In Figure 3.

1, the flow chart divided into four main processes consist of the selection of location,
deriving information from the literature reviews, analysing the domestic solar water heating system and
determine the feasibility of photovoltaic thermal collector for solar water heating application. The
following diagram summarised the procedures and pre-planning applied, shown below. . A flow chart
created to process the information gathered from the literature reviews. The data collected by
conducting measurement onsite or recorded by the nearby weather station. The following diagram
shows the location of Ayer Keroh located in the state Malacca. Evaluating the energy output of the
domestic solar water heating system utilising photovoltaic thermal collector requires additional steps
and pre-planning. In the flow chart, each segment specifies the information needed to fulfil the main
aim and objectives of the project. The city of Ayer Keroh, Malacca selected as a case study location for
this project. Solar radiation received by the area determined from weather data. The next section
explains the methodology for selecting the location and process required to determine the solar
radiation of the area. In this project, the weather data of Ayer Keroh obtained from the weather station
facility located at Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik of Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM). The
following figure shows the location of the weather station located at Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik,
UTeM. The weather station location is closest to the city area of Ayer Keroh, Malacca. The coordinate of
the weather station is 2.3147 north in latitude and 102.3201 east in longitude. Information on location
tilt angle radiation required in evaluating the effectiveness of any solar-based system. In this project, the
flow chart processing the weather data of Ayer Keroh derived from the approach developed by Tian et
al. (2018) summarised by the following diagram. The analysis for solar radiation of location determined
using previous weather data recorded by Baharin (2017) in the year 2016. This data consists of two
hourly measurement parameters which are global irradiance and ambient temperature. Both
measurement data included in Appendix A and B for reference. Following flow chart summarise the
additional steps and procedures taken in evaluating the tilt angle radiation of Ayer Keroh adopted from
Tian et al. (2018). Several modifications on the method proposed by Tian et al. (2018) required
according to the latest literature reviews and available weather data of Ayer Keroh. The information on
location daytime required in evaluating both parameters. Detail information on the simulated sunrise,
sunset and daytime of Ayer Keroh provided in Appendix C for references. An additional approach to
estimate the daily global irradiance and radiation of location included in the flow chart. In this project,
the simulated daytime model published by Baharin et al. (2016) used in the analysis. In Figure 3.5, the
process of evaluating the tilt angle radiation for Ayer Keroh divided into three stages. Based on the
result, the sun rises time of location is around 6:50 AM to 7:25 AM in the morning and set time is about
6:55 PM to 7:10 PM with the average monthly solar day length of 12 hours daily throughout the year
(Baharin et al., 2016). Discussion of the theoretical formulas used in Figure 3.5 explained in details in the
next section. Reviews conducted on eleven case studies classified the evaluation method for the solar
water heating system into four consists of F-Chart, mathematical modelling, simulation and experiment.
In the previous project flow chart shown in Figure 3.1, the process begins with selecting a suitable
evaluation method, specify photovoltaic thermal collector and evaluating the energy output of the
system. The design and analysis of the solar water heating system conducted according to information
obtained from the literature reviews. The following Table 3.1 summarised the case studies according to
the evaluation method. The following table summarised the findings of comparative studies. In this
process, the information gathered in the literature review section categorised according to the
evaluation method. A comparative study conducted using information summarised in Table 3.1 to
determine the requirements and complexity of each approach. The complexity of each case study rated
by examines the research objective, methodology and analysis approach used in evaluating the
effectiveness of the solar water heating system using photovoltaic thermal collector. The F-Chart
approach chosen as the evaluation method since the main aim of the project is to determine the
feasibility using photovoltaic thermal collector for the domestic solar water heating system in Ayer
Keroh, Malacca. Evaluation result in Table 3.2 indicates the F-Chart method has the lowest complexity
than other approaches thus suitable for everyone without experience designing a solar water heating
system. The simulation approach using computer software requires basic knowledge of modelling the
photovoltaic thermal water heating system. This method is suitable for average user with experience in
design and development of solar water heating system. Detail process using the F-Chart method
summarised by the following flow chart, shown below. The experiment and mathematical model require
extensive theoretical with applied knowledge on system operation thus limited to the individuals who
expert in the field of study. In F-Chart method, the process starts with selecting suitable parameters of
the system within the design limits, shown as follows. The flow chart shown in Figure 3.6 summarised
the steps taken in evaluating the energy output of the solar water heating system using F-Chart method.
