| 1,4 RflNloRclMlt{T tl,ulTs lu

980 OPININO!. NOZZ[!S, AND IXTIRNAI toADlNos

Notatlone and Deffnltlons. (See Fig. 11.20)

a = angle between nozzle and shell (degrees)

D" = outside diameter of run or header (in')
dy = (D. - 24,)/sin o(in.)
dz = horizontal limit of each side of centedine, which is the larger of d1 or
T, + T, + 0.5d, but not more than D, (in.)
1, : perpendicular limit = 2.5T^ + te (in.)

Required Area of Reinforcement

The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement re4uired for any plane tbrough the
center of an opening is given bY

A, = l.o7t,,hdt(2 - sin d) (1r.29)

which for a= 90o is

A, = l.olt*dr (11.30)

Avaihble Area of Reinforcenent

The total area available for reinforcement is the sum ofAl + A2 + & + +
45 where each area is determined as follows:

At=Qlz-d)(T"-t*)
^
(11.31) ;rI
t,
. zL\T, - t*)
Ar- = -_---:--

A3
sln a

= a'.ea of fillet welds

(rr.32)
-T
A+ = nrea of reinforcing rings, pads, and so on.
A5 = arca of saddles
rNvFr.diDdorntor6n.nr.n!iaa..!43-lilltt'|'!ldm'itl
Nv 4llD!l!II' eor aa - nrot in ri.s, p.d, or l.t trl
Reintorcement Zone N' a6. a1 -.'..sEll i. h..rL dinror.m.nr lNoa {2,1
42 -.r6.Mlt an bEnch
l@' atle a5 _htnt innddttdd!run
f aE
The limits of reinforcement are formed by a parallelogram with sides of d2 on Figur. I I.20 Dimaffions ond nolotions for ANSVASME B3l l
(Court$y Americon Soci€tv oI tt€chonicol
cach side of the nozzle centerline and an altitude ofl perpendicular to the shell Ensim€rs. From Fig. 104.3.1D of ASME/ANSI B3l'l )

surl'rce.
2. Try to limit centerline spacing to l 54" with at least 5070 of area
between opemngs.
Mulliple Openings
a design
Thc folkrwing should be aPPlied:
Example 11.11 A steam Plpe has a 24-in' inside diameter with
psi stress of 14,500 psi at the design tem-
-"r.ui" of 2500 and an-ailowable
an angle of
l. Ovcrlapping area shall be counted only one time' ;;;;;.; ;;-.fi pipe with an inside diameter of 8 in' connects at
?82 OPININOS, NOZZITS, AND EXTERNAI. TOADINGS I I.4 REINFORCEMENT IIMITS 383

o = 75'.'l'ho br&nch is &ttached by a lull-penctrutit)n wcld that is radiographed

Padrequirement: l7-in. OD ring x 0 75 in thick
so that E = 1.0. Determine the thickness and reintbrcement requirements.
Nozzle attached to shell and pad by full-penetration welds' I
Solutinn
Problem
l. Determine the minimum required thickness of the run pipe as follows:
ll.lllfthenozzlewereattachedattt=g}",whatthicknessisrequiredfor
PR 25oo x tr the pad, if anY?
t', = = 2.308 in.: use 4 : 2.5 in.
Sf=-06p Answer: I in. thick Pad

2. Determine the minimum required thickness of the branch pipe as follows:

I I.4.5 Reinforcemenl Rules for ANSI/ASME 83l '3

t* Pr 2500 x 4.0 Plant and

=
Sn _ oSt, = 0.769 in.: use 4, = 2.0 in. The reinforcement requirements for ANSI/ASME B31 3, Chemical
Petroleum Refinery Piping, are similar to the requirements for ANSVASME
S31. t and for Section Vtri, Dini.ion 1. Rules are given for branch
connections'
3. Area required for reinforcement according to Eq. 11.29 is
oi no""l"., which are attached to run piping, or headers' Differing ftom other
,"info.""."nt minimum requiled thickness of the branch piping
, the
A,: 1.07(2.308\(8X2 - sin 75') : 29.43s't.z is measured on the outside thickness of the piping' The area
"ul"ulations
anJ tne tun piping
thickness as
4, available foi riiniorcement is the remainder of the piping's nominal
Horizontal limits of reinforcement are the larger of
shown in Fig. 11.21.
d=8in. or 4+ nI r = 2.5 + 2.O + 4 = 8.5in.; use8.5in.
Limilations of Geomew
5. Perpendicular limit of reinforcement is as follows: Assume a 0.75 in.
thick pad is added and attached by full penetration welds that are exam- The angle between the nozzle and header is restricted to those intersections
ined. where tle acute intersection angle B is equal to 45" or more'

L = O'75 in' Limitalion When No Reinforcement Calculatians Are Required

L= 2.s7i, + t" = 2.5(2) + 0.75 : 5.75 in. 1. Standard fittings that have pressure/temperature ratings determined'
2. Standard fittings not exceeding 2-in. NPS that have d/D
< O'25 and a
6. Area available for reinforcement is
pressure rating of 2000 lb or more.
: 3. Integrally reinforced connections that have been proved adequate by
Ar (2x8.5 - 8X2.5 - 2.308) = 2.880 in.,
tests, calculations, and use.
2(5.75\(2 :-o 7691
4, =
sln /J-
= 14.656 n.,
Nomenclature
A, = (0.5)'z= 0.250 in.'?
ra = (2x8.5 - 8 - 4)(0.75) : 3.750 in.,
4 = opening size in run or header (in')
dz : horizontal limit on one side measured from the centedine of the open-
A, = At * A2 + A3 + Ac = 21.536 n.' > A, = 20.430 in.2 ing (in.)

Shell requirement: 24-:lr.. ID x 2.5 in. thick l+ : vertical limit perpendicular to header surface (in')
Nozzle requirement: 8-in. ID x 2.0 in. thick F: acute angle at intersection (degrees)
Fillet weld requirements: 2 with 0.5 in. legs required thickness of header (in.)
,,, =
 I L4 RllNrgRcltllllr I Llmlrt

g--t:- Requireil Area of Reinforcement At

For intemal Pressure,

(1 1.33)
6
'o Ar = ttdrQ - sin F)

For extemal Pressure'

E

. thd(z - sin B)
ar: (11.34)
-----T-
\,
3 The horizontal limits on each side of the centerline
of the
E Horizontal Limits.
nozzle is the larger of
t2 '6- 1
6!l ic d1 or T1+4+05dI
t;- I
i.- I
12
ie: I

<{ but not more than D1,.

IaE
:;e
fa
---{--J_ 9a the shell is
g'E Vertical Limits. The vertical limit measured from the surface of
E'6
l *r i
I
the smaller of
E-i (in')
I (t E8 2.5T, or 2.57b + 4, where 4= pad thickness

96 Areas Available for Reinforcement A2, Aj, and Aa

En
i +i
s9 Excess thickness in header or run ,42 is
5a
z6 (11.3s)
A2: (2d2 - d)(Th - th)
q:
I
Excess thickness in nozzle or branch A3 is
9i
ii'6
.
a^
2L4(Tb - tb) (11.36)
=
sin P
.l
metal is weaker than
In other metals available within limits Aa, if reinforcement
;;r-;i;;,J,,h" area available for rcinforcement
- is reduced by Sn/Su'

Reinforcement Zone. Excess area within the following is considered accept-

-iii:,
4 = nominal thickness of header (in.) ut La, wtrl.;e La is measured perpendicular to shell surface'
"
t6 = required thickness of branch (in.) to be followed:
Muttipte Openings. The following cautionary rules are
?i = nominal thickness of branch (in.)
D6 = outside diameter of branch (in.)
1. Center-to-center distance of at least 1'5du"'
2. At least 5O9o of the total required area between the openings'
D,, = outside diameter of header (in.)
384
rrc optt{tNot, t{ont|t, AND tXTlRt{Ar toADtNOS
I I.5 TIGAMENT EFFICICNCY OF OPENINGS IN SHCLI.S 3A7

Oxnmplc I l. 12. An tt in. NpS Scherlule g0 bronch (nozzle) is attached

at right
angle to a 20-in. NPS Schedule 40 run (header) with a full penetration
weld with
5. Determine the areas of reinforcement as fbllows:
fillet weld cover. The allowable stress is 13.l ksi. Design pressure is 600 psi Excess in run (header):
at
a.design temperature of 900.F. Determine the reinforcin-g requirements
size, if required.
and pad
Ar : (?.125)t0.519 - 0.450) = 0 492 in'z

Sohrtion Excess in branch (nozzle):

l. Determine actual and minimum required sizes at the branch run inter- Ar = 2(1.095)(0.438 - 0.194) = 0.534 in '
section as follows:
In fillet welds:
4= (0.s93)(0.875) = 0.519 in.
Ao = 2(r()2: 0.063 in.2
{, = (0.s00)(0.875) : 0.438 in.
th: PD/2(SE + py) = (600 x 20)/2(13,100 + 0.4 x 600) Excess area in Azr Az + Ao = 1.939 in'2 This is less than '4r; con-
sequently, a pad shall be provided. Determine the thickness of pad based
= 0.450 in. on the pid extending to the horizontal limits of reilforcement'
b= Pd/2(SE + PY): (600 x 8.625)/2(13,100 + 0.4 x 600) Il
(7.r25)H = 3.206 - 1.089; = 0.297 in.
= 0.194 in.
Assuming f, = 5116 in. determine minimum pad width'
Fillet weld size is the lesser of 0.7?i or i in.;

