Text Book

Scope and Objective of the Course N. Subramanian, ‘Steel Structures: Design and Practice’, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 2011.

• To impart adequate analysis and design skills to common type

of Civil Engineering Steel Structures as found in practice.
• Limit State Method of design will be pursued.
• An understanding of theory, loads and stresses to be used as
per Indian standards for steel design work will be developed.
• Designing of tension, compression, and flexural members of
steel.
• Bolted and welded connections
• design of steel trusses; plate girder and beam-column will be
covered.
• Plastic design of steel structures will also be introduced.
• To enable the students to analyze and design the tension
members, compression members, bolted / welded truss
structures.

Reference Books
(i) S. K. Duggal, “Limit State Design of Steel Structures”, Lecture Reference Learning
McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2010 Module No.
Session outcomes
(iii) Teaching Material on Structural Steel Design, by Types of 1.7-1.8,
Institute for Steel Development and growth (INSDAG), Structural Steel, 1.13
Calcutta, http://www.steel-insdag.org/new/contents.asp
Mechanical
(iv) IS 800:2007 ‘Code of practice for General construction properties of
in steel’ Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi Properties
I: steel, Structural
of steel
(v) IS 875 : 1987 (parts I – IV) “Code of practice for design Steel Products,
Loads”, Bureau of Indian Standards.
Introduction and its
Advantages of
(2 lectures) use in
Steel as a
structures
Structural
1.17-1.18
Material, Types
of Steel
Structures

Review on Riveted
connections, Types of
Design bolts, Advantages of bolted 10.1-10.2
connections, bolt holes,
considerations, behavior of bolted joints,
Steps involved in Design strength of black
Design of
bolts in bearing, shear,
design Process, Efficiency of joint, Tension
Bolted
2.1- 10.3-10.4 Connections
structural systems, Design capacity of plate in tension,
in Axially
II: 2.4 Prying forces, Truss
Seismic force Steps connection
Loaded
Members
Steel Design resisting systems, and III: design strength of High
Strength Friction Grip
Specifications Loading and Load Design Connections in Axially
(HFSG) bolts, Design of
Loaded members 10.5-10.6
Simple connection :Lap
(3 lectures) Combinations Philosop (6 lectures) and Butt joints in plates in
Indian Design hies tension,
Advantages of welded
Standards, Design connections, Types and 11.3-11.4,
2.6,
philosophies: Limit properties of welds, Types 11.5, 11.7 Design of
2.9 of welded joints, Welded
State and Working weld notations, weld Connections
Stress specifications, Effective 11.7-11.9 in Axially
area of welds, Loaded
Strength of welds, Design Members
of simple welded 10.10-10.11

1
 Types of tension Possible modes of failure
of compression members,
members, 3.1, Classification of cross-
Types of
Sections in
Slenderness ratio, 3.2, sections, behavior of 51.-5.3,
compression
Behavior of Tension 3.4 compression members, 5.6-5.7 and their
Design of multiple column curves of
Members IS code, sections used in
failure modes
Plates and
IV: Modes of Failure, compression members,
the Effective length of
Factors affecting 3.5-
Design of Tension Member of V: compression members, Effective
strength of Tension 3.6 Design of Compression effective length of columns Length of
Members Truss in 5.8
members, Members in braced frames, effective Compression
(4 lectures) carrying length of truss members, Members
Behavior of angles (6 lectures)
3.7- Tensile and trusses
under Tension, Design of
3.8, Forces design of built-up
Design of Tension Built-up
3.10 compression members 5.11-5.12
Compression
Members, using Lacings and Battens,
Members
3.1- Design of
Lug Angles, Splices
3.12 Design of column bases column
5.13
and caps bases and
caps

Lateral stability of
Design of
beams, Design
Basics of Plastic Laterally
strength of laterally 6.3-6..4
theory, shape supported
supported beams,
factor, Plastic beams
effective length,
collapse load, Design strength of Design of
Conditions of 4.1- Plastic VII: laterally supported Laterally
VI:
plastic analysis, 4.9 Design beams, Design supported
Plastic Behavior of Design of Beams 6.6-6.7
strength of laterally and
Theorems of of beams (4 lectures)
beams and unsupported unsupport
plastic collapse, and beams, ed beams
Frames
Classification of Portal Design of
(4 lectures) cross-sections, Frames Shear strength of
beams for
steel beams,
Examples on 6.8-6.9 shear and
Maximum
plastic Analysis of serviceabi
–– deflections
lity
beams and portal
frames

Design of Bolted Design of

Moment Resistant Bolted
Types of sections, connections: causing Connectio
elements of plate General 10.7
twisting moment and ns
girders, General aspect of causing bending Carrying
7.1- 7.3 IX:
considerations, Plate moment Twisting/B
Preliminary design girders Design of
Beam and column ending
VIII: procedure Connections 10.9
splices Moment
Design of Plate Web panel Carrying
7.4 design of eccentric Design of
Girders subjected to shear, Twisting/Bending
load causing Welded
(5 lectures) Behavior of Moment 10.12
Design of moment welded Connectio
transverse web 7.5 (5 lectures) connections, ns
Plate
stiffeners, Carrying
Girders stiffened beam seat
Design of plate 10.12, Twisting/B
girders and 7.6 connections, beam
10.14 ending
stiffeners and column splices
Moment

2
 Evaluation Scheme
Behavior of beam-column, Nature of
equivalent moment factor, S. Evaluation Weight Date & component
Theory of Duration
Nominal strength, 9.1-9.4 N. Component age Time (Close Book/
Beam-Column
X: Interaction equations for (%) Open Book)
local capacity 1 Mid-Sem 90 35 Close-Book
Beam-
Column IS code procedure for Design of Exam minute
9.5
Design design of beam-column Beam-Column 2 Compre. 3 Hrs. 45 Close-Book
according to Exam.
(3 lectures) Steps in the Design of
9.6 IS Code 3 Tutorial 50 Min. Open-Book
beam-columns
Procedure (Open-Book)
Design of 20
Design of eccentrically 4 Surprise –– ––
9.8 base plate for quizzes
loaded base plates
Beam-Column

