108 SMe Mining engineering handbook

The following main products of weathering are important in difficult because of the glaciated terrain; therefore, indirect
EGCH: geophysical methods can be used to investigate further.
Meltwater actions may carry traces of certain anoma-
• Primary residual products are more stable, only partially
lous elements trapped in the pore spaces in rocks. Freezing
disintegrated, and help in defining the parent rock.
produces upward flows of some groundwater that could be
• Secondary residual products occur close to the source;
helpful in locating concealed deposits. This method is only of
hydrolysates such as clays and iron oxides may carry
limited advantage.
tracks of nearby mineralization.
• Soluble products are unstable products that travel consid-
geochemical Analytical Methods
erable distances from their source(s) as dissolved solids
Although geochemical methods are routinely updated and
(e.g., calcium and magnesium carbonates, sodium and
redefined, the exploration geologist must keep three main fac-
potassium salts, manganese and iron oxides, and other
tors in mind:
basic metal salts).
1. Sensitivity
Surface waters carry visible to microscopic particles of
2. Precision
organic and inorganic compounds with traces of chemical ele-
3. Cost
ments incorporated along the way. Element mobility is the
main factor controlling this type of dispersion. It is the basis All samples from a particular area must be analyzed by
for hydrogeochemical prospecting. the same technique and preferably by the same laboratory
Groundwater involves the same principles as in surface for consistency. In some cases, incorrect results have caused
waters. Shallow and deeper water wells and spring waters are additional unnecessary expenses, or worse, unjustified project
used for sampling. abandonment. Duplicate sets of samples should be prepared
Stream sediments are clastic materials derived from ore and delivered to the lab, with one blank and one known stan-
deposits and are often transported large distances by fluvial dard provided for each set of twenty samples. Double-checking
water, then deposited by mechanical or chemical effects, par- the analyses at different laboratories is highly recommended.
ticularly near confluences. Stream sediment geochemistry has EGCH is based on the detection of very small amounts
been a very effective method in exploration. Anomalous val- of certain elements, making use of many modern methods of
ues are followed upstream to discover the source. analysis. The most common are the following:
Soils retain chemical and mineralogical characteristics
• Regular fire assay remains a preferred method for gold
of their parent material and often capture elements that travel
analysis.
through them. Most soils have a great capacity for absorption
• Spectrometric methods are mostly applied for multi-
and so they become useful in EGCH. One should recognize
elemental analyses:
whether soils are transported or residual in nature to correctly
– Atomic absorption, developed in the 1950s, is still
interpret anomalous patterns and possible sources. In soil
widely used in EGCH when a single or small number
sampling, always sample from the same soil horizon; how-
of elements need to be determined. In atomic absorp-
ever, a new methodology analyzes soil samples at the same
tion the electrons of an element are promoted to higher
depth regardless of horizon. This topic is examined further in
orbitals for a short time by absorbing a quantity of
the following section.
energy specific to that particular element. This gives
Vegetation may indicate soil chemistry because some
the technique its elemental selectivity. The amount of
plants grow only where certain nutrients occur. Others are
energy is measured and is directly related to the con-
natural absorbers and accumulators of specific elements.
centration of the element in the prepared sample.
These travel through soils and fractured rocks and are taken
– Inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry
up by vegetation. In some cases, plants grow long, deep
(ICP-MS) is the preferred method in modern geochem-
roots that may reach subsurface dispersion halos and take up
istry that allows for quick and precise multi-elemental
some of their chemical components. In other cases, deleteri-
analysis. ICP-MS determines the elemental composi-
ous elements and compounds may result in detectable atro-
tion of samples by counting the number of ions at a
phies or hypertrophies in plants that can lead to discovering
certain mass of the element.
mineralization.
– Inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spec-
Organic accumulations resulting from some organic
trometry (ICP-OES), a complement to the mass spec-
materials that possess a high ionic exchange capacity can
trometer, is also used in detecting lighter elements of
cause them to act as traps for certain cations. This is usually
the periodic table.
observed in swampy areas near water feeder channels.
• Mobile Metal Ion is the low-level chemical analysis
Animal actions are less important in EGCH, and only in
of soils by use of special extractant solutions and later
a few isolated cases have they been helpful. Burrowing ani-
concentration determination by ICP-MS. Soil samples
mals such as foxes and ants, for instance, or mound builders
are taken from equal depths regardless of soil horizon.
such as termites may bring subsurface metal-bearing minerals
Initially applied by the Geochemistry Research Centre of
or precious-gem indicators to the surface where they can be
Australia, this method is now widely used.
sampled and observed easily.
• X-ray fluorescence handheld analyzers allow for fairly
Glacier sediments may be explored similarly to stream
accurate detection of low elemental concentrations of
sediments. Terminal and lateral moraines may contain min-
most types of solid geochemical samples in the field.
eral fragments from upstream. Also useful are fine clays,
• The colorimetric method was one of the pioneering
which should be collected and analyzed. If an anomaly is
methods of analysis several years ago. It was replaced
detected, any additional geochemical sampling would be