The result finalised in terms two dimensionless number represents by X and Y. Both values applied to
the F-Chart diagram in evaluating the solar fraction of the system, shown below. The process divided
into three sections consist of reviews for F-Chart liquid system, analysis using the method and finalised
the result. After specifying the parameters of the system, the next step is to evaluate the correction
factors of each component by using the simplified formulas. The process begins with the tilt angle
radiation of location and ends with the evaluation for the solar fraction of system using F-Chart method.
Detail discussion on the procedures evaluating the solar fraction using empirical formulas continued in
the next section. In this project, the evaluation approach of the solar water heating system divided into
eleven subsections. Formulas and assumptions used in measuring the effectiveness discussed as follows.
The first analysis of location weather data begins with the method proposed by Liu and Jordan (1960)
for solar irradiance. Eliminating the reflect component changed previous Equation 1 into following
Equation 2. The incoming global irradiance (I_G) is the summation of three components summarised as
follows. In Equation 1, the I_B is the beam, I_D is the diffuse and I_R is the reflected irradiance
components. The reflected irradiance in Equation 1 is equal to zero since the global irradiation data
measured in the horizontal orientation. The integration of Equation 2 transforms the global irradiance
into global radiation (H_G) presented by Equation 3, below. According to Liu and Jordan (1960), the
location daytime or known as daily daylight hour estimated using the following formula. In Equation 3,
H_B is the beam while H_D is the diffuse radiation components. The daytime of location is measure
starting from sunrise and ends at sunset. In theory, the solar radiation of location obtained by
integrating the irradiation components in Equation 2 with the local daytime. The analysis continues with
the evaluation of daily global radiation (H_(G daily)) of location, estimated using Equation 6 below. In
Equation 4, ϕ is the latitude coordinate of weather station which situated at 2.2744 north. However, the
location daytime evaluated using the result published by Baharin et al. (2016) and available in Appendix
C for references. The simulated model found the daytime duration of location range between 720 to 735
minutes per day. The δ is the angle of declination which evaluated using Equation 5 below. The daily
radiation measured from at sunrise (I_sunrise) and end at sunset (I_sunset). In Equation 6, the I
represent irradiance measurement obtained at a specified time using pyranometer installed on the
location weather station. The monthly average global radiation (H _̅ (G monthly)) calculated using
Equation 7, summarised as follows. The ∆t represents the time interval between two specified times
which evaluated in second. The daily global radiation obtained using Equation 6 as shown earlier. The
following Equation 8 summarised the artificial neural network model equation used for approximating
diffuse radiation in Malaysia. The daily diffuse radiation estimated using the prediction model provided
by Azhari et al. (2012) based on irradiation model developed by Khatib et al. (2012). In Equation 8, the
H_D is the daily diffuse while H_G is the daily global radiation of location while K_T represent the
location clearness index. The evaluation of location clearness index discussed further in the next section.
The next methodology continues with the evaluation of location clearness index as required in Equation
8. The daily beam radiation (H_B) estimated using the following equation. The ϕ is the latitude
coordinate of weather station which situated 2.2744 north and δ is the angle of declination which
evaluated using Equation 5 earlier. Clearness index or previously known as cloudiness indexes by Liu and
Jordan (1960) is the ratio between global with extra-terrestrial radiation. The ω_s or sunset hour angle
measured in degree unit and evaluated using Equation 11. The daily extra-terrestrial radiation (H_o) of
location calculated using Equation 10, shown below. The G_sc in Equation 10 is the solar constant which
around 1367 W/m2 and n is the number of days of the year. Next, the daily clearness index determined
by dividing location daily global radiation (H_(G daily)) shown in Equation 6 with daily extra-terrestrial
radiation (H_o) in Equation 10. In Equation 11, the ϕ is the latitude coordinate of weather station which
situated 2.2744 north and δ is the angle of declination which evaluated using Equation 5 earlier.