5. Make-up Policy
No Make-up will be given for Tutorials.
Make-up for Mid-Sem Test will be given only for
genuine cases
6. Chamber Consultation Hour:
4:30 PM to 5:30 PM Monday- Friday
Students must adhere to the announced timing.
7. Notice:
Notice if any, concerning this course will be
displayed on the Civil Engg. Dept. Notice Board.
INTRODUCTION
• Steel structure are an assemblage of a group of
members
• Members- sustain their share of applied forces and
transfer them safely to the ground.
• Depending on the orientation of the member in the
structure and its structural use, the member is
subjected to forces either
– (i) axial, (ii) bending, or (iii) torsion, or a combination
thereof.
• Axial load 
– tensile—Tension Members (tie),
– Compressive – Compressive Members (Strut)
• Flexural Force  Beams and girders
• Torsion  Shafts (Not discussed here)

• Steel members are connected using the rivets, welds,

bolts, pins
• The connection between steel members Joints:
 Rigid — can transfer moments)
 Flexible — can transfer axial loads
(shears);
 Semi-rigid — that fall in between rigid
and flexible
• Steel structures are used in:
• Roof trusses for factories, railway station platforms,
cinema halls, auditoriums
• Bridges for railways
• Crane girders in industry
• Water tanks
• Telephone and Mobile towers

3
ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
high strength per unit weight
 small section  Lesser self-weight
 members resists heavy loads  smaller column sections
 Slender columns in buildings
 easy to transport  prefabricated members can be used
Can be erected at a faster rate (using prefabricated members)
 ductile material No sudden failure
 may be bent, hammered, sheared or even the bolt holes may
be punched without any visible damage.
 If Properly maintained, steel structures have a long life.
 Steel properties mostly do not change with time
Versatile  Additions and alterations can be made easily
Easy to repair and add structural members
 Easy demountability,
 Highest scrap value and can be reused and recycled
DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
• When placed in exposed conditions
 corrosion
 require frequent painting and maintenance
 Maintenance cost
• Strength reduces drastically in fire
 Needs fire-proof treatment
 Needs additional Fire Proofing Cost
• Excellent heat conductor
 may transmit enough heat from a burning location to
adjoining room.
• Fatigue  Reduction in strength due to Fatigue loads
 one of the major drawbacks
• At stress concentration locations  steel may lose its ductility
(tearing of steel)
• Fatigue at very low temperatures aggravate the situation
• Susceptibility to Buckling

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Important mechanical properties of steel are: TENSILE STRENGTH
21• Ultimate strength (also called tensile strength) 22

• Yield strength (also called proof stress) High Strength Steel

• Ductility T
Mild Steel
d
Yield Plateau
fy b
e
c

a

0.2%

Typical Engineering Stress- strain curve of

tension coupons as per IS 1608

Notes:
IDEALIZED STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
• Same curve for tension as well as in compression.
• Actual behavior is different and indicates an apparently
23
reduced yield stress in compression.
• Divergence from the ideal path is called the Bauchinger effect.
• The actual stress-strain curve may be idealized into bilinear or
tri-linear form
• At High Temperature, curve will be more rounded with no clear
yield point

4
 Properties of Structural Steel:

Ultimate Strength or Minimum Guaranteed ultimate strength DUCTILITY

or Engineering ultimate strength Ductility : Capacity to undergo large inelastic deformations
UltimateTensile Load 26
UltimateTensile strength (UTS)  without significant loss of strength or stiffness.
Original area of cross  sec tion

Actual Ultimate Strength

Ultimate Tensile Load
Actual Ultimate Tensile strength (UTS) 
area of cross  sec tion at breaking po int

Since area of cross-section varies with load, it becomes difficult to measure area at
different load stage

Local necking and the cup and Tensile test of cast iron
cone fracture surfaces are shows low ductility
typical for ductile metals.

Importance of Ductility Properties of Structural Steel (as per IS 2062)

Ult. Yield Strength for Min.
Thickness Rem
• Ductile structure gives adequate warning (by Desig. Ten.
Str. <20 20-40 >40
elongati C
on (%)$
Mn S P Si
ark
27 28
undergoing large deformation before collapse) in Fe410A 410 250 240 230 23 0.23 1.5 0.050 0.05 0.4 *
the case of excessive or sudden loading such as Fe410B 410 250 240 230 23 0.23 1.5 0.050 0.05 0.4 **
earthquake or blast. Fe410B 410 250 240 230 23 0.23 1.5 0.050 0.05 0.4 ***

• As per Euro code 3 structures will have adequate $ Gauge Length = 5.65A0
* This type of steel is intended to be used in structures subjected to normal conditions
ductility if ** This type of steel is intended to be used in structures subjected to non-critical
applications, where, service temperature does not fall below 00C. Usually, specified
for structural parts prone to brittle fracture or subjected to severe fluctuation of stress.
• *** This type of steel ha guaranteed Low temperature 9up to -40 0C ) and impact
properties.
Modulus of Elasticity (E) = 2×105 N/mm 2 (For  = 0.3
Poission’s Ratio () in elastic range = 0.3
in plastic range = 0.5
Shear Modulus (G) = 0.769 ×105 N/mm 2
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 12 ×10-6 / 0C
Unit Mass of Steel () = 7850 kg/m 3

Types of Structural Section:

CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF STEEL Classification Based on manufacturing process, Two types of Section:
(i) Hot rolled Sections
29 (ii) Cold Formed Sections,
Hot Rolled Sections
• Simply called as Rolled Sections
• more commonly used as structural steel
• Produced by ‘hot rolling process’ in rolling mills where molten steel is
poured in the casting system and before cooling, it is passed in
series of rollers
• Due to hot-rolling  no loss of ductility

Cold formed sections:

• Unlike hot-steel rolled shapes 9which are formed at elevated
temperature), cold formed sections are formed at room temperature by
rolling or pressing thin gauzes of steel sheets/ strips (thickness < 8 mm )
 Light in weight
 used for smaller loads where hot rolled becomes un-economical

5
 • Channels:
Hot Rolled Sections Parallel flange
• Angles
31
Legs Equal or unequal (ISA)
• T sections
ISJT, ISLT, ISST, ISNT and ISHT)
• Bars
Round (ISRO)
Square (ISSQ)
• Tubular sections
ISLT, ISMT, ISHT
• Plates
ISPL
• Strips
ISST
• Flats
ISFI