0.7(0.438)
(2w - 7'r2s)(0'3125) = 2'117
= 0.306 in.; use fillet weld,ir" = | in.
W = 6.95 in. Use 14 in. x 5/ 16 in. pad.
2. Determine the horizontal limits of reinforcement from the following,
whichever is the greater: 45 = (14 - 7.125X0.3125) = 2 148in2
d1 = (8 - 2 x 438)/sin 90" = 7.125_in. opening size Available area of reinforcement in A2 + A3 + A4 + As = 3 '237 in''
dz = (0.519) + (0.433) + 0.5(7.125) : 4.519 in. or This is greater than A1 and therefore is satisfactory'

d2 = it : 7.125 in.; use d, : 7.125 in. It may be possible to obtain more refinement and a thinner or narrower plate by
reevaiuating the vertical limits by setting T,
: 0 312 in and by including the
3. Determine the vertical limits outer fillet;elds if they lie within the horizontal reinforcement limits' This
of reinforcement from the following, recalculation may reduce the pad thickness and/or the pad width However, a
whichever is less:
14-in. by 5/16-in. pad is satisfactory. I
L4 : 2.5(0.519) = 1.298 in. Problem

or 11,12 For the construction in Example 11 . 12, what is the maximum allowable
working pressure when the allowable stress is increased to l8'8 ksi?
Lq = 2.5(0.438) +0: 1.095 in.; use Za = 1.095 in,
Ansper.' MAWP = 880 Psi
4. Determine the reinforcing area required according to Eq. 11.33 as fol_
lows: I 1.5 Ligomenf Efficiency of Openings in Shells

In addition to the method of reinforced openings for compensating for metal

41 = (0.450)(7.125)(2 - sin 90.) = 3.206 in.,
removed at openings in shells, there is the method of ligament efficiency The
318 oP!N|NOS, NOZZUS, AND TXTTRNAL TOAD|NGS I I.5 TIOAMENT EIFICIENCY OT OPENINGS IN SHEITS 389

cos2 0 + I
(11.37)
ligoment el'licienoy method considers the loarJ-carrying ability of the area bc- intensity of tension on any plane
tween two points in relationship to the load-carrying ability of the ligament
reTltlilg when the two points become the centers of two openings. In thc : sin d cos d
intensity of shear on any plane ( l 1.38)
ASME Code, only the shell plate is considered; however, Lloyd;s Rulis6 permit
some help from integrally attached nozzles.
The basic method of diagonal ligament efficiency for application in thc total rension _ cos, g + l(p,4) (11.39)
ASME Code was developed in 1915 by Black and Jones oiihe Babcock & z
Wilcox Company, which was published in 1920 in the Marine Engineer's A. ,-,
sin A cos
Handbook.T ln 1975. a limit design analysis was used to examine suesses ln a rotaf shear: *\p'T,) ( 11.40)
perforated cylindrical shell.8 This limit analysis was further developed for
ASME Code application and used to update the original code rules. The rules
and curves are still given in several sections of the ASME Code and several The stress factor for tension for any section of the ligament is obtained by
foreign codes that determine the ligament efficiency used in the cylindrical shell dividing the total tension by the cross-sectional area of the ligament. The shess
formulas. factor for bending for any section of the ligament is obtained by dividing the
The ligament efficiency curves apply only to cylindrical pressure vessels bending moment of the section by the modulus of the section. The bending
where the circumferential lension (stress) has twice the inbnsity of the longi- moment is the product of the total shear multiplied by the distance between the
tudinal tension (stress). Once this was established, Rankine's Eilipse of Streis section considered and the point of contraflexure, which is the plane passing
was used to determine the iniensity of lension and of shear on any diagonal through the centers of the openings. The distance is Y in Fig. 11 22'
ligament. This is shown in Fig. 11.22. The total tension and the total shear are
ottained by multiplying the intensity of tension and of shear, respectively, by length of ligament : L = P' - \/F=4 (11.41)
the diagonal pitch between openings and by the shell thickness, as ixpressed by (rr.42)
bending moment = (6161 shear)(I)
the following equations:

section modulus :+:tg-P (11.43)

The stess factor fot tension is determined as follows:

cos20+ 1 (p'T,\
"'^ 2 lp'-\/d2-4Y'z)T,
(11.44)

The stess factor for bending is determined as follows:

sin 0 cos 0 (11.45)

Sa=
Ie' - t/F - +-qv'f la
The total stress factor for both tension and bending is the sum of the stress factors
for tension and for bending. When the curve was originally developed for the
ASME Code, the maximum total stress factor was found by tial by calculating
the shess factor at several sections between the sections through the centers of
the two openings to the plane that is tangent to the edge of the openings. Table
I1.4 shows a sample of this calculation to determine the maximum factor for a
particular angle ;ith the longitudinal axis 0 values of p' /d and a shell plate
Figur. I1.22 Diogonol ligoment!. thickness I.
390 OPININOS, NOZZITS, AND EXTERNAI IOAOINOS I I.5 TIGAMTNT Eff ICIENCY OF OPENINGS IN SHEIIS 39I

Undcr the sponsorship of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee, an exten- The lowest factor is used to calculate the minimum efficiency for the angle 0
sive limit design analysis of perforated cylindrical shells with uniform patterns being examined.
ofopenings was completed. This limit design analysis was used to determine the
upper and lower bounds of limit pressure. A 2 : 1 ratio of stress field was
considered and the shell plate curvature was not included. From this analysis, efficiency : -l- = O'437 : 43 7vo
2.29
the basic lower bound equation was develooed into
Examplell,l3. Determine the minimum required thickness of the shell given
I + cos2, - d/P\4 +-5io?n in Example 11.5 using the ligament efficiency rules.
PLqb = 2 (11.46)
1+3cos20
Solution
For application in the ASME Code, the equation was rearranged so that the
diagonal efficiency term was expressed as p' /d, a number equal to or greater 1. Determine the longitudinal efficiency based on the longitudinal spacing
than 1.0, and the efficiency was expressed as a whole number. The equation for of 4.5 in.:
code use is
I'= A\-2)5
E=r ^'- -:::------:j::: O {0f)
/"-^ a\ p' 4.5
sec2 o + I - I "':;YI\A + sd2-7
-'- \P /d|
0.015 + 0.005 sec2 0
(1r.47) 2. Determine the equivalent longitudinal efficiency from the diagonal effi-
ciency using Eq. 11.47 as follows:

Calculations of minimum ligament efficiency was determined by examining

various planes between openings at different distances of I as shown on Fig- 0=53.13" d=2.25 l=w sec0:1.667
I1.22. An exanple of the calculations based on the original ASME Code work
is given below. It has io be repeated for different values ofp ,/d and for various sec2 53.13' + 1 - (sec 53.13)/1.67\,6 + s-7 51ly
EVo =
angles 0:
(1.667)2 +| - (r.667 / r.6T\/t + Q.667f
known data: d= 4 in.; s = 6in.;0= 35.;I = 1in. EVo =
@ = 47 .59?o

calculated dnt^: p': s/cos d = 6/cos 0 = i.32-in.f; =ffi = t.AZ

3. Determine the minimum requAed thickness using the equation of UG-
27(c)(l) from the ASME Code, VI[-l, as follows:
ToblE | 1.4
t = sE PR
500 x 18 :
- oip =
r'164 m'
I,ength C3oo;04i6 -10=.ox-500
and Total Section Total Bending Tension Bending Total
Area Tension Modulus Shear Moment Factor Factor Factor This thickness of , = 1. 184 in. is based on the shell thickness only with
no contribution from the nozzle. I
o 3.32 6.12 1.84 l.'t2 r.E4 I .84
0.50 3.45 6.12 1.98 1.72 0.86 r.77 o.43 2.20 Problems
0.75 3.62 6.12 z.t8 |.72 1ro 1.69 0.59 2.28
0.90 3.'15 6.12 2.34 1.72 1.55 1.63 0.66 2.29 11.13 What must the angle between two openings for the longitudinal and
d be
1.00 3.86 6.12 2.48 1.72 1.72 1.59 0.69 2.28 diagonal efficiencies to be equal when the longitudinal spacing is 4.5 in.
1.50 4.68 6.12 3.65 t.'72 2.58 1.31 0.'t I 2.O2 and the opening diameter is 2.25 in.?
2.00 7 .32 6-12 8.93 1.72 3.44 0.84 0.39 1.23
Answer: Angle with longitudinal axis is 0 = 54.1'
 I I.6 IATIGUE EVAI,UATION Of NOZZTES UNDIR INTERNAI PRISSURI 393
392 OPININOS. NOZZIES, AND EXTERNAI. TOADINGS

ll.l4 ln Problem ll.l3, what is the circumt'erential spacing for the samc
where R = inside radius of shell or head (in)
conliguration'l r = inside radius of nozzle (in)
Answer: The circumferential spacing is 3.108 in. 4 = nominal thickness of shell or head (in)
D. : mean radius of shell or head (in) = 2q * t
P = intemal design pressure or pressure range (psi)
I I.6 FATIGUE EVALUATION OF NOZTES UNDER INTERNAL
PRESSURE I : stress index for various locations (see Table 11'5)
o, = normal stress in plane being examined (psi)
When a fatigue evaluation is required, it is necessary to determine the peak
stesses around the openings. The current methods are the stress index method, or = tangential stress in plane being examined (psi)
experimental 0ests and measurements, or a theoretical analysis procedure such o, = radial stress in plane being examined (psi)
as a finite element analysis. The stress index method is the easiest method and
is allowed by the ASME Code, III-1 and VIII-2. The stress index method was 11.14. A cylindrical shell that is 36-in ID by 2'5-in' thick contains
Example
developed from reviewing a large amount of experimental and analytical data that is 4-in. ID by 0 75-in thick' The design pressure is
a perpindicutar nozzle
determined in a program conducted by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee .
td00psi at a design temperature of 450'F. The vessel is subjected to cyclic
The stress index method pennits easy calculation of peak stresses at the analysis is requircd' Peak stresses and- str-ess concen-
operation and a faiigue
nozzle-shell or nozzle-head intersection without resorting to any complex anal- noi known for the specific geometry to be used' What method
dation factors are
ysis. The stress index method gives conservative results; and if the exact multi- peak stresses for a fatigue analysis?
can be used to evaluate the
pliers for a specific geometry are known, they should be used. Essentially, the
nominal stress in the shell or head is multiplied by the stress indices and the peak
Solutian. At the intersection of the nozzle to the shell, peak stresses are
shesses are obtained.
obtained according to Eq' 11.48. The nominal stress is determined
as
The peak stresses are determined from the following equations where the
shess index I is multiplied times the nominal shess. PD^ + 2.5)
_ : _ 1900(36
= 14.630 psi
For spherical shells and formed heads: " 2T, 2(2'5)

.PD. (11.48) The peak stresses are determined as follows using the factorc for stress
index I
from Table 1 1.5:
For cylindrical shells: Longitudinal Plane Transverse Plane

