goo
and pre-disposed mind than mine would not have burghers of Laleburg had forgotten the window
experienced this. And, should I be in a position to during the building of their town hall, and afte
re-llve my life. I would make it a rule to read some wards attempted in vain to catch the daylight
 Our concern Is the "awakening of the Intellect
through the will We shall, therefore, take a look
H.
at this connection between intellect and will.
In the middle of the Study of Man, Rudolf Steiner
~mphasises and describes the Importance of all
I' three elements - intellect. heart-forces and will.
Everything depends on their correct cultivation. He
then summarises their Inter-action:
"The Intellect. to begin with. is the most spir­
itual element in us. But, if we develop it in a one­
sided way. unsupported by feeling and will. we shall
always develop the tendency towards thinking
materialistically, For though the intellect Is the most
spiritual element in us during our life on earth. it
strives towards materialism. We must not assume
that, by developing the Intellect. we also develop
the spiritual in the human being, As paradoxical
as this may sound. it is nevertheless true: in the
human being. we only develop the disposition to
understand matter by developing the intellect.
i
)
"It Is only when we tastefully and aesthetically
develop the heart -forces and feeling that we direct
I'· man's Intellect to the soul. Furthermore, only by
practiSing an education of the will - even if this Is
done only through the dexterity of the hands in
handwork, do we lay the foundation to directing
the intellect to the spirit, If today there are so few
people wishing to direct their intellect to the spirit,
this Is the result of their will having been wrongly
cultivated during their childhood years." 5
We have here a clear distinction between what is
living within [he sphere of ideas and mental images
as Intellect In our heads and the 'spiritual in the
human being', developed through the life of wilL It
is surely more than a coincidence when Rudolf
Steiner on the evening after the festive opening of
the Waldorf school gave a lecture devoted exclu­
Sively to the subject of conSCiously differentiating
between the intellect that speaks to the 'forehead',
and the spirit that 'speaks to the heart', He strug­
gled with his listeners - and we are In the self-same
position - for an understanding of this matter. He
Challenges us to distinguish between the mere words
and the spiritual tone, between the logical and the
well of truth.
the deeper seated forces of feeling and will. Throug
this concentrated thinking, permeated by will an
feeling, we can approach the 'source of truth'. th
'spiritual fluid' as Rudolf Steiner called it. Ther
the whole of the human being must be employec
not only the head.
"Many of you have come to despise thinkin
because you experienced It merely as being pa
sive. But this only applies to head thinking, whe
the heart has no part. But give active thinkin
a chance and you will see how the heart w
become engaged. Modern people only strong
connect with the spirit If they succeed In activa
ing their thinking .. ,This Is initiallr a matter of wi
a will experienced with feeling". Thinking. take
hold of by feeling and will can take us to the spi
itual world· while mere intellect tends to becom
materialistic. Once this difference has becom
clear to us, the next step will be the question: ho
can these gUidelines be anchored and organise
in us, how is the latter related to the limbs? '
what ways can artistic and manual activities en
gender its higher development? We shall addre
these questions, making use of an exercise
modelling, though this should not be taken a
something especially 'artistic', Its purpose is
more scientific observation and understanding
form conditions, and this will help us to go fu
ther in our enquiries.
FORM CONDITIONS
We begin this exercise with the shaping of a cla
ball just big enough to fit comfortably into th
hands. As we shape, we try to become aware
the special quality of this form. The idea itself -
confront a three-dimensional form in space wi
only one infinite surface -Is already quite remark
abie. All the points on this surface are equidistan
from the centre. This may give us the impressio
that its whole concentration is directed to the cen
tre. In shaping this ball with both hands. the palm
turn inwards, enclOSing an inner space that ca
only be seen from outside. This makes dear th
In/out relation in a sphere; any other orientatio
 a sphere, we have a variety of concave ones. An