List of Rolled Steel Sections as per IS 808:1989 Cross Sections Used for
– Indian Standard Junior Beams (ISJB) Tension/Compression Members
– Indian Standard Light-weight Beams (ISLB)
– Indian Standard Medium weight Beams (ISMB)
– Indian Standard Wide-Flange Beams (ISWB)
– Indian Standard Heavy weight Beams (ISHB) Channel I- Section
– Indian Standard Column-Sections (ISSC)
– Indian Standard Junior Channels (ISJC) Angle Double Angle
– Indian Standard Junior Channels (ISJC)
– Indian Standard Light weight Channels (ISLC)
– Indian Standard Medium-weight Channels (ISMC)
– Indian Standard Angles (ISA)
Rod Cable
– Indian Standard Normal Tee-Sections (ISNT)
– Indian Standard Deep-Legged Tee-Sections (ISDT)
– Indian Standard Light weight Tee-Sections (ISLT) Built up sections
– Indian Standard Medium-weight Tee-Sections (ISMT)

Hot Rolled Beam Sections as per IS 808

Flanged Sections
In India, IS 808 provides following hot-rolled beam sections
• have flanges in which the planes are nearly parallel. • Junior beams : Indian Standard Junior Beams (ISJB)
35
• Light-weight beams: Indian Standard Light-weight Beams (ISLB)
• Medium-weight beams: Indian Standard Medium-weight Beams (ISMB)
• Wide-flange beams: Indian Standard Wide-Flange Beams (ISWB)
• Heavy-weight beams : Indian Standard Heavy-weight Beams (ISHB)
• Column sections: Indian Standard Sections for Column (ISSC)

• Excellent sectional performance- high bending and

buckling resistance
• Used for beams as well as for columns
• Have narrow wide flange and thick web
• Economical due to higher Z for the same weight.

6
 ISNT IS Nominal Tee

Choice of Section
• Channel Sections  used in purlins in industrial buildings
•40 Angles Sections  used in trusses and towers
• Tee Sections  commonly used for chord members in trusses,
In India generally double angles are also used
• Choice of section is governed by the
– Cross-sectional area,
– Section modulus and
– Radius of gyration
• In IS 800:2007 there is no min. thickness requirements,
however better to use min. thicknesses as
– 6 mm for the main members and
– 5mm for secondary members exposed to the atmosphere,
especially in coastal areas
• IS:808 and IS handbook No.1 lists the properties of
various sections

Properties of
Properties of Beam Sections
Beam
Sections

Designation Mass (M) Sectional Area, a Dimensions Sectional Properties

D B t T Flange Slope, Max R1 R2 Ix Iy rx ry Zx Zy
kg/m cm2 mm mm mm mm ,  deg mm mm cm4 cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)
MB 100 8.9 11.4 100 50 4.7 7.0 98.0 9.0 4.5 183 12.9 4.00 1.05 36.6 5.16
MB 125 13.3 17.0 125 70 5.0 8.0 98.0 9.0 4.5 445 38.5 5.16 1.51 71.2 11.0

MB 150 15.0 19.1 150 75 5.0 8.0 98.0 9.0 4.5 718 46.8 6.13 1.57 95.7 12.5
MB 175 19.6 25.0 175 85 5.8 9.0 98.0 10.0 5.0 1 260 76.7 7.13 1.76 144 18.0
MB 200 24.2 30.8 200 100 5.7 10.0 98.0 11.0 5.5 2 120 137 8.29 2.11 212 27.4
MB 225 31.1 39.7 225 110 6.5 11.8 98.0 12.0 6.0 3 440 218 9.31 2.34 306 39.7
MB 250 37.3 47.5 250 125 6.9 12.5 98.0 13.0 6.5 5 130 335 10.4 2.65 410 53.5
MB 300 46.0 58.6 300 140 7.7 13.1 98.0 14.0 7.0 8 990 486 12.4 2.86 599 69.5

7
 Sections used for Heavy Loads

Column Sections

Tapered Girders and Castellated Beams

HYBRID SECTIONS

AIMS OF STRUCURAL ENGINEER STEPS INVOLVED IN THE DESIGN PROCESS

• Structural design is a scientific & creative process. • Estimation of probable loads,
• The structural design should satisfy: • Arrival of the structural system
– Safety • Structural analysis (with the aid of computers especially for large structures)
– Stability • Design of various elements based on codal provisions
– Serviceability • Estimation of quantities and cost of construction
– Durability • Preparation of fabrication and erection drawings
• Construction
And should be:
– Economic (cost of construction & maintenance)
– Aesthetically pleasing
– Environment friendly

8
Iterative Design Process STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Classification of structural systems
• Single-storey, single/multi-bay
• Multi-storey, single or multi-bay
• Space structures: single, double or multi layer grids,
steel frame folded plates, braced barrel vaults and
domes
• Tension structures and cable-supported

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS (cont.) Lateral Force Resisting Structural System

Braced frames Steel Framed Buildings (Rigid frames)

(a) Elevation
(b) Bracings on perimeter/interior wall and
(c) Bracings around core

9
 Types of Steel Framed Buildings • Rigid Connections
• SIMPLE CONNECTIONS – Transfers Shear as well as Moment
– Transfers Shear but Not Moment

• Semi-Rigid Connections Types of loads acting on a structure are:

– They fall between the simple connections and – Dead loads
rigid connections. – Imposed loads
– Wind loads
– Most of the practical connections are semi rigid
– Snow loads
connection only. – Earthquake loads
– However in practice they are treated at simple or – Special loads
rigid connections only! Loads are determined according to IS:875 – 1987: Code of
practice for design loads (Other than earthquake) For buildings
and structures
PART 1 : DEAD LOADS — UNIT WEIGHTS OF BUILDING MATERIALS
AND STORED MATERIALS
PART 2 : IMPOSED LOADS
PART 3 : WIND COADS
PART 4 : SNOW LOADS
PART 5 : SPECIAL LOADS AND COMBINATIONS
(temperature changes, soil and hydrostatic pressures, internally generating stresses
(due to creep, shrinkage, differential settlement, etc ), accidental loads etc,

Dead Loads (DL) Imposed Loads (IL)