Outside Inside Outside

o= t.PD. (11.49)
Stress (psi) Inside
n Hoop stress +45,350 + t7 ,560 ,630
+ t4 +30 ,720

lrngitudinal stress - t q10 + 14,630 - 2,930 +38,040

Toble I1.5 Stress lndex / Radial stress - 1,900 0 - 1,900 0

must be
These values are the peak stresses due to intemal pressure only and
Cylindrical Shells
Spherical Shells and on the shell for
Formed Heads LongitudinalPlane TransversePlane combined with other peak stresses occurring at the same location
a.fatigue evaluation. I
Problem
- (r/R)
2.0 2.o - (r/R) 3.I 1.2 1.0 a1
-o.2 2.O - (r/R) -0.2 1.0 -o.2 z,o 11,15 A reactor vessel is 5 ft. 0 in. inside diameter with hemispherical heads'
qr -4r"/D^ 0 -2r"/D^ 0 -27"/D. 0
: The design pressure is 450 psi at 650'F The allowable stress of the
 OPININCS, NOIZI-TS, AND IXTtRNAt TOADINGS
I I.7 TXTTRNAL IOADINGS

vcsscl is 17,5(X) psi. l'hc hcatl and shcll rrc nradc ol.rrinirnurn
thickncss
r)alcritl roundod up to (hc ncxt I in. Thc vessel is operated undcr ir Extcmal loadings cunsidered by W/?Cl arc longitudinal nx)r)lcnt, tr nsvcrse
r)lorncnt. torsional moment. and axial fbrce. Stresses at various locations on thc
cycling conditkrn.so.that a fatigue analysis is n"""r.ury. It is necessary
inside and outside surfaces are obtained by combining the stresses from variuus
to place an 8-in. inside diameter by l-in. thick nozzle, in the vessel.
Is offects. This involves considerable "bookkeeping" that WRC 107 developed t<r
the peak stress less in the head or in the shell at the nozzle junction
and help alleviate. Once the stresses are obtained according to WRC, they must be
what are the values ofpeak shesses at the maximum location in
ttre treaa combined with intemal pressure stresses to determine the overall stresses.
and shell? Thin-wall equations are used.
Bijlaard's original problem was finding the effects of structural supports on
a cylindrical shell. This initial work considered the radial loads and moments
Answers: oFar = +48,510 psi in shell over a flexible, rectangular loading surface. The initial treatment of nozzles was
an approximation based on a rigid attachment without the effects of nozzle wall
o''.*, = +27,220 psi in head
flexibility. Bijlaard extended this work to spherical shells based on a shallow
shell theory and considered both solid (rigid) attachments and nozzles with
I I.7 EXTERNAT LOADINGS flexibility parameters. Usage of the rules is generally limited to D/, between 10
and 200 for cylinders and between l0 and 250 for spheres. Usage is also limited
When extemal loadings are applied to nozzles or branch piping, local saesses to d/D oI about 0.33 for cylinders and 0.50 for spheres. However, depending
are generated at the nozzle-shell intersection. Several typis of ioading upon other parameters, the value of d/D nay go as high as 0.60 for some
may be
applied, such as sustained loadings, transient loadings,- ind thermal cylinders. A limit of 0.80 is also applied to the value of d/YD^T for both
flexibility loadings. Sustained loadings are continuorisly applied and "*paniion cylinders and spheres.
combined
with iniernal pressure, such as dead Ioads. Transient loadings are applied for The curves in WRC 107 are related to certain parameters at the intersection.
a
short period of time, such as earthquake and wind loadinls, pressure fluctu_ The two important parameters are the shell parameter and the attachment param-
ations, and water hammer loadings. The thermal expansion Ioadlngs are eter. The different applications on spherical and cylindrical shells follow.
caused
by potential axial growth of piping from temperature expansion.
-the
. When external loadings are applied to nozzles,
the nozzle and the shell or
stresses are generated in both Spherieal Shells
head. Although the stresses in thJ nozzle are both
membrane stresses, which are acting upon the entire nozzle cross The shell oarameter is
sectlon, and
local membrane stresses, which are aciing through the nozzle wall thickness,
present analysis procedures are available only for the general
stresses without r0
resorting to some procedure such as a finite element -analysis. These general
procedures usually have a way of applying a stress intensihcation
facto; (SIF)
"
:t :
..fn;r (11.s0)

that predicts the local stresses in the nozzle. The stresses generated in
the shell
or head adjacent to the nozzle are-focal stresses. A proce-<lure for determining
For a square attachment, the shell parameter is
the_se local stresses is given in detail in Welding Reseirch
Cor,rncji, Bulletin Nol
ttJ7 "
c1
It
"= (l1.sl)
| | .7.1 Locol Stresses in the Shell or Heod o.875\-RJ
Although a considerable amount of theoretical development work on local
strosses in shells from external loadings was conducted ind reported by p. p. In the attachment parameter for all solid attachments, no parameter is needed.
iiJyalff'r in the early 1950s, it was not until rhe Welding Risearch Councit For a hollow cylinder (nozzle),
ff
IlulldinNo. 107 was issued that all the miscellaneous inforriation from Bijlaard
and others was put into a concise form for easy use. The range of (11.52)
usige is
rcslricted by limitations on various parameters,'but it is infinitily better
than
t
anything before WRC 107 was issued. Currently, experimental and
theoretical T
work is being conducted to extend its useful ranse. (1 1.53)
I
396 OPIN|NOS, NOZZLES, AND EXTERNAI I.OADINGS I t.7 EXTERNAT T.OAOINGS 397

l.br a hollow squure, proper values must be read carefully because it may be necessary to interPolate
not only from line-to-line but from curve to curve. The values on adjacent charts
(11.54) do not always increase or decrease in a consistent direction. Computation sheets
0.875t are given for:

T Figure 11.23. Solid attachment to a spherical shell

(r 1.ss)
't
Cylindrical Shells

The shell parameter is

v, ._ to. '- ,/l;r =-
p
1:: (1 1.56) t,/Ri =-

The attachment parameter for both solid and hollow is for a cylinder

e=o8i:. (r 1.57)

For a square,

= where cr (1 1.58)
*g
For a rectangle

C!
F, R.
c2
B, R^

If

t,, u=
f' -*(f; -'),' - n)\/e,k 01.5e)

If
Co}.IOIN,jD S?RESS INTDNSII1 - S

t. r,
l ) Hhcn r I o, s - I rrI:L-lL!j-$-c--[.!qi it u r" 4f 4ith:r \
K))\/e,e, s - l/2 lox+oy ! llox - ay)2 | at2 Jot r'tax - oyl' ' 4r'
u=
[' - i(' - f;),' -
(1r 60)
2) r,then t = o, s = largest absolur. ndgnitudc of either
s - dr, oy or (ox - oy)
Using these parameters and the curves given in WRC 107, stresses may be Figure 1'1.23 Computotion sh€.t for rigid onochment to.Phericol shell. (Courr.sy Welding Reseorch Council,
calculated at the inside and outside surfaces due to the various loadinss. The WRC Sulloiin lO7. A',s'Et 1965,)

I;
 F-igure 11.25. All attachments to a cylinclrical shell
Figure 11.24. Hollow attachment to a spherical shell T

Mt
Mc
GF6atfia Pc?omalcra M" o
L Appliod Lootir'
p 't T=- Rh v!
g.;=
Rodiol looC,
CirG. l5h. hl, ROUND
Long. Xolttl, |lL:-i6. lb.
-15. ATTACHMENT
l. Appl,cd Loodr'
e=-lb.
3. Gemrtric Poromctcrr
Tonica f,oronl. lr =-_i^.
vc -- -in.fb. lb.
lb. P to.orsr*.-
Rod,ol Lood,
Shror Loqd, vt2_lr. . z .*
"_ : =- thocr Lccd,
Slcr Lcod, VL --lb.
v, r -
an.lb.. 02
Shcor Lood,
Ovc.terning Mom.nr, M, '- 2. Goaary
OvGrturhrng Moarcnt,
lorrronol Momcnt, i: -lb'.- ,'j# =- Vorrrl thicllorr,
Arccharat rt,dlur,
T,
aCg 'NOTE: Enrrr cll fcrco volvcr in
-
-if.lbr: 4. 5t.a3r ConcGnt.oiion
dua lcl
Focfora Yorrol odior. Rn: -an.
-rn.
a^. cccordoncr rilh aign co'vcition

SfngSSfS - il locd i. cPgotilc

CYLINDRICAL SHELL
rhot ;ho-n, t'9nr 3hM
- "vc?t'
rncnbrono lcod, ;,, rL 8L Cu CL DL
=- Fig lor rlrarr ohd anlar tlagll ' Eu
bending lood, Kb a-
NOTE: Entc. oll torcc voluor in 3c or x6_ (n /Nd\
t- rh /l
?

occsrdoncc wrth rign convGnlion cc ?/2,a \?/ lnl =

STRESSES - il lood ii cpporilG rhor rhown, rcvcrtc tignr rhorn lC or ro f,b |
/rd\ 6P
t l- +
Frcm Rcod <urv Conpvtc obtolvtc volcer ol
2C- I F- -
I
l2 =
fr g.