In space Is essentially absent. This Is the

reason why a spherical object cannot re­
ally be put on a level surface - It .has no
'below' and starts to roll as soon as the
surface Is not absolutely horizontal. It
... doesn't really 'belong'ln our three-dimen­
Sionally structured space. The only thing
corresponding to its quality would be
gilding freely In space, sustained byener­
gies that again would have to be produced
by a balanced inner/outer tension. .
We then elongate this clay ball at one
end into an egg shape. and flatten a
part of the stretched surface; It can now
rest securely on the board. This allows it
to retain more of Its quality of .free' round­
ness than If we had Simply pressed the
original ball to the board; the effect would
have been one of weight, heaviness.
The next step is the shaping of an iden­
tical ball. but we now alter the surface. by
carefully pressing. it, making the even
roundness uneven, more pronounced here,
flatter there.
The original spherical shape is divided;
Indications of several different surfaces are
formed. In our attempt at continuing with
these surfaces we shall see that edges wilt
unavoidably result between them. In spite
of this, every surface should be convex, I.e.
should remain curved to the outside.
If we draw such a form it will become
even clearer that the surfaces actually in­
tersect at the edges and continue Invisibly
into space. No longer the finite quality of
the sphere, the newly produced surfaces
are only partly visible - where they touch
the clay. Naturally, we are here speaking
of formatively active energies and forces.
Our third exercise will be the shaping of
 three surfaces meet, into elongated
points - if we make the effort of shaping
really and quite consequentially in a
concave way. The form increases; it.
seems to be growing. This creates the
illusion for our eyes and hands: that the
i
J larger form is lighter than the more com­
1 pact sphere. But we had weighed the
clay! It is almost impossible to mould
} their radiating shapes in clay; it dries and
I crumbles in the process. In our mind we
t are searching for a more suitable mate­
rial and discover the metal that can be
poured into a mould. It is relatively easy
to shape a spherical form with the wa­
tery clay; the shape that has now evolved
would need the fiery liquid of metal cast­
ing. The form before us opens up to
space in many ways; it receives it. more
or less. depending on the way the bowl­
like surfaces are formed
We complete our fourth exercise In the
mind. The energies and forces working
from the outside are directed to the cen­
tre of the earlier sphere; the clay Is
pressed out. In a radiating way. into the
periphery to the point of dissolution. In
betwee[l there is only space Into which
the single concave surfaces melt.
If we are fortunate In doing these
exercises in a group. we can display all
the clay balls side by side. next to the con­
cave forms.
By comparing them we can try to dis­
cover what emanates from them (but not
by what we wish to see in or deduce
from them). to grasp something of their
essential nature. We shall see in the
spherical shapes that each of them Is
complete in itself. They do not reqUire
space around them; they are cool and
calm. as though asleep. The concave
shapes. on the other hand, cannot re­
ally be too close to each other: they need
space 3iOund them, else they would get

.,
.'
..
...
In each other's way. They seem to dissolve. to lose
themselves as they ray out. are lively. awake and
open to their surrounding.
If we look for the corresponding forms In na­
ture we shall discover the former In the buds.
tubers and eggs - everywhere where new life.
resting within itself. is prepared. The latter we
concretely - the effect of water and fir
these two different forms.
If we apply these polarities of form
the human face. we shall see In them
same expression we just characteri
This is quite naturally so. But we shall
how In the physiognomy In which the
ner (soul) life is reflected. In which
dreaming sleeping and the fully awake
ements express themselves even m
clearly: in sleeping the physical feelin
comfort. a faint smile - in the fully aw
an earnestness that can be Intensifie
pain and sorrow.
At the same time we get the impression
the physical is consumed in this sorrow
ages. The sleeping face grows younger. W
K. Fortlage. the 19th century psychologist,
covered, becomes here visible: "Conscious
is a little and partial death. death a large
total Consciousness. an awakening of
whole being in its innermost depths!" 7 W
the soul is consciously present In the b
the latter is consumed, ages and hard
When the soul provides the body with
necessary rest during sleep it can regene
itself. We can see how the life condition
the body depend on the conditions of soul
spirit during waking and sleeping. A hI
life of the soul causes the dying away o
physical. although it Is' the bearer of the so
life. Soul and spirit tend to hollow out
form; the forces buildIng the physical b
manifest in concave forms.
FORM BUILDING AND
FORM CONSUMING FORCES
The Ancient Greeks at the turn of the 6th cen
B.C. still lived strongly within the life building fo
Their sculptures are formed a~ though urging f
wIthin. pressing. swelling. convex. At the same
we see the ureaming soul In the body expre
in a happy smile. not yet a radiating of the
 TIle so-called Apollo of Tenea, c. the middle of the

6th century B. C Marble. Munich Glyyptothek

TUman Riemenschneider. Lamenllng Maldbronn.