• Permanent or stationary loads which are transferred to • Produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building
structure throughout the life span. including weights of movable partitions or furniture etc.
• Primarily due to self weight of structural members, permanent Live Loads (LL)
partition walls, fixed permanent equipments and weight of • Moving loads with out any acceleration or impact.
different materials. • Suitably assumed by the designer based on type of
• Majorly consists of the weight of roofs, beams, walls and structure.
column etc. which are otherwise the permanent parts of the • One of the major load in the design
building. • Minimum values of live loads to be assumed are given in IS
• DL of each structure are calculated as volume of each section 875 (part 2)–1987.
multiplied with the unit weight. • It depends upon the intended use of the building.
• Unit weights of some of the common materials are presented – Residential buildings–dwelling houses (Flats), hotels, hostels, boiler
rooms and plant rooms, garages
in Part-I of IS 875. – Educational buildings
Sl. No Material Weight – Institutional buildings
1 Brick Masonry 18.8 kN/m3 – Assembly buildings
2 Stone Masonry 20.4-26.5 kN/m3 – Business and office buildings
3 Plain Cement Concrete 24 kN/m3 – Mercantile buildings
4 Reinforced Cement Concrete 24 kN/m3 – Industrial buildings, and
5 Timber 5-8 kN/m3 – Storage rooms

10
 • In multistoried buildings chances of full imposed loads acting
simultaneously on all floors is very rare
• Hence, the code makes provision for reduction of loads in designing
columns, load bearing walls, their supports and foundations as shown in
table below.
Number of floors (including the roof) to be Reduction in Total Distributed
carried by member under consideration Imposed Loads in %
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5-10 40
Over 10 50

• Basic wind speed Vb, depends on the location of the building.

Wind loads
• For this purpose, the country is divided in to six zones with specified wind speeds
• Primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to ranging from 33m/s to 55 m/s.
earth.
• Required to be considered in structural design especially when the
heath of the building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse
Vb has 6 values:
to the exposed wind surface.
Zone I - 33 m/sec
• For low rise building say up to four to five stories, the wind load is Zone II - 39 m/sec
not critical because the moment of resistance provided by the Zone III - 44 m/sec
continuity of floor system to column connection and walls provided Zone IV - 47 m/sec
between columns are sufficient to accommodate the effect of these Zone V - 50 m/sec
Zone VI - 55 m/sec.
forces.
• Further in limit state method, the factor for design load is reduced to
1.2 (DL+LL+WL) when wind is considered as against the factor of
1.5(DL+LL) when wind is not considered.
• Horizontal forces exerted by the components of winds is to be kept
in mind while designing is the building.
• Calculation of wind loads depends on the two factors, namely
• velocity of wind and
• size of the building

• Basic wind speed (Vb) is based on gust velocity averaged over a Appendix A (Fig.1) of the code specifies Vb for some important cities/ towns is given.
short time interval of 3 seconds at 10m height from mean ground
level in an open terrain and for 50 years return period.
• Vb does not take into account the local topography features such as
hills, valleys etc.
• Topography features affect the wind speeds.
• Accelerated near the summits and decelerated in the valleys
• The design wind velocity Vz is determined as
Vz = k1.k2.k3.Vb
Where; k1 = Risk coefficient
k2 = Coeff. based on terrain, height and structure size.
k3 = Topography factor

11
Risk Coefficient (K1)) Terrain, height and structure size factor (K2)
• Risk coefficient k1 takes in to account the degree of reliability required and the • It depends on Terrain category and building class/size of structure.
expected life of structure. • Four terrain categories are specified by the code defending on the availability of
• All general buildings (Design life 50 years) obstruction to the flow of wind.
• Temporary sheds (Design life 5 years) Category 1:
• Less important Buildings (Design life 25 years) Refers to no obstructions available to the building (sea coasts and flat treeless
• Important Buildings (Design life 100 years) plains where other structures if any have heights less than 1.5m).
(Table 1 of IS875-part3) Category 2:
Refers to open terrain with scattered obstructions of 1.5m to 10m height. e.g.
industrial area.
Category 3:
Refers to areas of closed spaced buildings of height up to 10m (buildings at
outskirts of city)
Category 4:
Refers to area with highly closed buildings of large heights (dense city area).
• K2 factor also depends on the dimensions of the building under considerations.
• Based on dimension of building, the structures are classified as Class A, Class B,
Class C
Class A : Maximum of l, b, h <20 m *
Class B : Maximum of l, b, h, 20m to 50m.
Class C : Maximum of l, b, h > 50m.
* Structures having max. dimension (i.e. greatest of horizontal or vertical dimension)
less than 20 m.

(Table 2 of IS875-part3). Topography factor (K3) (Clause 5.3.3.1 of IS875-part3)

• It depends on the topography i.e. hill region, cliffs and ridges.
• If the upwind slope (which equals to upward ground
slope)  ≤ 3◦ , value of K3 shall be taken as 1.0.
• For  > 3◦, the value of K3 lies between 1.0 to 1.36 (max.
near ground and minimum at height levels).

Design Wind Pressure (pz) • The wind force acting normal to the building surface is given by
The design wind pressure is given by F= Cf Ae pd
pz= 0.6 Vz2 Where, Cf = force coefficient determined from following Figures
Where,
pz= Design Wind speed in N/m2 at height z
Vz= Design wind speed in m/s.

• Wind load on a building is calculated for the “ Building as a

whole.”
• Up to a height of 30 m, the wind pressure is considered to act
uniformly.
• Above 30 m height, the wind pressure increases.
• Force coefficients are given for the building as a whole in the
code for clad or unclad buildings.
• In this we considered clad (covered with side cladding or
walls) buildings only.

12
Wind Pressure on Roofs
Internal Pressure Coefficients
• Depends upon permeability of the building and the direction
of wind.
• Different coefficients for buildings with large openings on one
side.