5P-l to l0 Xrl
lor alicrr cnd antar ratull ' AU L 8u BL €u CL Ds
!A
,.0
t ta^26 -
_ -"(""ft)'#= f t-

F *^ (s,')'? = rd t- t-
IA
rc/ tnE
T *'(ts)' *l= F + + f -^(-#)'#
N,r\r/E;T\
ta -= xo
IL,/ tra6l
= I P
5r4- | ro l0 N,rfiiT
ilt ^'\T/ /
'' r r

= f + I I or
It-r
r9
IL/ trlt
/ 16\
t5l-l
\nzr-B /
6fL
r-Prr - + +

x.r/T;T la.lili \ 6*{, Adi rlgoltiolly

\ M, /i'- r.y'nnl =
xb t- f + of { rroror.od
|.. .r6dro
*

@ / x,rlr/ffii\ r,
+ +
3C or
-g-
? t?,a
.. (*,)' -! r
Ht \ t 7'ii7ffi= ac -

u.y'Ti.'i 1r-,{ffi \ 6M:

lc-1 rr (3).8 ta =
+ f I
+ or 2C F r/ \

Add olgcbroicolly
tt \
lo, .ummol;on of r, r,
rr /
I :
fr{R6f
I +
ffiE'
ir
*(#)'#?' I t
t At \ +
lP- I ro l0
+ /xvT\
\ P /
?
T?
2A
tr
J.c/l,aP
xr\;ta,B-'l' 6l{c
itffi
IL
=
I

It
T -'(+) ';l ' # + + t a
_E! r
rL/litp '"("-fo)' ;;EF - t +
., +
3lr-l to l0 xyrr/if
Bl
-"\T/'iffi=
xrr,r/-.i\
7 r,
f .t-
---{a
2t-l
A- olgrleially
rllrrp -
f.t D.-tl-
"(""+-r'#= +

ol | $tott.lCt €
xyrr/EiT
r.,
+ f 5br lror
ro l*rio, I
Jo
rrlr < {rP ' =
l{t
2nc2o' + ? r f + t F t-
xrr/F;-i //Nrry'nhr \ r,
xt ""\--*l-/.ffi= .l- + lh-r dr.. ar.
ro ld, Yc T,+ =
"F
+ F

f
xv1fiiT
r *'\;;_/.ffi=
7xyffii \ 6tr
f {- llorr rtnrr &r
r. l-4. YL
Trd =
YL
;;T
+

Add olgebroicolly lor rumnofion of rr Ala f-.*tl6

^halnlollt
at rb-r rtroaaar,ft
Sh.or.t..r.
ro lod. Yr
de.
fr t I r -s
=,+ of eithEl
Sh.o..tr..r de.
r, ofr7 f 1) o, s = lar@itudg
tJtren 'E I t
s = l/2 fo**o* ! /to* - o0)2 + 4t2 )or r'(ox - o4)d +
ro lood, Yt {- 4T-
:h.cr !tr.!. d!.
li --,7t- :*+- t r + + + + + I
2) Wtren T = O, S = largest absolute magnitude of either
Add ofgrbrorcolly lo' rua^ot,oa ol t . a
S = olr oO or (O* - 06)
COMBINED STRESS I}ITENSITY - S
(Courtesy Welding Reseqrch Council,
Figure I1.25 Computotion sheei for qfiqchmenis to cylindricol shell'
" 1"1",),* t3; -'", 1",1fifffi;?l'5'll'lli#,Fa WRC Bullefin 107, August 1965.)
2) Hhen t = Or S = largcst .,rbsolute rnagnitudc of either
S .' O-r qv or (o- - g.l .

Figvre 11.21 Computotion sheet for hollow otiochmenl to sphericol shell. (Courtesy Welding Reseorch
Council, WRC Bullerin 107, August 1965.)
399
398
4OO OPTNINOS, NOTZIIS, AND TXTTRNAL IOADINGS I I.7 IXTERNAL TOADINGS 40I

In addition tt) thc linritllions ()n tlrc gcorlrctty in thc anitlysis in MiC, thctc

arc othcr lirnitations. 'Ihis analysis detennines only the stresses in the shell or
head due to the extemal loadings and thus those from intemal pressure must bc
added to them. Because no nozzle stresses are determined by this method, they
must be determined by a separate analysis. However, engineers felt that when
the extemal loadings are applied to a relatively thin-walled nozzle, the highest
stresses may be in the nozzle. For thick-walled nozzles, it appears that defor-
mation is similar to a solid attachment and maximum stresses will occur in the
shell or head adjacent to the nozzle. Bijlaard's method indicated that for a
longitudinal moment, the maximum stress occurs on the longitudinal axis.
However, experimental results obtained in PVRC tests indicate that for larger
nozzles with ad/D = O.5 or larger, the maximum stress may lie somewhat off
from the longitudinal axis. Thus adjustments have been made to some of the
curves in l\lfiC Bulletin 107. In spite of these shortcomings, a reasonable
estimate of the stresses due to the external loadings is obtained by following
wRC lo7 .
Recendy, in considering certain PYRC work to extend the ueful range of
WRC 1O7 , J. L. Mershon concluded that within the range of its applicability, the
curves for loadings on a cylindrical shell could be reduced, for all practical
purposes, to an easier-to-use set of curves given in Appendix K. This set of
simplified curves practically eliminates the need to interpolate between various
curves in WRC 107 to determine the factors used to calculate the stresses. When
the simplified curves are used, it will still be necessary to combine the internal
pressure stresses and to develop a method of "bookkeeping" for the signs of the
various stresses due to different loadings.
The sign convention used with the Mershon method is identical to that of
WRC lO7, as shown in Fig. 11.25. The figure shows that stresses may be
obtained at the same locations. The relationship of the curves given in WRC and
the Mershon curves given in Appendix K is as follows:
^: -+L:
VD,"T
where d, = diameter of opening in shell (in.)
D^ : rnean diameter of shell (in.)
? = nominal thickness of shell (in.)
Because the ASME Code, VI[-l, has neither an acceptance criterion nor a
rnethod to classify stresses, the designer has to establish a method that is
acceptable to the Authorized Inspector. For guidance, the method in the ASME
Cod;, VU-2, may be followed by considering the differences in stress theory
and allowable stresses between the methods in VIII-I and VIII-2 This method
permits the designer to assign stresses into such categories as primary stresses'
iecondary stres;s, and peak stresses depending upon what loadings are in-
cluded.
Example 11.15, shell that is 84-in. ID by 1'0-in nominal
A cylindrical
thicknLss contains a nozzle S-in. ID by 1.0-in. nominal thickness' The design
pressure is 400 psi and the allowable stress of the material is 17.5 ksi' The nozzle
is subjected to an inward radial loading of 12,000 lb and an applied moment in
the longitudinal directionof 150,000 in.lb. What are the combined sttesses on
the lon-gitudinal axis due to these two extemal loadings using the Mershon
metfodand the curves in Appendix K? The vessel is not subjected to cyclic
loadiqg, and therefore no stress concentration factors need be considered'
Solution
1. The shell parameter is

Appendix K Figure WRC 107 Figures d^ _--:l0

A = ----:
yD^T = r.uo
K.1 11-,2A V(85X1)
K.2 3A, 4A t Using this parameter, the constants from the radial loading on the longi-
K.3 18, 18-1,28,28-l tudinal axis are:
K.4 38, 48
K.5 1C, 1C-l From Fig. K.5 M'/P = 0.127
K.6 2C,zc-l From Fig. K.6 Mo/P : 0.086
K.7 3c(l),4c(1)
From Fig. K.8 N,I/P = 0.160
K.8 3C(2),4C(2\
From Fig. K.8 N6T/P = 0.176
tor the simplified method, only one parameter is required in using the curves-
3. Using these constants, the stresses due to the radial loading are deter-
the opening-shell parameter of ,\, which is determined as follows:
mined as follows:
 OPTNINOS, NOZZTIS, AND IXTERNAI. TOADINGS
I t.7 EXTERNAT TOADINOS 403

as shown in Table I I .5. However, exact values may be used if available.

M, rrom p (bending) = 0 rr?[A18gu] : nrro o,' For this geomefy, assume the following values were determined:

M6 from p(bending) : 0 0861@5!qE] : oreo n,i

Lonsitudinal Axis

Membrane Bending Membrane Bending

N, rrom p (membrane) = 0.160142!9E] = uzo n,i u,( = oo, 1.40 +0.20 o"( = a) 0.70 -r-0.35

o'( = o) 0.80 +o.lo o,( = a4) 0.85 -f 0.55

N4 from p (membrane) : 0 1?6[%P] = zrro nri

400 x 85
s' =PD^ -
2T 2xl = l/'wuPsl
Using the parameter in item (1), the constants from the applied longi-
tudinal moment on the longitudinal axis are determined as follows:
E. The total cornbined shesses from htemal pressure and extemal loadings
are grven in Table 11.9. I
From Fig. rc.2 u,ft= o.tto
Example 11.16. For the cylindrical shell given in Example 11.15, determine
the stresses due to iniemal pressure and applied extemal loading by the method
From Fig. r.z uoft= o.tu in WRC Bulletin lO7 .

Solution
From Fig. K.4 N,H = 0.076
1. For the WRC method, the following shell-nozzle parameters are required:
FromFig. K.4 N6H:0.260
,5
B:0.875f;= 0.875 x a2r=
o.roz
Using these constants, the stresses due to the longitudinal moment are
R^ 42.5
determined as follows:
Y=;=i= 42's

M, ftom M2@ending) : o r?o =,r,r*

l(ffi#] 0,, The constants below are determined from various figures in ITRC and the
stesses determined as follows:
M5from M1(bendins) : 0 r04lqx!ggg] = e:oo n,i
From Fig. 4C l.l * J244- = 2060 psi
No/e/R^) =
N, ffom M L(membrane) = o.oze f !J!9'0{ll = | lao psi
L (luxrr I From Fig. zc-r M6/P = 0.088 x
q#"'q = 6340 psi
N5from M1 (membrane) = o.roof$lqll : :eoo pri
From Fig. 38 N6/@L/R,^B) = 4.5 x
@#ftffi--
Summaries of membrane stresses, bending shesses, and combined
stresses at various locations for external loadings are given in Tables = 3630 psi
I1.6. 11.7. and 11.8. M6 =or}4sx 6x 150,000
From Fig. 1B
(MJR^p) ""'"' (42.sxo.lo3XlF
_

n In addition to the stresses from the extemal loadings, the stresses from
internal pressue must b€ combined. These stresses may be determined = 9250 psi
 898 Y|56 88S s"qaR
-..i --t & oi ,.i 6 I \ct .d
I