c. 1525. sandslOne

Carmela Capello (b. 1912). Eclipse 1959. bronze: h. ZZ5cm

Krumau: Tile Beaurifui Mother of God c. 1400; wood,

Vienna. Kunsthistorisches Museum

Copperplates frolll (he PUlldsc/1Jp, c, 1000 B. C

Hindu Lini\ ~r5i(y, B,'IliJfl:S
 the reason for the prominence given to the hands
during this time (15th century), their impressive,
ensouled language - ridge formations. as it were,
between concave surfaces, as a result of the soul's
deep immersion Into the body. Modern sculptures
are frequently created by these form-consuming
forces: the body gets lost in the process: instead
they ray out into space to which they open them­
selves. They have become 'space' figures.
We mentioned the stages of consciousness in , In a human skeleton we can see the reality
sleeping and waking with their alternating effects this primal picture translated into real life. It ca
on the physical body. either form-building or form­ be seen more clearly in the structure of a bon
consuming. The examples taken from the history of than in the living human figure. We discover
art embrace a long period of time. We shall now the finger tips the splintered. consumed elemen
consider the human physical form. not from the point tamed to the top by the unifying formaUve foree
of time. but from space. To do this we shall considef of the upper pole. coming to rest and rigidifyin
an Indian 'Idol' from 1000 B.C. There are seven such in the uniformity of the round element. In this vig
copper plates whose purpose Is unknown and whose orous onslaught of the forces of soul and spiri
appearance Is unique in the history of art. For our hidden in the radiating forms, we experience d
study, their form Is of special significance. if we do rectly the fiery. stimulating warmth and. as w
not merely see in them the craftsmanship. but If we look at the tubular bone, we are reminded of th
Include the surroundings from which this obviously clay that. in our fourth exercise. was compresse
primal form of the human being might have arisen. together Into thin rays between the energies break
This can be attempted through drawing. We can try ing in from outside. Conversely, in the calm of th
to form the figure itself from the stream of forces skull. we can exper"ience the cooling off. th
coming from the environment. Surprisingly quickly . densification. the form building elements in ma
It becomes clear to us that we are dealing with an ter. The enclosure, the form of our idol Is mad
Interaction of Our first and fourth exercises in clay. even more effective through the folding over
What we had formed as sequence. one after the the copper at the upper edge of the head.
other. Is here Simultaneously formed as the ·To summarise: "
basis for the human body. From the polarity of The consuming forces of soul and spirit radia
the radIating element that streams from below up­ from without into our limb system. developin
wards, together with a damming from above by warmth through the unfolding of the will in bloo
which the convex-round form arises. a form Is and muscle. which we experience during the us
produced in the middle part that is neither round of our limbs. Combustion processes take plac
nor radiating. but a connection or, better, a pen­ within our metabolic organism. While the forms o
etration of both. the limbs are as though splintered. torn apart.
"
Through drawing. we recognise what could not Movement comes to rest in the processes of th
be made clear during our clay exercises: how the head. leading to an enclosed. round form that. a
opposites of the round and the radiating have a skull cover. produces the oLlter physical basis fo
common element in the inward moving spiral at our thinking. PhYSiologically this shows itself in th
the centre. This means that the opposites are processes of secretions. in the solidifying of ma
bridged or reconciled. ter. The forces of intelligence in the world manife
on the ground. there streams through the
soles of your feet from outside the same
that streams from within towards your
forehead. This is a most important. fact.
important. because it enables us to un­
derstand the place of soul and spirit in
the human being. As you can see. soul
and spirit stream. as a current. through
the human being. And the human being.
what is he in connection with this soul and
spirit? Imagine a current of water being
arrested by a dam. so that it is thrown back,
In this way soul and spirit are whirled back
in the human being, The human being is a
damming mechanism for soul and spirit.
They would like to stream through him
without impediment, but he keeps them
back, slows them down. allows them to
be dammed up in him". 8
This 'streaming and damming' can be
most clearly seen in the drawing. Our pre­
vious observations and exercises make it
quite clear that we are dealing with soul
and spirit currents. And we can now un­
derstand that. when the human being
moves his limbs during physical work, he
moves in the spirit. "splashes about in it",
The result is that, unconsciously, we con­
nect ourselves with the spirit around us
during physical work. "The spirit flows
around uS when we are engaged in
physical work". 9
A Jet of water flowing from a submerged pipe.

INTERPENETRATION OF INTELLECT AND WILL ace. co Th. Schwenk

We now have a clear picture of the two polarities

of our soul/spiritual nature as found in head and
limbs. In his lecture on 31.8.1919 (quoted on p.
311), Rudolf Steiner characterised intelligence with
its teildency towards materialism. 10 Head thinking
comprehends and describes the created things in
our world, their outer manifestation. their being
here. We can see that the shape of the head, its
solidity and hardening process corresponds to this.
This makes it possible to use it as a 'machine' tha
can - as Darwin characterised his own thinking ­
'grind out' ~miversallaws from the great collection
of facts.
The use of our limbs counters this; processes o
becoming create changes. new structures. These
energies are of a spiritual/will [kHure. They can
his bony system only during the 12th year. Before had expected. Wakefulness of the head and cle
this he lives also physically - far more in the reflection that affect the way the tools are handle
rhythm of breathing and blood circulation, in the are now in balance; the subjective will rising fro
stretching and contracting of his muscles i.e. in his below is controlled and put to good use: the inte
'liqUid organisation'. During the 12th year a 'push' ligence of the upper pole permeates itself with t
begins, clearly perceptible to the sensitive observer. . will of the lower pole that now. fructifying ea
Through the bony parts becoming more prominent, other. have become new faculties to be used.
through the lengthening of the limbs, through a
change In the quality of movement and through THE EFFECT OF ARTISTIC AND CRAFT WORK
the child's whole bearing. In a word. the child has ON BODY AND SPIRIT

become more earthy; will energies surge upwards.