Evaluated location radiation components are then used to determine the amount of tilt radiation
received by the photovoltaic thermal collector at a given incident angle. The following equation
summarises the formula of daily clearness index. The evaluated of daily clearness index (K_t) applied to
Equation 8 in estimating daily diffuse radiation of location using developed artificial neural network
model. Evaluated location radiation components are then used to determine the amount of tilt radiation
received by the photovoltaic thermal collector at a given incident angle. The model developed by Liu
and Jordan (1960) used in approximating the location monthly average tilt angle radiation (H _̅ T)
without considering the shading factor. The tilt angle radiation of location estimated using various
models as described in Table 2.2 in the literature reviews section. The following formula summarised the
Isotropic Sky model proposed by Liu and Jordan (1960). The R _̅ B in Equation 13 is the average ratio of
beam radiation defined according to the position of photovoltaic thermal collector. In this analysis, the
orientation or azimuth of the collector. In this project, the Isotropic Sky model selected in evaluating the
location average tilt angle radiation. The tilt angle, β determined by measuring the degree of inclination
between the ground base with a collector surface plane. In Equation 13, the average beam radiation
ratio (R _̅ B) evaluated using Equation 14, shown below. The H _̅ B is the average beam while H _̅ D is the
average diffuse and H _̅ G is the average global radiation of location. The ρ_g is the albedo or reflectance
of ground estimated according to the surrounding area of location. Brown roof tiles with the surface
albedo of 0.3 chosen in evaluating the tilt angle radiation components as summarised in the literature
review section assumed facing south toward the equator since the area located in the northern
hemisphere. The ϕ is the latitude coordinate of weather station which situated 2.2744 north. The δ is
the angle of declination which evaluated using Equation 5 as mention earlier. In Equation 14, the π is
mathematical constant evaluated at 3.142 while 〖ω'〗_s is the minimum sunset hour angle for the
month determined using the following Equation 15. Evaluated tilt angle radiation of location then used
to determine the solar fraction of the solar water heater using the F-Chart method. In Equation 15, the δ
is the angle of declination which evaluated using Equation 5 as mention earlier. The ϕ is the latitude
coordinate of weather station which situated 2.2744 north. The value of the sunset hour angle for the
month determined by selecting the minimum value between the two equations specified in Equation 15.
The F-Chart method adopted in the analysis follows the works published by Vokas et al. (2006). In this
process, the evaluation for space heating excluded since incompatible for tropical climate. The following
equation summarised the parameters required to estimate the system heating efficiency. The heating
fraction for a liquid system (f_h) evaluated using the following formula, shown below. In Equation 16,
the X_h is collector losses to heating ratio range between 0 to 18 whiles Y_h is the absorbed radiation to
heating ratio approximate between 0 to 3. The system collector losses to heating ratio specified in
Equation 16 is a dimensionless parameter used to measure the effectiveness of the solar water heating
system. The L_h is monthly water heating load while the efficiency of the collector-heat exchanger of
the system, (F_R^')/F_R evaluated using Equation 18, shown below. In Equation 17, several photovoltaic
thermal system parameters required in estimating the collector-heating ratio. The total collector area,
The demand for hot water temperature of the system, T_ref define at 50°C as specified in the literature
review and ambient temperature, T_a obtained from location weather data available in Appendix A for
references. The correcting coefficient of the water storage tank (k_1) given by the following equation,
shown below. The ∆t is the time available for each month measured in second while k_1 is the storage
tank correcting coefficient. A_c^' and collector flow rate factor with the total collector loss coefficient,
F_R U_L obtained from the testing result of the photovoltaic-thermal collector. . Finally, the ε is the
effectiveness of heat exchanger which obtained from information provided by the manufacturer. In
Equation 18, the A_c represent the surface area of collector while F_R U_L is the collector flow rate
factor with total collector loss coefficient. The m ̇ is the flow rate of working fluid while C_P is the
specific heat of collector fluid. Several parameters in Equation 18 depended on the configuration of the
solar water heating system. The L_h is monthly water heating load while N is the number of days of each
month. The absorbed radiation to the heating ratio, Y_h in Equation 16 is the second dimensionless
parameter used to measure the thermal effectiveness of the solar water heating system. In Equation 19,
the V is capacitance factor which the measurement ratio between the area of the photovoltaic-thermal
collector with the water storage tank capacity which depended on the configuration of the system.