• Positive pressure coefficients -Pressure

Type of building Cpi
• Negative pressure coefficients -Suction Low permeability (less than 5% openings) 0.2
Pressure acts normal to the element Medium permeability (5 –20% openings) 0.5
F = (Cpe -Cpi) A pd Large permeability (openings > 20%) 0.7
Where, F = net wind force on the element
A = surface area of the element
pd = design wind pressure
Cpe= external pressure coefficient
Cpi = internal pressure coefficient

Internal Pressure coefficients for buildings with large External Pressure Coefficients
openings on one side and top closed.
• Y = h or 0.15 W whichever is less
• Coefficients for different locations (pattern) are given in Table

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Methods of Analysis

• Analysis :
• Elastic Analysis
• Determination of the axial forces, bending moments, shears
• Plastic Analysis
& torsional moments
– Slope deflection method
• Normal Steel building are analyzed using Elastic analysis.
– Moment distribution method
– Portal method • Advanced Analysis (frame instability analysis)
– Cantilever method • Dynamic Analysis as per IS 1893
– Matrix methods (stiffness & Flexibility) • Dynamic/Advanced analysis necessary for tall/slender
Software for Structural Analysis buildings.
• SAP2000 • Plastic analysis is performed to asses the behavior at collapse
• STAAD PRO
• ETABS
• MIDAS
• GT-STRUDL
• STRUDS
Note: You should be aware of any assumptions used and limitations of these programs

13
 CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS
• Codes –Bureau of Indian Standards
– Ensure adequate structural safety
– Aid the designer in the design process.
– Ensure consistency among different engineers
– Protect the structural engineer from disputes –
but do not provide legal protection.
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
• Working Stress Method of design (WSM).
• Ultimate Strength Design (USD) or Plastic Design
• Limit States Design
[in USA, Load and Resistant Factor Design (LRFD)]
Working Stress Method (WSM)
• The first attainment of yield stress of steel is taken to
be the onset of failure.
• The limitations due to non-linearity (geometric as well
as material) and buckling are neglected.
• Permissible (allowable) stress = Yield Stress / Factor of
Safety(F.S.)
• Working Stress ≤ Permissible Stress
F.S.= 1.67 for tension members, beams and short columns;
1.92 for long columns

Limit States Design Design for Ultimate Limit State

• Plastic design:
– a special case of limit states design, wherein the
limit state of strength is the attainment of plastic
moment strength MP
• Limit state:
– a state of impeding failure, beyond which a
structure ceases to perform its intended function
satisfactorily
• Limit States
• The design should be such that the overlap of two curves
– Limit State of Strength & are small
– Limit State of serviceability limit states • Probability of failure is within acceptable range.

Level II Reliability Method • Characteristic Ultimate Strength:

• The strength below which not more than 5% of samples falls.

f k  f mean  1.64 
 f mean  f 
2
where ,   s tan dard deviation 
n  1
• Characteristic Load :
• The strength below which not more than 5% chances that load will
increase the characteristic load

f k  f mean  1.64 

 f mean  f 
2
where ,   s tan dard deviation 
n  1
Higher value of  is chosen for connections than members

14
Limit states considered by IS 800 Comparison of WSM & LSD
IS : 800 - 1984 IS : 800 – 2007
Working stress method Limit State Method
• Factor of safety for yield stress • Partial material safety
Allowable stresses < ‘fy’ factors (γm) for yield and
ultimate stress.
• Analysis done under working • Analysis done under
loads. factored load
[= Working loads x partial
safety factor for loads (γf)]
• Yielding or buckling never • Post buckling and post
occurs at working loads yielding are considered while
 Not checked estimating capacity.
• Deformations are evaluated at • Deformations are evaluated
working loads. at working loads.

86
R ( = R /γ ) Q (= Σγ Q )

Partial Safety factor-Loads, f

Partial Safety factor-Material, m

Check for Stability (clause 5.5.1) Sway stability

• We should consider • All structures to be checked for a minimum notional
– General stability of structure
horizontal load (0.5% of the vertical load at each level).
– Stability against overturning, and
– Sway stability.

Stability against overturning

• Important for Tall buildings and Cantilevers (Clause 5.5.1.1)
– Components aiding instability and resisting instability are
identified and multiplied with appropriate partial safety
factor.
– Resisting components multiplied by a partial safety factor of
0.9 and added with design resistance
– The resistance effect ≥ de-stabilizing effect

15
Serviceability Limit States
Limits for Deflection
• Deflections are to be calculated for all the combination
of Working loads, and checked for the maximum values
given in code.
• Vibration will have to be checked when vibrating loads (
due to machinery, cranes,) or activities such as
dancing, marching are involved.
• If vibrations are more, Change the natural frequency by
some means to reduce vibration

Case Study for Vibration Durability

• Section 15 of IS 800:2007 gives details of different
London Millennium Bridge coating/painting systems for durable structures
experienced vibration when
opened on June 2000. • Blast cleaning the surface enhances the life of paints
• Avoid traps for dirt and moisture
37 fluid viscous and 52 Tuned
Mass Dampers were added to • Use of weathering / stainless steel
control the vibration and the
bridge opened again in Feb
2002.

Connections
• Connection
– A location where two or more elements meet

SIMPLE
CONNECTIONS

16
Types of bolted joints Lap Connection to Gusset Plate
• Lap Joint,
• Butt Joint
Lap Joints
• Two members are overlapped and connected together
• May be single bolted or Double bolted joint
• Loading axis of members do not match  Load is eccentric
• Bending of joint  couple is formed  bolt may fail in tension
 preferably two bolts must be used

Bending of bolt

Eccentricity in Lap Joint

Butt Joint
• Members are placed end to end
• Cover plates are provided in two ways  (i) single cover plate
butt jt. (ii) Double cover plate butt jt.
• Double cover plate joints better than lap joint since:
– SF in double cover plate = (1/2) of SF in lap joint
– Shear strength of double cover plate = 2 x Shear strength
of Lap joint
– In double cover plate joint  no bending
Single Cover Butt Joint Double Cover Butt Joint

Introduction to riveted connections:

Butt Joint in I-beam Section • Riveted connections are obsolete
Single cover butt joint • Rivet made up of round ductile material round bar called ‘shank’
• Classified based on head shape: ‘snap (common)’, ‘pan’, ‘flat countersunk’,
Double cover
‘round countersunk’
butt joint • Diameter of shank  nominal diameter
• Two types Hot Driven and Cold Driven also shop rivets and Field Rivets
Hot Driven Rivet
• Rivets are first heated  increase in diameter  heated diameter > shank
diameter  gross diameter
• On cooling length of rivet reduces  joint becomes tighter,
Single cover butt joint  Diameter of rivet reduces  some space remains between rivet and hole
Tension Joint Cold Driven Rivet
• Needs high pressure
• Strength of cold driven rivets > hot driven rivets
Rivet Pattern:
• Chain Pattern; Staggered Pattern; Diamond Pattern; Staggered
Diamond
Design of Riveted Sections are Same as Bolted Connections:
• In Case of Rivets, Diameter of Rivet = Diameter of Hole,
• in case of Bolt , Diameter of bolt = nominal diameter of bolt
• Design Stress of rivet > Design Stress of bolts