asking to be used. This need is met by the intro­ The processes just described intensify during t
duction of gardening and crafts. both of which next years. Because of this we increase the numb
include the earth: in gardening it is the working of art and craft subjects, beginning in Class 9.
place itself; in crafts. the necessary resistance dur-. takes time before the full harmony between intelle
ing the work that needs the firm support of the and will is established, often a taxing time. We mu
floor. as in sawing. hammering, carving etc. not remain at the purely logical nature of the cra
Hand in glove with this, thinking progresses activities. The techniques of sawing, chiselling an
from picture-like, feeling permeated mental im­ planing must be learnt, but should only provide t
ages to clear, lucid thought sequences that make basis for further work. This brings the merely log
It possible to grasp and understand physical and cal structure of a shelf into movement: suppo
chemical processes. It descends. as it were. from stability of the boards receive artistic forms. The rig
the head and meets the hardness of the skeleton. framework of the four identical legs of a chair com
It also meets the stream of will that radiates into to life in tlie forms of the seat and back. Their se
the Ilmbs as new soul forces. Through the seizing sitively bordering edges and shaped surfaces ha
of the organism right into the bones. thinking is a stimulating and educating effect on the perce
endowed with a will-like element. During the tion. the life of ideas and mental images connecte
Christmas Course Rudolf Steiner lectured on these with it. Goethe recognised the value of such pe
processes in detail. We quote verbatim: ceptions on the development of the spirit. The mo
"As we enter the 12th year we acqUIre a way of banal the form, the lazier the spirit! A living for
thinking that. corresponding to its will nature, is also affects the muscles. making them more sens
rooted in the bones. the dynamics of the skeleton. tive, the muscles that carry out the mechanic
It marks the important transition from the soft to movements of the tools in manual work.
the quite solid. hard system of the human being. The form and the material of the work piece d
that places itself objectively into the world. as it termine the use of the tools and the respectiv
were, like a system of levers ... movements of hands and arms. When fastening
"During our thinking about physical nature, es­ nut or driving in a screw, my bone and muscle mu
peCially the thinking rooted in the skeleton. the adapt to these simple, purely mechanical turnin
process dominates the entire human being. We movements demanded by the nut and screw. I
place ourselves into our skeleton also with our use machines for this work. ever fewer different
thinking during the 12th year. .. ated movements of arms and hands will be em
"We must now begin to lead into the intellectual ployed. due to the machine doing most of the wo
understanding of the inorganic world what was for me. !vIy organism of movement must fully ada
 tive muscle movements. It is formed effort!
We can see how artistic work affects the sensi­
tivity of the whole body in many ways. as well as
forming and making more sensitive our will forces.
It is true education of the will! It also works into
the sphere of ideas and mental imagines (in the
head). making them more flexible, stimulating. flex­
ible and mobile. .
But Rudolf Steiner draws our attention to yet
deeper connections between doing and thinking.
They are based on the experience that the will is a
soul force that can be active in different parts of
the human being. Its most important activity is in
the physical energies In movements; but further,
it can bring feeling into movement and kindle
imagination. And it can stir and make mobile the
pictures of our ideas to the point where they
are no longer mere copies of outside events. but
assume individually creative forms. leading to ar­
chetypal forms such as Goethe perceived in the
archetypal plant. In a wealth oflectures and books.
Rudolf Steiner describes the training of such Im­
aginative creative forces In great detail. 12
On one such occasion. he speaks of the impor­
tance of the effort needed in the use of muscles
during adolescence: recalling the benefit such work
had on him during his boyhood - chopping wood.
harvesting potatoes. digging the garden and saw­
ing. He states that this made it easier for him to
develop that imaginative thinking which makes
possible access to deeper layers of life. The two
are connected. Such efforts of will. stimulating
the muscles during physical work. in another
situation, effect the thinking process where our
equivalent inner effor( is required.
The adolescent. too. after having been educated
in the strict exactitude of logic (Classes 6 - 8). must
be led during puberty to the beginning of a '/iving
thinking' able to grasp the phenomena of the world
that go beyond the sphere of logic to deeper con­
nections. to a 'living truth', as Rudolf Steiner called
it. How is the young man and woman to grow into
the world?: By being isolated in the 'swotting egg'
- or by enriching his intelligence through work and
being open for what is in the world?
thoughts. while skilled fingers lead to flexib
thoughts and ideas. to an ability of entering th
essential nature of things. then we shall not un
derestimate the significance of developing th
'outer' human being with the aim that the intelle
will emerge as one piece from the way the out
human being applies himself to manual work", 1
Thus intelligence and will interpenetrate durin
the 3rd seven-year period, Strong polarities cha
acterise this new soul life developing from think
ing. feeling and willing. But it is just in this field
polar tension that the T can develop itself as th
organ of personality. Being still sustained by th
will forces, it expresses itself as self-willed. becau
it has not yet fully come into its own. If the w
becomes active in work. the T becomes mobile an
can unfold. Artistic activity inducts the T into i
polar elements. In the formative work. it takes ho
of the polarities and. by resolving them. it fre
itself from its soul-sheath. At about the 21st year
assumes a central place in the personality.
If these will forces in the field of polar tensio
within the soul are not activated. the T cann
develop in a healthy way and wilts. This being th
case. people with a highly developed intelligenc
may then become prone to achieving great thing
in their specialised fields but without being inte
ested in ethical issues. or feeling responsible fo
the consequences of their actions.
Darwin realised that the stunting of his artist
feelings must have had negative consequences fo
the 'moral' character. Many a well known scienti
shares his view.
Moral impulses today emanate only from spi
ituaLsources that are deeper seated in the huma
being than is the intellect. The intellect. centred
the head. cannot produce morality. for these force
can only be awakened by the artistic, If. howeve
we pass from artistic activities to intellectual de
velopment, we will provide the basis for a mora
life that is stimulated from the sphere of the spiri
Through our activiries, it can 'grow into' our think
ing and there be active. This. too. is a consequenc
of the path that wishes as far as possible to awake
[he intellect through rhe will
future which he expressed in popular language. He
recognised the danger of our becoming fools if we
do not warm and enliven our cerebral thinking. that
can do no more than lead to a materialistic world
conception, with the forces of the spirit. In Chap­