Equation 20 summarised the required parameters for evaluating the absorber radiation-heating ratio. In
Equation 20, the total collector area, A_c^' and thermal efficiency of the collector, F_R 〖(τα)〗_n
obtained from the testing result of the photovoltaic-thermal collector. The (H_T ) ̅ represent the average
tilt angle of area evaluated using Equation 13 while the efficiency of the collector-heat exchanger of the
system, (F_R^')/F_R evaluated using Equation 18. Finally, the (τα) /̅ 〖(τα)〗_n or system
transmittance-absorbent ratio value in Equation 20 identified by using a graph developed by Klein
(1979) or computed using Equation 21 below. The value of 〖(τα)〗_n, transmittance absorptance for
normal incident angle obtained from the photovoltaic thermal collector datasheet. The first derivation
of transmittance absorptance of beam components calculated using the following equation, shown
below. In Equation 21, several transmittance parameters needed from the photovoltaic thermal
collector. The average beam (H _̅ B), diffuse (H _̅ D) and global (H _̅ G) radiation evaluated using previous
Equitation 1 to 9. The tilt angle radiation (H _̅ T) calculated using Equation 13 with the albedo (ρ_g) or
reflectance of ground estimated at 0.3 as stated earlier in the literature review section. The R _̅ B in
Equation 13 is the average ratio of beam radiation evaluated using Equation 14. The θ_e is radiation
effective incident angle while θ_r is radiation refraction angle of the glass cover. The tilt angle, β
determined by measuring the degree of inclination between the ground base with a collector surface
plane. The (τα) _̅ B, (τα) _̅ D and (τα) _̅ G are the average beam, diffuse with global transmittance
absorptance components derived using transmittance absorptance formulas as specified by Kalogirou
(2015). The glass cover thickness, L and extinction coefficient, K obtained according to the specification
of the collector. The radiation refractive angle calculated using Equation 23, presented as follows. The
collector transmittance absorbed diffuse component (〖τα〗_D) calculated by changing the θ_e in
Equation 22 to the effective diffuse incident angle (θ_d) shown below. In Equation 24, the tilt angle β
determined by measuring the degree of inclination between the ground base with a collector surface
plane. The angle of θ_e evaluated using the following Equation 24 since the collector is set towards the
equator, shown below. The ϕ is the latitude coordinate of weather station which situated at 2.2744
north while δ is the angle of declination which evaluated using Equation 5 as mention earlier. The θ_r is
radiation refraction angle of the glass cover calculated using Equation 23. The tilt angle of the
photovoltaic-thermal collector influenced by the θ_e or radiation effective incident angle. The θ_r is
radiation refraction angle of the glass cover calculated using Equation 23 while θ_d or radiation diffuse
effective incident angle estimated based on the collector tilt angle shown as follows. In Equation 26, the
tilt angle β determined by measuring the degree of inclination between the ground base with a collector
surface plane. In Equation 25, the glass cover thickness, L and extinction coefficient, K obtained
according to the specification of the collector. The final collector transmittance absorbed reflected
components, 〖τα〗_G evaluated based on Equation 25 by changing the radiation diffuse effective
incident angle (θ_d) to radiation effective reflected incident angle (θ_g), shown below. In Equation 27,
the glass cover thickness, L and extinction coefficient, K obtained according to the specification of the
collector. The radiation effective reflected incident angle (θ_g) in Equation 27 evaluated using the
collector tilt angle value, summarised as follows.In Equation 28, the tilt angle β determined by
measuring the degree of inclination between the ground base with a collector surface plane. The total
monthly heating load influenced by various factors summarised by the following equation. The process
continues with the evaluation of location water heating load. The evaluation of monthly heating load
(L_h) in Equation 17 and 20 obtained by estimating the amount of water consumption rate for an
average house. The water supply temperature (T_m), specific heat capacity (C_P), and water density (ρ)
parameters follow the system operating condition. In Equation 29, the L_h or total water heating load
evaluated by measuring the N_p or number of occupancies with V or the daily water consumption per
person. Finally, n represent the number of days available in each month while the reference
temperature of hot water (T_ref) set at 50°C as specified in the literature review section. Reducing the
error, the following Equation 30 evaluates the correction ratio (r) between testing condition with actual
configuration use in the solar water heating system. Modification on existing parameters and equations
is necessary to reduce the difference between testing and actual measurement. The difference in
collector testing parameters with proposed system caused an error in estimating the actual solar
fraction of the system. In testing condition, fluid with lower flow rate used in evaluating the thermal
efficiency. The difference in the fluid flow rate does influence the thermal performance of the collector.