+-: I
all+
f
I

O\FF'
8833
ldui di -i ,.i d
t':+
-t-
i++l

REB :5t516;6
O\:O
..r --i ..i
ttl +'++

s:8 €98
a" +- v1 \
\o^ v1 ..!
-i -i .i
ttl t$.1 +ll

o
e88
1o\\
o\ \o ar
o
.9 t++ +tl J +tl
o ,9
t o o
o o
2
o
t O\\OF = F:o\
o .9 o'
o t++ q
l++ +++ c..l | -! ol

o o o
ao 6
tt o 6 s
o f
aa B
o :H5 E
o
o oi ..i 'd o
tll c o
-o
o
t -o
o {,
o
ao
=o o =o o
t iO\Q F
q 1 ."1 vl b
o
b
o
NINI
c ttl tt.: t.icjtl
t f
I

in
f )
9 \ q
o
o.: \s @

o -g
Eonr

-o I9E
AF,.Y
-9
-o
o eeE -o
F
q
zlaF o
l-
::c-fi:
>oA.F
F

M 405
406 oPlNlNOs, NOZUuS, ANO EXTERNAT tOAD|NOS | 1.7 EXTIRNAI LOADINOS 407

Probhms
From Fig. t" h= 6.6 * -l?41 = l6eo psi
11.16 For the same vessel described in Example 11'15, what are the stresses on
the transverse plane when the applied moment is changed from a longi-
From Fig. tc-t + = 0.12s x
ai?rq = e000 psi tudinal rnoment to a transverse moment M": 150'000 in'lb and the
radial loading remains at 12,000 lb using the method in Appendix F?
150,000
4B
FrornFig.
Mfu= 1.3 x (42.5),(0.103X1) Answer: o6: Cu = -8180 Psi
1050 psi Cr. = +30,460 psi
6 x 150,000
From Fig. 28 M,/(ML/R^O = 0.072 x
(42.5X0.103X1F
Du = +33,280 psi
Dt = -6200 Psi
= 14,800 psi
4t Cu = -3550 Psi
3. Using the intemal pressure stresses determined for Example 11.15 and
combining then with these stresses gives: Cr' : + 19'970 Psi

oO
Du = +23,030 Psi

A7 BU BL
Dt = +47O Psi

Pressure mernbrane +23,800 +23,800 + 23,800 +23,800 11.17 What are the same results using WRC l0'l?
Pressure bending + 3,400 + 3,400
Answer: o4:' Cu : -7730
-3,400 -3,400
P membrane Psi
- 1,690 - I,690 - 1,690 - l,690
P bending - 9,000 + 9,000 -9,000 + 9,000 = + 31,150 Psi
C.
M1 membrane -3,630 -3,630 +3,630 +3,630
Du = +34'670 Psr
M1 bending -9,250 +9,250 +9,250 -9,250
Totals -880 +37,100 +24,880 +25,860 Dr. = -7050 Psi

o': Ct) = -2620 Psi

Cr = + 19,240 psi

or Du = +21.820 Psi

AU AL BU B1 Dz: +920 psi

hessure membrane + 13,600 + 13,600 + 13,600 + 13,600

Pressure bending I1.7.2 Stresses in ihe Nozzle
+ 1,700 - I,700 + 1,700 - 1,700
P membrane -2,060 -2,060 -2,060 -2,060 in the nozzle are calculated using the basic
The general membrane stresses
P bending -6,340 +6,340 -6,340 +6,340 equaUon
Mr. membrane - 1,050 - 1,050 + I,050 + 1,050
M1 bending - 14,800 + 14,800 + 14,800 - 14,800 _.P,M,,7"
_ (1 1.61)
Totals - 11,240 +32,960 +20,4ffi +5,460 A_ I J
4OO OPININOS, NOZILCS, AND EXTIRNAI I.OADINOS I r.7 txTCRNAt LOADINGS 409
Howcvcr, to utiempt to make some correction fbr local eflbcts, the bending
Example 11.17. A l2-in. NPS Schedule 160 branch and run pipe are attached
moments are adjusted by a stress intensification thctor. For piping thermal
to oneinother. The design pressure is 2200 psi. The allowable stress at ambient
expansion flexibility stresses in both the ANSI B3l.l and ANSI 831.3 Codes,
temperature is & = 17.5 ksi and at design temperature is Sl = 12'0 ksi' In
the procedure is as follows:
addition to the intemal pressure, the branch is subjected to externally applied
The sfess range, SE, is calculated by
forces and moments ftom thermal expansion of connecting piping. These mo-
ments and force are Mi = 600,000 in.-lb; M, = 900,000 in.-lbiMt = 750 '00,0
se - t/il a aP (0r.62)
in.lb; and F*iur = 90,000 lb. The nozzle is designed for 20,000 cycles Using
: the design procedure ofthe ASME-ANSI B31 I Code, what is the total applied
where S' M'/22 @si) stress and what is the allowable stress?
Mr= torsional moment (in.-lb)
Z= section modulus of nozzle (in.3)
Solution

Properties of 12-in. NPS Schedule 160 are D, : 12.75 in.; inside

and 56, the resultant bending moment, is
1.
itM)" + (i"M.)
ard : 80.5 in.2; metal area = 47.14in.z;z = 122.6in.3; t^ = 1'312
(11.63) ln.
z
where i1 : in-plane SIF from Table 11.10
i, = outplane SIF from Table 11.10
Mi : in-plane bending moment, (in-lb) 100
80
Flexibility {actor
M, = outplane bending moment (in.Jb) 60 'for elbows i = 1.65/i
40 ' Flexibilitv factor
lor miterc k = 1.52/h5t6
The allowable shess range 51 is 30 '
Stress intensif ication
'
lactor i =O.9lh2t3
x -Z 'Stress
r .r ||
20
lo =/(1.255" + 0.255/,) (11.64) N intensi{ication

where S" : allowable stress at ambient (cold) temperature (psi)

15

10
x 'tactor t = O-75/h213
l|
8
51 = allowable sfress at design temperature (psi)
.9
/ = reduction factor from Table 11.11 based on number of cycles
3
.\
The design is acceptable when S5 < 51. 2
\
lrngitudinal stesses Sa due to sustained loadings, such as pressure and dead
loading, shall not exceed S7,. When 51 ) .[, the difference may be added to the
t! 1.5

I
cl
I I
tf.
term 0.2551 in Eq. 11.57. This gives 1.00
0.75
,So :/[1.255" + 0.255, + (Sr - Sz)] 0.50 1 end flanged cr = i]
o.375 2 ends flanged c1 =i1l3
or o.25
s.t EE
oo E
o e
q:33 33:
o o
sA =/[1.25(s" + s) _.ir.l (11.6s) Characteristic t

which may be used in place of Eq. 11.64.

 rlr s
ll
,:f F "-
, |r
F_r .l rI. 1f
tLh
-Ill r$' rir. ,l
-ll- | I .!
IFH
.a',-n
lF.. tS
1r -1
frn-T|
I

1l't I (
rs -lf't I s
q
lms
t)t
ill,\
N ili@
o

W ilM
lIrJ H
g
e't rFi I rF,ls
E€o *lh :l {.- Jl{
rr-,.|s
#E .RIG
-i-
EIN
9l'
+l r,-rs
<f
+
It\
tFr
c adl
\t
rr-. | {
It\ l'> (,)l *l =r
rr.., I .n

+ -l- +
€'\ l< o\ l{ o\l{ o, lE
9X <i lt ol\ e l"t <i l!
o
g.F
o
oF. (.:9
dltli
o\ t{ o'lQ l{ o
dl\lt
o. o.
E
o !.) qli o.
ctl\
lE. o. o. lQ
ctl\ ..tF ct l\ ct lt cil\ c]
o rt) ot{
=
o

'=ll
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€lsl;'
vr
i I'q
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o

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c --&-
!-
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412 4t3
1t1 ollt{lt{ol, f{ollt|t, AND rxil${ r KTAD|NO3 NO'rltNCtATURt 4lt
Tobb ll,ll Strcr-Rongr Rrductlon 7. Determine allowable stress range S,r:
Focl,oru ( f)
Cycles, rV Factor, / / = 0.8 for 20,000 cycles

7000 and less 1.0 Se = 0.8[1.25(17,500 + 12,000) - 3760] = 26,490 psi

Over 7000 to 14,000 0.9 Ss < S,{ design is acceptable.
Over 14,000 to 22,000 0.8
Over 22,m fi 45,ON 0.7
Over 45,0m b 100,000 0.6 Problpm
Over 100,000 0.5
11.1E An 8-in. NPS Schedule 160 branch pipe is attached to a 16-in. NPS
Courtgoy American Society of M€chanical En- pipe. The design pressure is 2000 psi, the allowable
gioeers.
Schedule 160 run
stress cold is S, = 17.5 ksi, and the allowable sfress at design tem-
perature is 12.0 ksi. The maximum allowable torsional moment is
450,000 in.-lb. The pipe is designed for 10,000 cycles. Maximum
2. Data at juncture from Table 11.6: allowable bending moments are set as equal, ff rounded up to the next
even 1(X) in.lb, what is the value of M. md Mi2

n=4 __ 1.312
R, 5.719 =n,r"n Answer: M. = Mr = 331,400 in.-lb

u:H=z.qo
n-'-
t = o.75i" + i = o.7s(2.$) + 0.25 = 2.05 (
3. Determine torsional stess:

NOMENCTATURE
s,=E=ffi=*oo.t
4. Determine the bending shess: Individual nomenclature is used throughout Chapter 11 and usually noted close
to where used. The following gives some general nomenclature:
2.05 x 600,000), + (2.40 x 900,000
Sa= : 20,770 psi p, or P = intemal design prcssure or maximum allowable working pressure
122.6 (psi)

5. Determine the stess range: F" : extemally applied axial force (lb)
n : extemally applied horizontal force (lb)
s" - !*|14 = \/Ao,nTT4@ - 2t,t7o psi
M6 = extemally applied bending moment (in.-lb)
6. Determine sustained longitudinal stress:
OT = total local stess at opening (psi)
s : allowable tensile stress (psi)
sL: ezu) nl4i: 3760 psi
:
D inside diameter of shell (in.)
 BIBI.IOGRAPHY 417
4 t6 OPTNINOS, NOZZtTS. AND TXTTRNAT I.OADINGS

"strcsscs liorl Radial Loads aDd Lxlonl l MoDrcnls in Cylintlrical I'r'cssttrc Vcs
d = insidc dianrctcr ol nozzle (in.) scls," Wtltlint: Journal, Vol. 34, Rcsearch Supplcncnt, pp 601ts-617s, 1955
: inside radius of opening (in.) -, "Computation of the Sbesses ftom Local Loads in Sphcrical Prcssurc Vcsscls or
Pressure vessel Heads," Wewing Research Council, Bulletin No. 34, New York, March
= distance from center of opening to point being examined (in.) ,l 195't.
-, "Local Stresses irr Spherical Shells from Radial or Moment Loadings," Weklirg
r, : nominal thickness of shell (in.)
14.
Joumal, Vol. 36, Research Supplement, pp. 24ls-243s, 1957.
T^ = nominal thickness of nozzle (in.) -, "Sresses in a Spherical vessel from Radial l,oads Acting on a Pipe," weldinS
Research Council, Bulletin No. 49, New Yo*, April 1959
= minimum required thickness of shell (in.)
-, "Stresses in a Spherical Vessel from Extemal Moments Acting on a Pipe," ibid , pp
3t-62.
= minimum required thickness of nozzle (in.)
17. "Influence of a Reinforcing Pad on the Stresses in a Spherical Vessel under Local
-,
l-oading," ibid., pp. 63-?3.