ter 17 he writes: "Since all of us have become Lale
people by having lost the right wisdom - and this
In a wanton way - we now follow all foolishness
and investigate tomfoolery rather than wisdom ".
This 'tomfoolery' consists of our observing the
world only at the surface I.e. superficially. It is
significant that the Lale people trace their origin
to ancient Greek culture. It was the Greeks who
stimulated and developed technological thinking
by observing natural physical phenomena, and
thence correctly applying natural laws.
The effect of the elemental beings in nature faded
for man's perception to the same degree that the
physical properties of nature were discovered
through outer observation. The opening of the tem­
ple gates through a mechanical physical devicle, or
. have a positive and beneficial effect.
TOWARDS A LIVING THINKING
. ment of factual logic through the arts and craf
The Temple Gates at Heron. opened by the sacrificial fire
(ca 100 A.D.).
Ace. to S, Slrandh. The Machine
way it should \""ork.
has not originated from the matter in hand. If w
wish to work in metal. wood or clay. during the wor
we must extract the 'Iogic' of the material concrete
from the material itself. This logic does not com
from the head. but from the necessity arising fro
the task and the material in a consequentional wa
The 'logic of life' and not that of the head is pra
tised in crafts. especially where accurate plannin
must precede the actual work - as in carpentr
shoemaking or book binding. Ultimately, the exa
fitting of the parts will be the proof of the accurac
of our thinking: my thinking lives within the obje
tive laws of the things and materials as much as
my doing. In crafts and handwork I identify myse
with the material. the matter in the world.
Rudolf Steiner frequently and emphatically sa
that the real, actual life should reign In all th
lessons rather than being preoccupied with a
cient cultures whose life had ended long before.
People who have passed through a training oflog
in craft and handwork lessons confront life di
ferently with their thinking than those who ca
only access a logic of concepts in their heads. On
concrete thoughts can stand the test of life, an
It would be tempting to study the rapid develo
since the Middle Ages. which initially was st
embedded the forces of pious feeling placed in th
service of the supersensible. But. especially sinc
the end of the 18th century. logic has concentrate
on investigating and researching the earth, resul
ing in our modern technology. However. this is on
one aspect: that same clear consciousness als
taught us to turn to the spiritual nature of life. Rudo
Steiner referred to both these (polar) directions th
thinking can take today. If thinking concentrat
on the world. it will be stimulated. guided. pe
haps even determined by the phenomena in th
 III does nor fir
IV accurare firs
It is different when thinking concentrates on the
supersensible. The supersensible is reserved, does
not make It easy for us. Effort is reqUired to be­
come conscious of its phenomena and processes.
It is as though we are looking at a mountain
top in the distance. We long to be there. but can
only look at it. unless we make the effort and take
time to actually go there and climb it without
counting the cost. In the same way. our thinking
regarding supersensible processes may perceive
the target of knowledge but. will only get there if
it develops strong inner impulses. These impulses
- energies and forces - reside in feeling and will.
Without the loving devotion of our feeling to the
still unknown. the not yet reached target. the will
that Is to take our thinking selflessly to it, is help­
less. cannot bestir itself. Our will must trustingly
surrender to the gUidance of the feeling that lov­
ingly embraces the unknown. Only in this way
i.e. borne by the feeling of love and the selfless
devotion of the will. can the thoughts reach the
unknown. its target of knowledge. Insofar as this
process is consciously taking place within our
soul. it is the ego that is the comprehensive force
of these three soul activities to \vhich Rudolf
Le. thinking. borne by feeling and willi
it can make the outer appearance
the phenomena transparent for the eff
. tiveness of the spirit. Through this.
'spiritual in the human being', mention
above. can feel its way to the .fount of tru
where the human being can enter the '
sential nature of things'.
He or she who has followed our cons
erations will not be surprised when
maintain that the feeling of love and
devotion of the will are soul qualities t
can be developed during the arts and cra
lessons in the workshop. Indeed, love a
restrained self-will are pre-conditions
such work. Already earlier on, we poin
to the necessary unfolding of the 'lo
of work'. It is difficult to imagine an
thing other than indifference resulti
from working with machines. Such an attitu
is unthinkable in an artistic activity or wh
making a pair of shoes or in gardening. A loveles
drawn surface or a lovelessly carved object w
immediately be spotted by the practised eye a
dismissed as a bungled. clumsy piece of wo
Loving attention to detail characterises the artis
devotion to his or her work.
But this is only possible through harnessi
the will that streams through the hands. lice
tiousness or unbridled will soon reveal itself
techniques not yet mastered. and in the unco
trolled use of tools. Calm and perseverance
practising are essential to achieve technic
mastery: without paLience. the work cannot i
prove and grow. Just as important are obedien
and submission to the directions given by t
teacher or master craftsman who knows t
correct way of doing things. who has tested the
He who uses both hands in driving the chisel in
the wood is still a victim to the self-\,vill of his imp
tience. Bad. uneven cuts will be the result. Only wh
the left hand soberly guides and comrols tbe pre
sure of the right will the cuts be accurate and clea
The surface will have a dIt'ferenl ljua:tty The sam
 Feeling and will combine with the intellect to
raise it to a higher condition/plain. The Intellect
no longer only receives the processes in the world
as mirror images, but frees itself through its
own creative energies from its inclination towards
becoming materialistic. Feeling and will have
awakened it to a higher, spiritual world, conception.
We have come full circle. The starting point
of our reflections was to discover how will and
an unfolding of the personality that we may pa
'from the artistic to the intellectual culture',
Waldorf education attempts this awakening
the slumbering forces and energies in the hum
being. Its effect in later life will freely depend
the intentions of each individual and on his or h
destiny. All the school can do is to try to give
foundation. What the young man or woman bUil
on is entirely within their freedom.
Steiner. R.. Foundations of Human Experience. Lecture
AP,1996.
2 'Nurnberger Nachrichten', 6.7.1985.
3 Charles Darwin. AutobIography.
4 The Lalebook. Reclam. n.d.
5 Steiner. Roo The Spirit of the Waldorf School. AP, 1995. L
ture 31.8.1919.
6 Steiner, R.. GA 217, 10,10.1922.
7 Quoted by Steiner in ·Von SeelenrtHsel" , GA 2 (not tran
lated).
8 Steiner. R., Foundations of Human Experience. Lecture
AP. 1996.
9 ibid.
10 see note 5,
11 Rudolf Steiner. R.. Seu! Economy and Waldorf Educatio
AP. 1986.
12 Steiner. R.. Theosophy. Knowledge of the Higher World
Occult Sci3nce. RSP.. n.d.
13 Steiner. R.. The Renewal of Education. SSF. 1981.
14 Steiner. R. Soul Economy and Waldorf Education. as abov
Lectt:re 12.
AONGHUS GORDON
From ancient technology to living technology