The value of fin efficiency with collector loss coefficient F^' U_L evaluated based on collector test
condition parameters which used in both numerator and dominator. However, the pump flow rate of
the solar water heating system depends on various internal and external factors of actual operating
condition. The flow rate (m )̇ , specific heat (C_p), collector loss coefficient (U_L) and area of the collector
(A_c) follows the configuration used by system or testing condition. After determining the ratio in
Equation 30, the new corrected collector parameter evaluated using Equation 32 and 33 below.
Following Equation 31 shows the formula evaluating the F^' U_L, shown below. The flow rate (m )̇ ,
specific heat (C_p), collector loss coefficient (U_L), the flow rate factor (F_R) and area of the collector
(A_c) follow the configuration of the collector. In general, most collectors for solar water heating system
arranged in series than parallel configuration. The value for flow rate factor (F_R), collector loss
coefficient (U_L) and transmittance absorptance for normal incident angle 〖(τα)〗_n follows the
configuration used by system or testing condition. The following diagram illustrates the installation of
photovoltaic thermal collector arranged in a series configuration. . Following equation evaluates the
system parameters according to the series arrangement. The correction ratio (r) calculated using
Equation 30 as specified earlier. Calculation for overall collector parameter is necessary as the number
of collectors used by solar water heating system is more than one. In this project, the type of collector
used in the series arrangement fixed thus the parameter and characteristic are similar for each unit. The
parameters required in evaluating the constant K depend on system configuration. Following equation
summarised the formula used in evaluating K, shown below. The value for flow rate factor (F_R),
collector loss coefficient (U_L) and transmittance absorptance for normal incident angle 〖(τα)〗_n
follows the configuration used by the single or total system. Since identical collector applied in the series
arrangement, parameter in Equation 32 and 33 computed using Equation 34 and 35. The flow rate (m )̇ ,
specific heat (C_p), collector loss coefficient (U_L), the flow rate factor (F_R) and area of the collector
(A_c) in Equation 36 follow the parameters of the collector. The evaluated system parameter using
Equation 34 and 35 applied in evaluating the correction factor. The correction factor between collector
and heat exchanger depended on both component parameters. Value for correction factor varies
according to the overall collector configuration use by the water heating system. The effectiveness of
heat exchanger, ε follows the performance rating of the component provided by manufacturers. The
following formula summarised the equation for the collector-heat exchanger correction factor
((F_R^')/F_R ). The flow rate (m )̇ , specific heat (C_p), collector loss coefficient (U_L), area of the
collector (A_c), flow rate factor (F_R), collector loss coefficient (U_L) and transmittance absorptance for
normal incident angle 〖(τα)〗_n follows the configuration used by system or collector. Following
Equation 38 summarised the evaluation of transmittance-absorptance ratio for the collector cover glass.