-, , "stresses in Spherical Vessels from Local Loads Transfe.red by ^ Pipe," Weditq

Research Council, No,50, pp. 1-9, May 1959.

- , "Additional Data on Stresses in Cylindrical Shells under Local Loading," ibid., pp.
l0-50.
-

REFERENCES

1. 'ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code," ANSVASME BPV, American Society of Me-
chanical Enginee$, New York, 1983.
2. 'ANSI/ASME Code for Pressure Piping B3l" ANSI/ASME 831, American Society of BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1980.
3. Harvey, J. F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure Vessels, 2nd ed., Van Nostland
Reinhold, hinc€ton, N.J., 1974.
4, Rodabaugh, E. C., and R. C. Gwaltney, "Inside Versus Outside Reinforcing of Nozzles in
Ellyin, F., "An Experimental Study of Elasto-Plastic Response of Branch-Pipe Tee Connections
Subjected to lntemal hessure, Extemal Couples, and Combined lrading," wRC BulletinNo
Spherical Shells with Pressure Loading," Phase Report 117-7, January 1974, Battelle-
230, Welding Research Council, New York, September 1977.
Columbus Inboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Ellyin, F., "Elastic Stresses Near a Skewed Hole in a FIat Plate and Applications to Oblique Nozzle
5. Rodabaugh, E. C., "Proposed Altemate Rules for Use in ASME Codes," Phase Report 117-3,
in Shells," WRC 8llrrerln No. 153, Welding Research Council, New York,
Attachments
August 1969, Battelle-Columbus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio,
August 1970.
6, Rules and Regulations for the Classifcatior o/SiDJ, Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Irndon,
l98l. Ellyin F., "Experimental Investigation of Limit lnads of Nozzles in Cylinddcal Vessels"' wRc
BulletinNo.2lg, welding Research Council, New York, September 1976
7. Sterling, F. W ,, Marine E gi eers Handbook, McCtraw-Hill, New York, 1920.
Eringen, A. C., A. K. Naghdi, S. S. Mahmood, C. C. Thiel, and T. Ariman, "Stress Concen-
E. Porowski, J. S., W, J. O'Donnell, and J. R. Fan, "Limit Design of Perforated Cylindrical
trations in Two Normatly Intersecting Cylindrical Shells Subject to lntemal hessure," WRC
Shells per ASME Code," Jounal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 99, Sedes J, No. 4,
Bulletin No. 139, welding Research Council, New York, April 1969.
November 197?.
q- Fidler, R., "A Photoelastic Analysis of Oblique Cylinder In&fiections Subjected to Intemal
Wichman, K. R., A. G. Hopper, and J. L. Mershon, "Local Stresses in Spherical and Ptesslure," WRC Bulletin No. 153, Welding Research Council, New York, August 1970.
Cylindrical Shells due to Extemal lradings," Welding Research Council, Bulletin No. 107,
Ncw York, August 1965. Findlay, G. E. and J. spenc€, "Bending ofPipe Bends with Elliptic Cross Sections," I/Rc B!.rletin
No. 164, Welding Research Council, New York, August 1971.
lll. Bijlaad, P. P., "Shesses from Local Loadings in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels," T/ans.
I.\ME, Vol. 77. pp. 805-816. 1955. Gwaltney, R. C., and J. M. Corum, "An Analytical Study of Inside and Outside Compact
Reinforcement for Radial Nozzles in Spherical Sheus," ORNL 4732, June 1974, Oak Ridge
ll. _, "Stresses ftom Radial Loads in Cylindrical Pressue Vessels," Welding .loutnal,
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
vol. 33, Research Supplement, pp. 6l5s-623s, 1954.
al! oPlNtt{ot, t{ozz[3, aNo rxTaRNAt r,oAotNos BIEIIOORAPHY 4I9

Kruus, H., "A Rcvlcw dnd llvlluution of Computcr Program6 for thc Analysis of Strcsscs in the Conelation of Photoelestic and Stcel Model Data for Nozzlc Con'
SellcrB. F., "A Note on
PrcBsun Vc$scls," MtC BulletinNo. 108, Wclding Research Couocil, New York, September ne.tions in Cylindrical Shells," WRC Blt eri, No l39, Welding Resealch Council, Ncw
1965.
Yo!k, April 1969.
teveD, M. M., "Photoelastic Determination of the Sftesses at Oblique Openings in Plates and
Taylor, C. E,, and N. C. Lind, "Photo€lastic Study of the Stresses neat Operdngs in hcssure
Shells," WftC Bunettu No. 153, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, August 1970.
Vessels," WRC Burkr,t No. ll3, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, April 1966'
teven, M. M., "Phoioelastic Determination of thc Shesses in Reinforced Openings in hessure
Tso, F. K. W., J. w. Bryson, R. A weed, and S. E. Moore' "Stress Analysis of Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels with Closely Spaced Nozzles by the Fhit€ Element Melhod"'in Vol l'
Vessels," WRC Bulletirr No. ll3, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, April 1 6.
Lind, N. C., A. N. Sherboume, F. Ellyin, and J. Dainora, "Plastic Tests of Two Branch-pipe Stres! Analysis of vessels with Two Closely Spaced Nozzles under Intemlrl Pressure'
Connections," lyRC trrrerir No. 164, Welditrg Research Council, New York, August 1971. oRNL/NUIiEG-18/vl, November 1977, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, oak Ridge, Tenn'
Marwell, R. L., atrd R. W. Holland, 'collaps€ Test of a Thin-Walled Cylin&ical Pressue Vesscl
with Radially Attached Nozzle," WRC Bulletin No. 230, Welding Research CouDcil, New
Yort, September 1977.
Mershon, J. L. , "Intetpretive Repoit orr Obliqle Nozzle Connections in hessure Vessel Heads and
Shells udder Ifternal Pres$ur€ tading," WXC Sarr?rrn No. 153, Welding Research Council,
New Yort, August 1970.
Mershon J. L., "Preliminary Evaluation of PVRC Photoelastic Test Data on Reinforced Openings
in Pressur€ Vessels," WRC Bullain No. I13, Welding Research Council, New York, April
1966.
Raju, P. P., '"Tbre€-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45" Lateral Model | (tl/D = 0.08,
D/T = lO, under External i&Plarc MomeDt lrading," TR-3984-2, Teledyne Engin€edng
Services, Waltham. Mass. December 1980.
Raju, P. P,, "Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45"I-ateral Modelz(d/D :0.5,
D/f : n) under Int€rtral hessur€ and Extemal in-Plane Moment Loading," TR-3984-1,
T€lcdyne Engineeriry Services, Waltham, Mass., December 1980.
Raju, P, P., "Tbree-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45" Lareral Model l(d/D = 0.08,
D/T = lO) under Internal Pressure and Extemal in-Plane Moment Loadings," TR-3X9-1,
revis€d A, Teledyne Engineering Services, Waltham, Mass., January 1980.
Riley, W, F., "Experime al Detennination of Stress Disributioni in Thin-Walled Cylindrical and
Spherical Pressure Vess€ls wilh Ciltula. Nozzles," WRC BulletinNo. 108, Welding Research l
Council, New York, September 1965.
Rodabaugh, E. C., "Elastic Stesses in Nozzles iD Pressue Vessels with Intemal Pressue Load-
itr8," Phas€ Repoft ll7-1, April 1969, Battelle-Colubus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Rodabaugh, E. C., "Review of Service Experietrc€ atrd Test Data on q)ening$ in Pressure Vessels
with Non-I egral ReiDforcidg," WRC Bulletin No. 166, Weldiog Research Council, New
York, October 1971.
Rodabaugh, E. C. , and R. C. Gwahiey, 'Additional Data on Elastic Stresses in Nozzles in Pre$sulE
Vessels with Intemal Pressure loading," Phase Report ll7-2, December 1971, Battelle-
Columbus kboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Rodabaugh, E. C,, aDd R. C. cwaltoey, "Elastic Stsesses at Reinforced Nozzles ir Spherical Shells
with Pressur€ and Moment Loadiog," Phase Report ll?-gR, September 1976, Battelle-
Columbus Iaboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Rodabaugh, E, C,, and S. E. Moore, "Evaluation of the Plastic Characte.istics of Piping hoducts
in Relation to ASME Code Cdteiia," NUREC/CR-0261 ORNI-/Sub-2913/8, Oak Ridge
National Inboratory, Oak Ridge, TeIm., July 1978.
Schroeder, J., K. R. Srinivasaiah, and P, Graham, "Analysis of Test Data on Bmnch Connections
Expos€d to Intemal Pressure and/or Extemal Coluples," WRC Bulk,n No. 200, Welding
Research Council. New York. Novemb€r 1974.
Schoeder, t.,
and P, Tugcu, "Plastic Stability of Pipes and Te€s Exposed to Extemal Couples,"
WRC Bullctin No, 238, Welding Research Couucil, New York, June 1978.
 CHAPTER 12
VESSEL SUPPORTS

Ditfereni v$sel supporis. (Courresy of the Noofer Corporotion: St. touir, Mo.)
421
420
412 VISSfl" SUPPORTS I2.2 SKIRT AND BASE RING DESIGN