Michael Martin's exhaustive research and experi­ of the adolescent is aberrant. where feeling
ence in compiling the previous chapters offers a fresh of devotion are not cultivated. an overt form o
momentum towards an intensification and reap­ sexualised behaviour often arises. These thre
praisal of craft handwork and technology in Steiner counter pictures often ensnare the adolescent
Waldorf schools. The content of the book reiterates Practical skilful craftwork within itself has th
one of the principle tenets of the Steiner Waldorf opportunity of re-embodying thinkIng. feelin
approach. that thinking arises out of activity and . and willing. In thinking. the preplanning of th
movement in the early developmental stages of the conceptual' framework. in feeling. the sense o
child. His use of Kanfs quote. "The hand is the outer purpose in the service of a social context and i
brain of the human being". creates a powerful im­ willing, the capacity to fashion and execute th
age for all handwork and craft teachers; an image form. However. it is becoming increasingly ap
that needs to be taken more seriously in view of the parent that all this may still not be sufficient
accelerating decline in opportunities to move ac­ The environmental context, as yet an undiscov
tively and appropriately in early childhood. The ered emerging parameter for the later and mor
Hiram Trust sees additional opportunities that are mature development of adolescence. offers man
still in their infancy of research. with regards to the challenges to enact a new ethiC based around
power of engagement and re-enlivening of the pu­ the principles of sustainability. a new craftsman
pils' movement biography. ship of the environment. a living technology.
During the last twenty years society has moved As a result of fundamental questions. both from
at a disproportionate speed towards a two­ parents and teachers. as to the future direction o
dimensional as opposed to a three dimensional Waldorf education. particularly regarding practi
cultural orientation. IncreasIngly teachers ob­ cal skills and an understanding of a cohesive ap
serve restlessness. hyperactivity and above all proach to the curriculum as a whole. the Hiram
concentration difficulties as well as a disloca­ Trust has developed what we might call the con
tion between point and periphery in the child's cept of the intelligent hand. The emphasis of th
growing awareness. If unchecked in adolescence. Trust is to incorporate 'point and periphery' as re
three powerful subcultures are likely to take gards the classroom and the environment of th
effect. The intellect that is not incorporated into school through the work of the hand. for it is clea
the world of imagination becomes conceited and to all concerned that craftwork is embedded in th
arrogant. while the search for the imagination development of human consciousness and has
will frequently lead to drug taking. If the will is history of 10,000 years. This history is additionally
not diverted into appropriate skilful activity and embedded in the Steiner Waldorf school. in particula
endeavour it will commonly become criminalised in the main lesson cL\rriculum. and can be sourced
and search for extreme experiences such as as a further opportunity of extending the rang
joy riding to compensate for the absence of of practical skills that enable the experience o
movement and activity. And if the feeling life learning to be grounded though the context of the