The 〖(τα)〗_n or transmittance-absorptance of the collector identified according to the properties of
the cover glass of the collector. According to an experimental study by Tiwari and Sodha (2006), the
effective transmittance-absorption of photovoltaic thermal, 〖(τα)〗_eff evaluated using the following
equation. In previous Equation 38, the value of transmittance-absorption of collector only applies for
glass cover of the collector. The glass thickness and extinction factor influence the value of the
transmittance-absorptance ratio for the collector. According to Parkin, high glass extinction factor
increases glass absorptivity at a given incident angle. In theory, high absorption in glass reduces the
transmittance rate thus decrease the overall transmittance-absorption of the collector. Since the
photovoltaic thermal collector is the combination of both element, correction on the evaluated
parameter is necessary to obtain the actual thermal efficiency of the collector. The thickness of collector
cover glass, L and its extinction factor, K obtained according to technical information provided by the
manufacturer. The n in Equation 38 is the standard refraction index evaluated at 1.526 for glass. The
equation provided by Tiwari and Sodha (2006) further simplified by Sopian et al. (2011) for
transmittance absorptance of photovoltaic thermal, 〖(τα)〗_pv stated as follows. The parameters for
glass transmissivity (τ_G), solar cell absorption (α_sc), solar cell packaging factor (β_sc), tedlar
absorption (α_T) and solar cell efficiency ( _sc) refer to the specifications provided by the manufacturer
(Tiwari and Sodha, 2006). The first and second transmittance-absorption factor, (τα)_1 with (τα)_2
calculated based on formulas provided by Tiwari and Sodha (2006). The penalty factor or 〖PF〗_1 in
Equation 40 introduced since the absorber of photovoltaic thermal collector placed under the solar cell
layer. The penalty factor (〖PF〗_1) in Equation 40 calculated as follows. The parameters of the
conductive heat transfer coefficient of tedlar, U_T evaluated using the following equation below. In
Equation 42, the properties of tedlar thermal conductivity, K_T with its thickness, L_T obtained from the
collector datasheet. The U_T is the conductive heat transfer coefficient of tedlar while U_t is the heat
transfer coefficient from the solar cell to ambient (trough cover glass). . The heat transfer coefficient
from glass to ambient (h_o) depended on collector testing data. The conductive heat transfer coefficient
for the solar cell to ambient through the glass cover (U_t) evaluated using Equation 43, shown below. In
Equation 43, the cover glass thickness, L_G with thermal conductivity, K_G obtained according to
collector datasheet. The first transmittance-absorption factor, (τα)_1 shown in Equation 40 measured
correlation between solar collector and glass. The information for solar cell absorption (α_sc), efficiency
( _sc) and packaging factor (β_sc) referred to the design provided by the manufacturer. The first-factor
summarised by Equation 44 below. The transmissivity of glass, τ_G depended on the thickness and
testing condition of collector cover glass. The second transmittance-absorption factor, (τα)_2 measured
the correlation between tedlar, solar cell and cover glass of collector. Equation 45 summarised the
formula evaluating the second factor, shown below. In solar thermal, the (τα)_n terms only accounted
the value for glass cover as shown in Equation 38 since there are no layers on top of collector absorber.
Different situation observed in photovoltaic thermal collector where the top surface of absorber
covered with the solar cell. ). In the F-Chart method, there is a difference in mathematical terms used to
describe the thermal efficiency of the photovoltaic-thermal collector provided by Vokas et al. (2006)
with derivation by Tiwari and Sodha (2006). These differences caused difficulties differentiating the
terms used for the solar thermal and photovoltaic thermal collector. In Equation 45, the tedlar
absorptivity (α_T), solar cell packaging factor (β_sc) and transmissivity of the cover glass (τ_G) depended
on design and rating of the collector (Tiwari and Sodha, 2006The mathematical terms F_R (τα)_n used
by Vokas et al. (2006) to describe the thermal efficiency of the photovoltaic-thermal collector which
similar to solar thermal collector provided by Klein et al. (1976). However, detail analysis with
experimental validation provided by Tiwari and Sodha (2006) used the mathematical terms the effective
transmittance-absorption 〖(τα)〗_eff as stated in Equation 39 for the photovoltaic thermal collector.