I2.I INTRODUCTION
I.'igure 12. lc shows an alternate design where the lcgs irLre attached to lugs that
in tum are welded to the vessel. The bending stiffness of the shell and its ability
Process equipment is normally supported by one of the following methods: to resist the moments adequately, must be considered. The cross-bracing ol the
legs may be needed to minimize lateral and torsional movements.
1. Skirts
Vessels supported by ring girders, (Fig. 12.1d), are usually placed within a
2. Support legs structural frame. The ring girder has the advantage of supporting torsional and
3. Support lugs a;. bending moments resulting from the transfer of loads from the vessel wall to the
4, Ring girders supports.
5. Saddles Horizontal vessels, (Fig. l2.le), Ne normally supported by saddles. Stiff-
ening rings may be required if the shell is too thin to transfer the loads to the
Most vertical vessels are supported by skirts, as shown in Fig. 12.Ic. Skirts saddles. The problem of thermal expansion must also be considered.
are-economical because they generally transfer the loads from the vessel by shear
action. They also hansfer the loads to the foundation through anchor bolts and
bearing plates. I2,2 SKIRT AND BASE RING DESIGN
I*g-supported vessels are normally lightweight and the legs provide easy
access to the bottom of the vessel. An economic design is shown in Fig. 12. lb, Design of the skirt consists of first determining the dead weight of the vessel W
where the legs attach directly to the vessel and the loads are transferredby shear and bending moment M due to wind and earthquake forces (see Chapter I 6) . The
action. stress in the skirt is then determined from

(f = -w -+-Mc (r2.r)
^ I

In most practical applications, the ratio R/t ) 10. Hence, the area A and the
moment of inertia I is exPressed as

A : 2rRt
I: rR3 t

and the equation for the stress in a skirt becomes

(a) Sklrt (b) Leg (c) L!s
, = #'#, 0z.z)

where o: axial stress in skirt

W= weight of vessel
M= moment due to wind or earthquake forces
R : radius of skirt
r = thickness of skirt

(d) Because the compressive stress is larger than the tensile stress, it usually
Rins Gl rder (e) Saddtes
controls the skirt design and is kept below the skirt's allowable axial com-
Figur€ l2.l Vessel supporrs.
pressive stress as given by Eq. 8.15.
 VESSIt SUPPORTS
Toble 12.2 Bolt Dimensions ond Cleorqnces Bolting Dqtd
Atlcr the thickncss of the skirt r is determined, the next step is designing the
anchor bolts. For a given number of bolts Nthe total bolt area can be expressed Nut Dimensions
as NA where A is the area of one bolt. The moment of inertia of bolts about the
vessel's neutral axis is I = NAR2/2.'fhtts, Eq. 12.1 is Bolt No. of Root Across Across Bolt Radial Edge Wrench
Size Thrcads Arca (in.'?) Flats Corners Spacing Distance Distance Diameter
B RE a,

,_-w2M N -NR (r2.3) z li .t? r ti

arJ o.126 0.969 16a
d rr o.202 rr_6 1.1'7 5 l!2 !!1 ri
where P = load/bolt o1 10 o.302 1.383 z 7F,
rt
17 : weight of vessel ;e 0.419 rr_6 1.589
t5
L1

' 18 0.551 ra- t.'796 L7 L'

N = number ofbolts l* 8 o.728 ri3 2.002 zc
R = radius of bolt chcle li 8 o.929 2 2.209

M= bending moment 1"1 8 1. 155 .16 2.4t6 3*l

ll 8 1.405 L1 2.622 J7
The maximum load/bolt is based on the allowable stress and conesponding lt 8 1.608 2.828 4
area given in Table 12.1. The allowable stress depends on the type of boli li 8 1.980 ^3 3.035 J; +7
fumished. Table 12.2 shows various properties and required dimensions for 1"2 8 2.304 -15 4 +i
bolts with different diameters. 28 2.652 Ja- 3.449 1!
2i8 3.423 3.862 1Z zi Lz
Example 12.1. Determine the required skirt thickness and the number of bolts 2i8 4.292 Ji 4.2't5 ^ I
J-6 ^3
ZE
needed in a vessel with an outside radius R = 7 .0 ft. IIJI empty weight 2i8 5.259 +i 4.688 t)a
Wr : 160 kips, weight of contents Wz: l4l;} kips, wind-bending momenr 6.3 5.102 On
,7

M : 1500 ft-kips and temperature = 300. F. Assume A307 bolts and use
Figure 8. 11 for the exiemal pressure chart.
3i8 v 7 .487 5 5.515 tt a= Ji 7i
3i8 8.'749 5.928 '7L 8

Solution 3i8 10.108 6.341 lE +i rt 8j

48 11.566 oi 6.755 8"1 .ri ra 9

Skirt design

Lpt t= 0.375 in. From Eq. 12.2,

Tqble 12. I

Allowable Cross-Sectional
Bolt Tensile Area
Type Stress (ksi) (in.')

tr/^ 0.9743\'
4307 20
t\" - -7rr- 1
4325 40 Nominal
4449 40 Nominal
A.490 54 Nominal

'l{' is number of lhrcads/in. 425

lN Vttilt luPlotTt r2,2 tKlnT aND lA$ RINO DIIION all
160 + 1l|40 1500 x 12 and/or r,esting on a group of piles, it can be assumed that fte intersction
bctwccn
o= - *d
2 r (84 - 0.37 5 / 2)(0.37 5\ r(83.813f(0.375) ttt Uots, bie plaie, c-on"ret" is similar to that of a reinforced
are made:
concrotc

10.28 ksi U"".. fn t"feoit g to Fig. 12.2, the following assumptions

From Eq. 8.15, 1. The contribution of the bolts on the compression side is negligible'
2. The bolts on the tension side are assumed to act as a continuous ring of
0.125 width r", where r" is calculated from the equation
A: RJt
= 0.001 I
,,=4
zrd
(t2.4)

Hence, from Fig. 8.11, A= 12,100 psi OK

l2'1'
3. The allowable stress of steel /" is taken from Table
Boh design

Let N= 12 bolts. From Eq. 12.3,

I-oad/tntr: l@+ 2(15ooxl2)

- t2 12(84)
: 22.4 kips

Frorn Table 12.1,

area requlre{ : 22.4

ld-
= | .12 n.2

From Table 12.2 W l|.-lln. diameter bolts (N' =.S). Thus from Table 12.1,

n." ^-- 0.9743."

*u=Z1r.sD-1-)-
: 1.23 nz > 1.12 OK
7)A
actual shess = J1: : 18.2 ksi
l-25
total furnished area = 12 x 1.23 : 14.8 in.'?

Use l-in. skirt with 12 - l*-in. dianeter bolts. I

Having established the nurnber and size of bolts, the next step is to calculate
thc interaction between the base plate, anchor bolts, and supporting snuchre. If
thc supporting structure is a steel ftame or foundation, then Eq. 12.3 is all that
is necded for designing anchor bolts. On the other hand, if the foundation is deep tigl!.o 12,2
 lrt v||||t turro$t I2.2 SKIRT AND IA3: RINO DTSION 429

Tobb 12.3 Concntr Proprrflcr

Allowable
1=,t" =W=t-2k (12.6)

Compressive Compressive Modulus

Stess (psi) Stress (psi) of Flasticity Gsi) The total force T of the tensile area of the reinforcement can be determined bv
sumrning forces on the tensile side of the neuhal axis which gives
f" = o.4sfl E.: 57,WO\/n Ei /8"
25m 1,t25 2,850,000 lt /,r\( t ll.,r.* yl\ sin + cos 'll
r = f,t,l;l {r--= | [; 7 7l I
3000 1,350 3,120,000 t0 \z/ tr -1- sln 7 L\z / J)
3500 1,575 3,370,000 9
,1000 1,800 3,610,000 8
o|
"E, = 30 x lf psi.
, =r,^(1) *, (r2.7)

4. Concrete on the compression side is assumed to have a width t" that is the
same as the width of the base plate.
The disance between I and the neutral axis expressed by 12 is

6.
The allowable complessive stress of concretel is taken from Table 12.3.
The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete is defined ''t"=4l<r/z+nt't+t.st*t"
2L
n+o
(r/2 * 7) sinT * cosT
f (r2.8)
as n. J

Similarly, the total force C of the compressive area of the concrete is given by
n: .E"
Ec

=f'/e,
f" e"-f"e" f"a"
b=<,,*-{;lls::=;v] (12.e)

In an elastic analysis, the stains in the concrete and steel at any location are the
same. Hence, e" : e, and

c=(t,+*"r\h*
':ti - ,=* The distance /3 between C and the neuhal axis is
Also, from Frg. t2.2c, using similar triangles
, _ dl(n/2 -z)(sin'zy + l/21 - 1.S(sinycosy)'l
f,
d-kd
nf.
kd
"-216]
The relationship between extemal forces M and I7 and the intemal forces I and
C are derived from Fig. 12.2c. He,nce

x,1= lJ2's)
2M"=O
1] 1Jnf"
From these assumptions afr Fig, 12.2, the following relationships are
obtained: M - w(h + h) - r(h + 4) = 0
alo v|lilt lutFom 12,2 SKIRT AND lASl RINO DlllON .ltl
0nd Example 12,2, ln Example 12.1, it was found that l2-lN in. A307 anchor
bolts were needed for a vessel with an outside radius R = 7 ft,Wt = 160 kips,
^t = M-W(\+l)
1ra
(12. r0) M = 1500 ft-kips, and a skht thickness of0.375 in. If/l = 3000 psi, determine
1, the actual stess in the concrete and bolts.

Similarly,
Sohiion. By referring to Fig. 12.3 and Table 12.2, for le-:ff' bolts, the bolt
)r',=o circle can be calculated as

and d = 2(84 + 0.25 + 1.875) = 172.25 in.

C:T+W (12. r 1)
Also
The values of 7, h, h, h, Ks and K2 are given in Table 12.4 for various values
of /c.
,t":2(0.25 + 1.875 + 1.375) + 0.375 = 7.375 n.