20
 paper even reminds one of the movements of the of one year in which a\! aspects of the school
planetary spheres. Few movement activities are grounds and landscape are touched on by eac
so objective, as the 'craft movement is defined by class in the school. brings new ownership an
the laws inherent in quality of the material and awareness. The gardening curriculum finds
the purpose of the object. Egotistical movement ' new context; the water rakes pride of place
is limited if the object being under,taken serves a the development and the diversification that
human social world, such as a knife from the required to re-enliven the etheric sheath of th
iron age forge, a chair from green woodwork, schooL Plants and hedges can be sourced f
slippers from felt. making Easter nests in the kindergarten. f
Reanimating movement in the child and adoles­ providing coppicing and charcoal making for th
cent serves to release the etheric body out of the Iron Age forge. Clay is dug to bUild a bread ove
muscular structure. which is so often frozen, even So over the year an emerging alchemy of the fo
in a state of shock. Releasing the fluiditYI of move:­ elements will become apparent.
ment through a craft activity may be described as New skills and teaching methods are require
accessing a slipstream of movement in which the to take children to often-new experiential fron
pupil or adolescent is held. tiers. These frontiers enable new imaginativ
, The child's first movements, gripping. rotat- pictures to take effect. powerful feelings of em
ing. sliding. lifting. crawling, or more simply put. pathy for the environment and new exercises
exploring the three dimensions of space. are the will to emerge. In schools where this proce
available in different measures of intensity in the of developing the landscape is taking on a
simple craft activities drawn out of a primary educational imprint. the context becomes chi
'craft curriculum and can be used as a recapitu­ centred. not recreational, not economic but ap
lation of missed stages of development, which is plied thro,ugh educational practice and supporte
increasingly common. Similarly to children's by biodynamic principies. The school thereb
early drawings these movements are primordial takes ownership of and :-esponsibllity for th
and are a prerequisite to achieving a healthy in­ landscape, which becomes increasingly transpa
tegrated relationship to the world. Where a ent to the pupils, particularly as they ascen
movement experience becomes rhythmical out towards the upper school and the dawning of the
of which a skill develops, there is a term often intellectual capacities.
used to describe it: 'I can do it in my sleep'. In As the pupil ascends in age with new found inte
observing this state of awareness, something in­ lectual skills, craftwork is gradually replaced by
teresting happens. It is as if this awareness comes crafted landscape organism in which sustainab
out of the stream of time. The skill is gained environmental practice is underpinned by an eth
through past experience, but it brings something of sustainability but enacted through the freewi
towards the individual out of the future. It is pos­ gesture of the pupil. The pupil moves from 'point
sible to experience non-time, in other words a periphery'. The building of a water cleansing ree
state of presence in which opportunities arise bed system. a practical ecology in working with th
so as to observe oneself in movement. This is a kingdoms of nature and i.he elements to service th
profoundly therapeutic experience and many growing environmemal degradation, offers the old
pupils touch this point when they become more pupils the opportunity for self judgement. The
skilful in their movement articulation. This 'pres­ highly developed imel!ectual capacities can b
ence' can be described as a state of self-healing channelled into serv:cing e!1Vironmental and hu
as it can act as a path towards self-knowledge. man requirements. This may be called a flew form