Hence, changes in the terms describing the terminal efficiency for photovoltaic thermal collector
required in the absorber radiation-heating ratio of Equation 20 for F-Chart method. Detail discussion of
the thermal efficiency continued in the next section. The flow rate factor (F_R), collector loss coefficient
(U_L), solar irradiance I, ambient temperature (T_a) and temperature inlet fluid (T_fi) follows the testing
configuration of the collector. The effective transmittance-absorption 〖(τα)〗_eff calculated using
Equation 39 while h_p1 with h_p2 are the first and second penalty factors introduced since the working
fluid sandwiched under a layer of materials. Equation 46 further simplified by Sopian et al. (2011),
shown below. The thermal efficiency of the photovoltaic-thermal collector is obtained by a numerical
approach with further validation using the experimental result. The flow rate factor (F_R), collector loss
coefficient (U_L), solar irradiance (G), ambient temperature (T_a) and temperature inlet fluid (T_i)
follows the testing configuration of the collector. The h_p1 represents radiation required to pass tedlar
through multilayer material consist of glass, the solar cell with EVA while h_p2 shows the interaction
between tedlar and working fluid. According to an analysis study provided by Tiwari and Sodha (2006),
the instantaneous thermal efficiency ( _thermal) can be estimated using the following equation. In
Equation 40, only a single penalty factor considered in the calculation as demonstrate in previous
Equation 41 to 45. The value of transmittance absorptance of photovoltaic thermal, 〖(τα)〗_PV as
shown in Equation 40 is according to the design proposed by the author (Sopian et al., 2011). The
calculation of heat removal factor, F_R in both Equation 46 and 47 depended on the testing parameters
of the collector. After finalising the thermal efficiency terms for the photovoltaic thermal collector, the
next process continues with the discussion for corrected absorbed radiation-heating ratio used in the F-
Chart method. In Equation 20, the mathematical terms for collector thermal efficiency, F_R 〖(τα)〗_n
replace with updated terms, shown below. However, different scenario observed for the photovoltaic
thermal collector where the absorber layer covered by multi-layer photovoltaic material (Tiwari and
Sodha, 2006). The value of transmittance absorptance of photovoltaic thermal, 〖(τα)〗_PV as shown in
Equation 40 while L_h or total water heating load calculated using Equation 29. The (τα) /̅ 〖(τα)〗_n is
the transmittance-absorbent ratio of the system calculated using Equation 21 while monthly average tilt
angle radiation (H _̅ T) follows Equation 13. In Equation 20, the absorbed radiation-heating ratio
obtained from the conventional thermal collector. Since the thermal collector consists of single layer
absorber, the value for transmittance-absorption obtained using Equation 38. Changes in existing
mathematical terms used in Equation 20 required to follow updated information provided by Sopian et
al. (2011) which derived from Tiwari and Sodha (2006). The parameters for total collector area (A_c^')
and flow rate factor (F_R) follows the configuration of the collector. In Equation 48, the terms F_R
〖(τα)〗_n replace with F_R 〖(τα)〗_PV as specified in Equation 47 by Sopian et al. (2011). Finally, the
N is the number of days of each month. Following Equation 16, 17 and 48 applied in evaluating the
performance of solar water heater using photovoltaic thermal collector. Detail application of the
equations discussed further in the next chapter 4 of the thesis. In Equation 49, the annual solar fraction
(F_annual) of the solar water heating system evaluated by dividing the overall monthly energy produced
with the total location monthly water heating load (L_h). The annual solar fraction of the solar water
system represents the ratio between total energy produced by the system with water heating load
required annually, summarised by the equation below. Finally, the monthly solar fraction of system (f_(h
)) evaluated using Equation 16 while the monthly water heating load calculated based on Equation 29.
Detail examination indicates the development of photovoltaic thermal collector determined using
theoretical and experimental approach. The parameters of photovoltaic thermal collector obtained
according to the information available in the literature review. Information in the literature review
organised according to the testing method and efficiency of the collector. The collector with lowest
thermal efficiency developed by Rosli et al. (2013) chosen in evaluating the energy output of solar water
heating system using F-Chart method. The following table summarised the latest photovoltaic thermal
collector development worldwide. Based on the information in Table 3.3, the efficiency of photovoltaic
thermal collector range between 46.4% to 67.0% respectively. The discussion continues in the next
chapter 4