17
BOLTED CONNECTION Methods of making Holes for bolts:
• Consists of bolt (shank with a head at one end and threaded at other (1) Drilling ,
end), nuts and washers. (2) Punching simple:
• Washers are used to: – saves time and cost but reduction in ductility and
– Distribute the clamping pressure on bolted member, toughness
– to prevent the threaded portion – As per IS:800-2007permits punching, only when
• If the section is subjected to vibrations  nuts are locked • material yield stress < 360 MPA,
Advantages of Bolted Connections over Riveted connections: • thickness < 5600/fy mm
• Speedup erection of structure,
• If punching is to be used, holes are punched 2
• Needs less skilled persons mm less than required and 2 mm is drilled
• Overall cost of bolts less as compared to Rivet due to Reduction in
labor and equipment cost
Objections on use of bolts:
• Cost of bolts > cost of rivets
• Tensile strength of bolt < tensile strength of rivet (due reduction in
area of cross-section at root of thread)
• May loose due to vibrations and shocks

Types of Bolts Black Bolts:

• Unfinished or Black Bolts or ‘C grade’ bolts (IS 1363: 2002)
• Turned Bolts
• High Strength bolts (IS 3757: 1985 and IS 4000: 1992)
• Ordinary bolts, unfinished, rough or common bolts
• Made from mild (low carbon) steel rods
• Heads are made square or hexagonal (costly but better
appearance)
• Lest expansive
• More no. of bolts are needed for a connection
• Primarily used in light structures (purlins, bracings, trusses etc)
• and the members under static loads
• Not recommended for structures subjected to impact, fatigue or
dynamic loads
• No significant clamping stress is developed
• Force is transferred through the interlocking and bearing 
joint is called bearing type joint

Properties of Black Bolts

Grade/ Yield stress Ult. Tensile Elongation
Dimensions of Black Bolts
Classification (Mpa) Strength (Min.) (%) Bolt Dimensions Washer Dimensions
3.6 180 330 25 Bold Head Head Thread Pitch of Outer inner Thickness
4.6 240 400 22 size (d) Diagonal Thick. length Thread Dia. Dia.
4.8 320 420 14 16 26.17 10 23 2.0 30 18 3
5.6 300 500 20 20 32.95 13 26 2.5 37 22 3
5.8 400 520 10 24 39.55 15 30 3.0 44 26 4
8.8 (d<16) 640 800 12 30 50.85 19 35 3.5 56 33 4
8.8 (d>16) 660 830 12 Note: Diameter of hole is made about 1.5 to 2.0 mm larger than bolt diameter
10.9 940 1040 9
12.9 1100 1220 8
• From the Grade of bolt : we can get yield strength as
• Yield strength of bolt
• = 100First digit (before decimal)  second digit (including decimal)
• Yield Strength of 4.6 grade bolt = 1004 0.6 = 240 Mpa

Note: Figures in brackets are for High Strength Bolts

18
Net Cross-section of Bolt High Strength Friction Grip ( HSFG) Bolts
• Ratio of net tensile area (in threaded portion) is given in (as per IS 1367 as
• Made from bars of Medium Carbon Steel bar
Bolt Desig. M12 M14 M16 M18 M20 M22 M24 M27 M30 M33 M36 M39
• May be tighten to a higher stress level (twice of ordinary bolts)
Nom. Dia, d 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39
• Connected parts are clamped together and Develops high
Asb, mm2 113 154 201 255 314 380 453 573 707 855 1018 1195
compressive force in joint which develops high friction between
Anb, mm2 84 115 157 192 245 303 353 459 561 694 817 976
plates
• Ratio of Net area in threaded portion and area in nominal plane shank may be • Loads are transferred primarily by friction not by shear  called
taken approximately 0.78
Friction bolts
• As per IS 800  net tensile area is considered at root called stress area or proof
area • May be used for structures subjected to impact, fatigue or
dynamic (vibrations) loads
• Available in nominal diameter of 16, 20, 24, 30, and 36 mm and
referred as M16, M20, M24, M30, and M36 respectively
• These bolts are commonly made of Grade 8.8 and 10.9

Advantages of High strength bolts:

Bolt
Desi
Bolt Dimensions Washer Dimensions • No slip between elements connected  rigid joint high
Bolt Head Head Nut Thread Length Pitch of Outer inner Thick. strength of connection
gnati
size Diagonal Thick thick for bolt length Thread Dia. Dia.
on
(d) . ness b <100 b>100 • No shearing and bearing failure
M16 16 26.17 10 13 31 38 2.0 30 18 4 • No stress concentration in the hole  more fatigue strength
M20 20 32.95 13 16 36 43 2.5 37 22 4 • Uniform tensile stress in bolt
M24 24 39.55 15 19 41 48 3.0 44 26 4
• No loosening in bolts
M30 30 50.85 19 24 49 56 3.5 56 33 5
• Less man power (compared to rivets)  cost saving
• In Market four types of bolts designated as 8S, 8.8S, 10S and 10.9S are • Less Noise nuisance
available
• These symbols are embossed on bolts heads • Less number of bolts are required (compared to rivets)
• As per the IS code only 8.8S and 10.9S bolts are recommended since
they guaranteed yield strength

Shear Failure of Bolt in Lap Joint: Shear Failure of Bolt in Double cover
Types of Bolt Failures Plate Butt Joint:
Shear Failure of Bolt
• Hole diameter > diameter of bolt, smaller loads no shear in
bolt
• Due to large Loads, slip takes place, bolts comes in contact
with plate and shear is developed in bolt
• Occurs when shear stress in bolt > Nominal shear stress
• Shear failure : Two types 
(i) Single shear Failure
 shear failure at one section of bolt
 occurs in case of Lap joint,
(ii) Double Shear Failure Bolt in Single Shear
 shear failure at two sections of bolt
 occurs in case of Butt joint