-~--,----------------
following series of impressions by students Saul
Grant and Danielle Radojcin:
"Working with the issue of sustainability in mind
we acquired hands-on experience of the use of such
materials as wood. clay and Iron in our activities.
The result was that each of the four groups faced
its own individual challenges. which the students
themselves had to overcome with guidance from
the tutors where necessary. Thus the complexities
of a sewage system. a bread oven and how to fit a
chair together without straight pieces of wood were
tackled and overcome."
"We soon discovered that the activities were not
dissimilar to arts and craft lessons ... but with one
Significant difference: rather than simply watching
and the taking part in a craft. which. it seems. is
productive only insofar as it provides gifts for one's
re!atives ... we 'Nere actually applying what we
learned to serve a useful human need. Building a
compost toilet requires much physicallabour...the
idea behind the compost toilet being that. by giv­
ing back what we take from the soil. we refrain
from disrupting the natural cycle. and simultane­
ously develop an awareness of being responsible
for our own wastage rather than flushing it away
and forgetting about it. This pleasing balance of
intellectual and practical learning generated a
real enthusiasm amongst us ... self sufficiency in a
facility devoid field meant that each group became
dependent on the other for resources. We were able
to develop a consciousness of some of the most
pertinent environmental issues today. by way of
direct application,"
Steiner Education. Vol. 31. No.2
Eighteen year-olds today will often be found
searching through an intellectual fnmework to test
the evidence and correctness of their thoughts and
actions placed within the contemporary context of
sustainability. These pupils were thirs(y to have
themselves tested. not solely on an intellectual
level. but so as to confront a threshold experience
of an inner nature: a test which sustains and con­
tributes long term to human development. What
the Hiram Trust offered the pupils is no different in
to engage the path of incarnation. The nine an
cient crafts of mankind. sourced from the thre
kingdoms of nature and found at the interface o
the four elements. arise from within the inspira
tion of the Steiner Waldorf curriculum. By sourcin
the primary materials. as is so often done in th
kindergarten. we are in effect starting t
reinvigorate the child's sensory perception of th
world thrOtlgh the hand. The age appropriatenes
of any activity must arise out of a clear understand
ing of child development in conjunction with th
teacher's observation. With the advent of curren
lifestyles teachers are finding that a more funda
mental and therapeutic intensification in gesture
of movement is increasingly required to cultivat
healthy development and limb. hand and eye co
ordination. Fewer children cook. climb trees. pla
on farms and in forests. The natural world is mor
and more a foreign experience. The world of pla
reqUires an intensification and orientation toward
the practicaL This practical aspect is more con
sciously applied to the main lesson curriculum i
Class 3; the awakening to landscape. shelter an
buildings. Foundations are laid during this perio
for the craft curriculum to work on later in th
development of thinking skills. By. employin
empathetic processes and materials at source
appropriate access is granted to what has ofte
been seen as premature experience in the past i
developing a handcraft curriculum for the younge
children in the school. For example. with regard t
blacksmithing. Rudolf Steiner requested that th
blacksmith work back to back with the kinder
garten so the rhythm. fire and stature of th
blacksmith imprints itself on the senses of the child
But blacksmithing itself is only practised in Clas
10. Perceiving the elements of blacksmithing a
opposed to executing the function of an item
enables children in their Class 4 main lesso
on Norse mythology to become Thor at the anvi
in the blacksmith \vorkshop. guided by th
element of fire and the rhythm of beating. A
child in kindergarten. \vhittling with his knife an
a stick. is explOring the first qualities of resistance
cation will be based on the judgement of the
teacher. Rudolf Steiner left the craft teachers in The
Study o( Man with a remarkable opportunity of fash­
ioning their curriculum based largely upon their
own observation of the children. their perception
and understanding. This meeting of the material
from the kingdoms of the earth and the school
teacher's understanding of child development is a
creative area in the Steiner Waldorf approach, Jeav- .
ing a free space for development and research as
regards curriculum content.
The following diagram is intended to be more of
an imagination of the three kingdoms and the four
elements. In looking at a broader application of
craft and practical skills activities \n the lower part
the upper school experience. as its potential!y
structive forces need to be controlled, underst
and directed. Activities such as casting metal. w
the adolescent prejudges. thinks and mak
model. reqUires an attitude of complete respo
bility for the perfection or imperfection of
crafted item. In the repetition of the item all f
are revealed. Craft activities that necessitate a
degree of judgement and intellectual rigour sup
the pupil in the last years of schooling. Challen
the adolescent to place the context of the act
in a sustainable and environmental context w
rigour. reflection and prejudgement are requ
at each step. qirects him or her into new area
application towards a new ethic of deed.