Bolt in Double Shear

19
Bearing Failures of Bolt
• In general, transfer of force in connecting parts through
bearing action
• Bolt is crushed around half circumference
• Occurs when plate is stronger in bearing compared to bolt
• Not common, except in case of high strength plates
Tension Failures of Bolt
• Occurs when bolts are in Direct Tension
• If bolt in Tension and Tensile stress in bolt >
Permissible stress Tension Failure at root of
thread (weak)

Bearing Failures of Bolt in Lap Joint

Bearing Failures of Bolt in Double Cover Butt Joint

Types of Plate Failures Rupture or Tensile or Tearing of plates

Bearing or crushing Failures of Plate
• Occurs when due to slip, bolt comes in contact with plate
• If plate material is weaker than bolt, due to heavy stresses, plate
may crush at the contact surface
• If edge distance is not sufficient, plate may tear
• In plates, holes in plate for connection  Reduction in
net effective area of plate  Tension Failure of Plate
• Tension Failure of Plate may be prevented by  (i)
fewer holes, (ii) staggered holes
• Plate breaks along the bolt line

End Failure or Bursting or shearing Failure of Plate Failure Gusset Plate to Angle Connection
• Occurs near edge of plate due to tearing of plate near end
• Due to insufficient end distance (distance from end of plate from center
Block Shear Failure of Gusset Plate
of nearest hole measured along force direction) portion of plate of width • A combination of shear failure and Tension Failure
equal to diameter of hole is sheared • A portion of plate (block) shears along the force direction
• to prevent shear failure  provide enough end distance
Bursting Failure of Plate when connected by single bolts

End shear Failure of Plate when connected by Double bolts

• Force resisted by both the bolts is NOT uniform
• Outer bolt resists more force
• Tearing out starts with the outer bolt
• Subsequently inner bolt may tear-out Block Shear Failure of Angle

20
Shear Stress variation in bolts (along Longitudinal Axis) High Strength Friction Grip (HSFSG) Joints in Shear
• Also called Pre-loaded joints
• Made using High strength bolts
• Tighten Bolts developed high clamping force in plates
• Because of friction, no-slip with in joint
• Force is resisted by friction rather than bearing action

Pre-loaded Friction Grip Joints in Tension

Strength of Bolt

Determination of Shearing Strength of Bolt: Reduction factor in shear for Long Joints
Shear strength of bolt depends on • If the length of joint > 15d  Long Section
• Ult. tensile strength of bolt, fub • If the section is long
• No. of shear planes with threads, nn • Stress in outer bolts > inner bolts
• No. of shear planes without threads (shanks), ns • Need to apply Reduction factor (ij)
• Nominal area of shank, Asb,
• ij accounts for overloading of the end bolts
• Net stress area of bolt Anb
 l 
βlj  1.075 -  j  but 0.75  βlj  1.0
 200 d 
Where,
lj = length of joint
= distance between first and last row of bolts measured
in direction of load

Shear capacity of bolt, V

nsb
f

 ub n A  n A
3 n nb s sb
 • For uniform stress section (i.e. assuming all bolts carry equal
stress)  ij = 1

21
Reduction factor in shear for Large grip length Reduction factor for packing Plates
(i.e. more thickness of plates) • If packing plate thickness > 6 mm
• More thickness of plates • Bending is developed in shank
• More grip length of bolt • Need to apply a reduction factor in shear capacity (pkg)
• More Bending Moment in Section
• For the safe design
• Need to apply a reduction factor for large grip length (lg)
• If total thickness of the connected plates > 5nominal diameter
of the bolt  pkg  1 0.0125 t pkg 
• Joint is considered to have more grip length
where tpkg = thickness of packing plate
• Correction factor lg is used which is determined as
8d Thus, Nominal Strength of Joint may be calculated as
lg  and lg  lj
3d  l   8d
g V
f
 
 ub n A  n A  lj  lg  pkg
nsb 3 n nb s sb

Factor of Safety of material (mb) Bearing Strength (Capacity) of bolt

For safety of joint in shear, a factor of safety for • Due to Bearing
material is used (mb) • hole elongates
V f

V  nsb  ub n A  n A  lj  lg  pkg
sb  m b 3  m b n nb s sb
 • Due to Excessive bearing
• tearing of plate
where mb = partial safety factor of material of bolt = 1.25 • To avoiding excessive elongation of hole
For 4.6 grade bolt, fsb = 400 MPa • Bearing stress not greater than Nominal bearing strength

V
sb

400
3 1.25 n nb s sb

n A  n A  lj  lg  pkg  of bolt
• Nominal bearing strength of bolt


V  184.75 n A  n A  lj  lg  pkg
sb n nb s sb
 = projected bearing area  ultimate Tensile stress

Vsb  184.75 Ae  lj  lg  pkg

Vnpb  2.5 k b d t f u

nn Anb  ns Asb 

Where,
For bolts in Single in Shear: Ae   e  p  f 
k b  smaller of  ,   0.25, ub and 1.0 
For bolts in Single in Shear: 
Ae  2  n A  n A
n nb s sb
  3d 0  3d 0  fu 

d = nominal diameter of bolt; Pitch:

d0= diameter of hole • C/C distance between individual fasteners (bolts) in a line/
p = pitch of the bolt (along bearing direction); rows (measured parallel to load/stress)- p
e = end distance of the bolt (along bearing direction) • If bolts are in zig-zag pattern  distance measured parallel to
fub= ult tensile stress of bolt; direction of load/stress  staggered pitch- ps
fu = ult. Tensile stress of plate Line/row
t = total thickness of the connected plates subjected to
bearing stressing in the same direction
Line/row Edge distance
p
End distance
Edge distance Limitations on Pitch:
p • Minimum Pitch:
End distance
• Pitch  2.5  nominal diameter of bolt  called Minimum pitch
• For safety of joint • Pitch  minimum pitch due to following reasons:
• need to use a Factor of safety, mb, • To prevent bearing failure between two bolts
• mb = 1.25 • for sufficient space to tight the bolts
Vnpb fu
V pb   V pb  2.5 kb d .t. • to avoid overlapping of washers
 mb  mb • to avoid tear-out of plate

22
Maximum Pitch:
• Pitch should not exceed
– 16t or 200 mm, whichever is less in Tension members
– 12t or 200 mm, whichever is less in compression members
(where t = thickness of thinner plate)
• In compression members, where forces are transmitted
through the butting facing:
– Pitch should not exceed 4.5d for a distance of 1.5b from
the butting faces, where b= width of member
• Pitch for edge row of the outside plate should not exceed
(100 mm + 4t) or 200 mm, whichever is less
• If bolts are staggered at equal interval and gauge not greater
75 mm,
– pitch for tension and compression members may be
increased by 50% provided Pitch should not exceed 32t or
300 mm
Gauge:
• Distance between adjacent gauge (bolt) lines (measured
perpendicular to force) Line/row
Edge distance
p
End distance
Edge Distance:
• Distance from center of any (extreme) bolt hole to edge of
plate (measured perp. to load direction)
End Distance:
• C/C distance of bolt holes to the edge of an element
(measured along load direction)
• Minimum Edge Distance and Minimum end distance
– 1.7×hole diameter  in case of sheared or hand-flame cut
edges (uneven)
– 1.5×hole diameter  in case of rolled, machine-flame cut,
sawn(saw) & planed (plane) edges
Maximum Edge Distance
• Edge distance to the nearest line of fasteners from an edge of
 12 t ,
any un-stiffened part 
where,   250 / f y and
t = thickness of the thinner outer plate.
• Above is valid for fasteners interconnecting the components
of back to back tension members.
• Where members are exposed to corrosive influences,

edge distance (40 mm+4t), (t=thick. of thinner plate)
If Edge distance > maximum edge distance
• Edges may separate  Moisture may reach between parts 
Corrosion problem in joint
Pitch should not be greater than Maximum Pitch
• To reduce the length of connection and gusset plate
• To have compact joint for economy
• For Long joints (> 15 diameter of bolt)
• End bolts are stressed more
• Progressive joint failure – called unbuttoning
• Unbuttoning of bolts may be controlled by limiting the pitch
• In case of built-up compression member joints
• Buckling of cover plates
• In case of built-up Tension Member joint
• Connected plates apt (tends) to gap apart (from cover plate
in transverse direction)
• If Edge distance < mini. Edge distance and
• End distance < mini. end distance:
– Plate may fail in tension
– Steel of plate opposite the hole may bulge out (in direction
perp to load)  crack
Hole Diameter:
– Hole diameter
= Nominal diameter of bolt + clearance
– Hole Diameter For nominal diameter from 12 mm to 14 mm
• clearance = 1. 0 mm
– Hole Diameter For nominal diameter from 16 mm to 24 mm
• clearance = 2. 0 mm
– Hole Diameter For nominal diameter > 24 mm
• clearance = 3. 0 mm
Strength of Bolts in Bearing Type Connections
(using un-finished or ordinary bolts):
Strength of Bolt (in Bearing type connections):
• Strength of bolt is taken as Minimum of
(i) Strength of bolt in bearing, and
(ii) Strength of bolt in shearing
Design of ordinary Bolt (Bearing) connection:
Load to betransferred
No. of bolts required 
Strength of one bolt
• Since single bolt may fail and may result in collapse
• Minimum no. of = 2 or 3
Strength of Joint:
• Strength of joint is taken as Minimum of following
(i) strength of connection on the basis bolt (s) strength
(ii) Strength of connection based on net tensile Strength of plate
Strength of connection on the basis bolt (s) strength
= strength of one bolt  no. of bolts
23
Tensile strength of Plate based on Net Section Area Net Section Rupture in Plates:
• At bolt hole
Modes of Failure: Tension Member failure at connection • stress concentration near bolts hole due to reduction in area
• Stresses near hole may reach be more than three times the average stress
• Stress concentration factor = max stress/ average stress
• Need to minimize stress concentration by redistributing the stress in adjacent areas
of cross section
• Stress may be redistributed if material is ductile and proper joint detailing is done
• If a tension member having net section area , An, is carrying tensile force, T, then
for safe design,
Average stress < Ultimate yield strength of tension member
• Due to holes in Tension members at the joint for connection T
 f u  T  An f u
• Net cross-sectional area of plate (along transverse line An
passing through bolts) reduces • As per IS 800, a material safety factor m0 (= 1.10) is to be used (since there is no
reserve strength in material at ultimate stage)
• Net cross-sectional area < Gross cross-section area of
Tn  An  f u  m 0   An  f u 1.10  Tdn  0.9 An f u
tension member
• Further, a partial safety factor for the strength of joint, m1 (=1.25) is recommended
• Tension member may fail along transverse line passing by code
through bolts • Thus design strength of section
• Known as Net-section failure/rupture of plate/Tension Tn 0.9 An f u 0.9 An f u
Tdn     0.72 An f u
member ( Angle/channel)  m1  m1 1.25

Net Section Rupture in Angles: Tension Failure of Joint having More than one Row of bolts
If both the legs of angle are connected, net area of
plate may be calculated as

t  t
g *  g a      gb    g a  gb  t
2  2

Possible Failure Paths (patterns) of Tension Member

Net Effective area for Staggered Fasteners: Bolts Block Shear Failure
• Failure of the member occurs along a path involving
– tension on one plane and
– shear on a perpendicular plane along the fasteners.

  p 2 
An  B  nd h   
n = no. of bolts in critical section
  t
 dh = diameter of bolt hole
  4 g 
Block Shear Failure in Plate Block Shear Failure in Angle

24
Block shear in Plates and Angles
The block shear strength, Tdb, of connection shall be taken as the smaller of:
Both Net and gross failure are not considered  f y Avg   0.9 f u Atn 
simultaneously, one of the following is considered Tdb1    
 3   
• Net area failure in rupture and Gross area  m0   m1 
failure in shear
 0.9 f u Avn   f y Atg 
• Net area failure in shear and Gross area Tdb 2     
 3   
failure in rupture  m1   m0 

Avg, Avn = Minimum gross and net area in shear along a line of
transmitted force respectively (1-2 and 4-3 as shown in Fig.)
Atg, Atn = Minimum gross and net area in tension from the hole to the
toe of the angle or next last row of bolt in plates,
perpendicular to the line of force respectively (4-3 as shown in Fig.)
m0 = 1.1
m1 = 1.25

25