Frorn Example 12.1,

Tqble 12.4

2h/d 2t"/d 2h/d Kr Kz = 18.2 ksi

"f,
0.01 78.52 0.98 1.489 0.016 3.1 13 o.267
0.02 73.74 0.96 1.477 0,o32
From Eq. 12.2
3.085 0.378
0.03 70.05 o.94 1.465 0.048 3.059 0.463
0.04 66.93 0.92 1.452 0.064 3.033 0.535 ,=- r2(r.23\
'"
0.05 @.16 0.90 r.439 0.080 3.008 0.599 t(172.25)
0.06 6t.& 0.88 1.426 0.096 2.983 0.657 = 0.0273 in.
0.08 57.t4 0.84 1.400 o.128 2.935 0.160
0.10 53.13 0.80 1.373 0.160 2.887 0.852
0.15 44.43 0.70 1.304 o.239 2.772 1.049
0.20 36.87 0.60 1.233 0.318 2.61 1.218
o.25 30.00 0.50 1.161 0.397 2.551 r.370
0.30 23.58 0.40 1.087 o.475 2.442 1.509
0.35 r7.46 0.30 1.013 0.553 2.333 1.640
0.40 11.54 o.20 0.938 0.631 2.2U r.765
0.45 5.74 0.10 0.862 o.709 2.1t3 1.884
0.50 0.00 0.00 0.785 0.785 2.000 2.000
0.55 -5.74 -0.10 0.709 0.862 1.884 2.113
0.@ -11.54 -0.20 0.631 0.938 t.765 2.2U
0.65 -17.46 -0.30 0.553 1.013 1.ffi 2.333
0.70 -23.5E -0.,m 0.475 1.087 1.509 2.442
o.75 -30.00 -0.50 0.397 1.161 |.3'to 2.551
0.80 -36.8'l -0.60 0.318 t.233 1.218 2.661
0.85 -44.43 -0.70 o.239 1.304 1.049 2.772
Figirr. 12.3
1t2 Vililt tuttottl I2.2 SKIRT AND 8A3I RINO DI3ION 433

From Tablo 12,3

The calculatcd values of/,1 andf, result in a K value of
= 1350 Psi
"f'
n=10 K= r + 9810/(10xr8)
and Eq. 12.5 gives K= 0.43.
: O.O2
From Table 12.4 wirh K= 0.47 ,
which is considerably lower than the assumed value ofl( = 0.43. Hence another
trial is needed with a K value of 0.02. After recalculating values of 7, /", C, and
1=
a
o'.,* /", a new value ofK is obtained and compared with the assumed one. ff both
values are approximately the same, the analysis is completed. If they axe not, a
new analysis is performed. Thus, in this example after a few trials, for
1=
a
o.ssz K = 0.O75, the following values were obtained:

1a = o.srr
:1 = 0.8s
(t
&: 2.157

& = 1.836 --:1.$7

',L

The magnitude of I is obtained ftom Eq. 12.10 as

4d = o.rn
-- _ 1,500,000 x 12(0.892
- 160,000 (0.1{ + 0.678) (172.25) K(:2.e47
+ 0.678)(r72.2s)
: 49,750lb
K) = 0.734
. tr _
T. t5 x ld x t2 - 16 x lff (0.85 + 0.120) (172.25)
The value ofi is determined ftom Eq. 12.7 as -

49,750
:35.230
(0.027 3)(r7 2.2s / 2) (2. 1 s7), 35,230
: 9810 psi
(o.027 3)(t7 2.2s / 2) Q.e 47 )
: 5085 psi
From Eq. 12.1I
C = t95,230
C = 49,750 + 160,000 f"=42psi
:2O9,750lb
and
Equation 12.9 gives
K: : 0.076
2@,750 r+(5085/10+42)
f": lo.on3 + (10x7.37st (t72.2s/2) (r.836)
which is apptoximately the same as the assumed value. Hence;[ = 5085 psi and
= 18 psi
I" =42 psi is the answer. I
 ,4r.tll',t!tf!,t;;

atrt vlSlll tUPPOltl r2,2 SKtRt AND lA3! R|NO Dll|ON 4$

12,2,I Anchor Cholr Dcrlgn

The base ring is designed both for the effect of the concrete-bearing load on the
side of the foundation under compression and for the bblt force on the other side r]--l
of the foundation in tension. On the compressive side, the base ring can bc
assumed as a cantilever beam subjected tol as shown in Fig. 12.4. The required
ls-l
lrl
thickness is obtained from

PARTIAL VIEW
6lj4
C= __V t t: l6It4 OF
\/; BASE RING
(") (b)
Substituting for M the value

M= r!-

the expression for t becomes

---1_r",,
tw (r2.r2)
\/; DEFLECIION

: (,
wherc t required base ring thickness on the compressive side of the neufal
Fisuru 12.5
axis

/" : actud sftess in concete

I : cantilever length of base ring as defined in Fig. 12.5
o : allowable bending stess of base ring
On the tensile side, the thickness of the base ring is conholled by the amount of
bolt force and dimensions shown in Fig. 12.5. The exact analysis for deter-
rnining the maximum bending moment in the base ring is rather complicated
because of the nature of the boundary conditions and the hole. However, an
approximate and conservative solution can be obtained by assuming the ring to
act as a plate simply supported on three sides and free on the fourth side. Using
the yield-line theory,l
external work = intemal work

F(t) = 21,1016 - dr
h + u, (a - fi j
or

__r' Mp=
2[2n /a + a /2t - d(2/a + r/21)']

Using. a load factor of 1.7 and a factor of l.l5 to allow for fleld-line comer
effect,r the equation

^4M
't'
Fi$,r. | 2.a
 lta w||tt tuDotTl I2.2 SKIRT AND !A3! RINO DISION

can bo solvod for tho rcqutrcd thickncss cxpressed as

whcrc o - allowable sness in shell
, = thickness of shell
12.13)
S,l2b /a + a /2t - d 12'/a + t/zq'l (
F = bolt load
where t = required base ring thickness on the tensile side of the neuhal axis Example 12.3. Design the base ring shown in Fig. 12.7a. Stress in the bolts
F : bolt load is 17,500 psi; height of gussets 12 in., and concrete-bearing stress is 100 psi,
: Allowable stress for base ring is 20,000 psi and yield sfress is 36,000 psi.
S, yield shess of base ring

ul Solution. Required base ring thickness due to concrele-bearing stress is ob-

a, b, d, and I re
as defined in Fig. 12.5b.
tained from F4. 12.12 as
The load in the shell is tansferred tothe anchor bolts through the gussets.
An
approximate free-body diagram of the forces is shown in FIg. lZ.O.
Venicat x100x62
torces are transferred as shown in Fig. l2-6a. The resulting unbalanced 20,000
bending
-^_1T:,1i the gussets resulting from the vertical forcei requires equal and
opposrte Thorizontal forces as shown in Fig. 12.6b. These horizontal forces 0.73 in.
induco local sfiesses in the shell that are calculated from the
equation From Table 12.2, tln net area of I l-in. bolts is 1.405 in.'?

(f =
l.5Fb . force F in bolts = 17,500 x 1.405
(12.r4)
ntzh
-:-
= 24,6M lb

(l2) t.l BOLTS

G)vqlrcaL_EaSaEs

u.c)(b4)
'' zzh

(!)HoRtzoNTaL FoRcEs Figur. 12.6

Figw.12.7
all vltllr SuPFol?t t2.3 D!3|ON ol luPPoR? t!o! 4tg " ":''''

From thls trblc, cloarancc for wrcnch diametcr is 3.75 in. Allowing for gusset
flllct wclds, the distance between gussets is as shown in Fig. 12.7i. froi fq. --+--
12.13. /F lor
I t 91 x z4-roo
-- t-i-7
\i-_/
v q
Jtcrta,r
'4-,4

ile- designq tlis point has a choice to make. One can either use a base ring
I1.07
thickness of in., which is controlled
by bolt load, or use a base rin! [Iil-[f[ff]w
thickness of 0.73 in. with anchor chairs, as shown n Fig. 12.7.
The stess in the shell is obtained from Eq. 12.14 as
ruro,
1.5x24.600x6
"- = -1t x oigt n \7V ,,,u,"'r.,
: 10,4O0 psi

This sbess is combined with the axial stress and the total must be less than thre€ Column B in Fig. 12.8 is designed to carry shear in accordance with the equation
tirnes the allowable stess. I
T
-Il=VQ
r
I2,3 DESIGN OF SUPPORT IEGS
I

Support legs are designed to take into consideration axial loads, bendins mo_
ments, and shear forces in tlre vessel. Refering so Fig. 12.g we see that at-cross
section A-A all forces are expressed in terms of M, V, and W. The axial force
W.is canie.d uniformly by all columns. Bending moment M is carried by the
columns away from the neutral axis and the shearing forces v are carried by the
columns closest to the neutral axis as shown in Fie. 12.g.
Column A in Fig. 12.8 is designed by using Eql I2.3 given by
The shearihg force f at the top of columns B causes bending mornent in the
column if no cross-bracing is used. With cross-bracing the force T is resolved
irito axial forces as shown in Example 12.4.
Example 12.4. Determine the forces in columns A and B of the vessel shown
in Fig. 12.9.
Sohtlion. Axial force in colurnns A and B due to W is

P =-w * 2tu1
F= w 240 :30
n{ -NR N8
where P: load per column Axial force in column A due to M is
W = weight of vessel
iV : number of columns
_ 2t4
.NR
R = radius of columns' circle 2x20p,0
M = noment due to wind or earthquake loads
--"--*-"-ry*"trffiffitrufft
t2.3 DIS|ON Ot SUPPOnT uog 4l
rr3t. I'he quantity p of the crosshatched area in this figure is givcn by

a= wo(?,\
\1t /
/= 50k = 2:r2t
M-2aaa8Fr
The force Il is then given by

. V (2r2t) v
(b) "H- (in3t)(zt)- nrt -2V
A

H :;6txSfl = 0.2653 lb/in.

Horizontal force in column B is

a= (o.z6sr)(:3y
/
: 12.50 kips

(d) This force Il is normally resolved into two components as shown in Fig. 12.9d'
X= /2.5 Force U is a r{dial force on the shell and force X is a horizontal force in the plane
of the cross-b\acing.

. u= Hcnt a= 12.5 x 0.414 = 5.18 kips

y'^ = !-a = !-L

sin 0.924
= 13.53 kips
(")
:igur. 12.9 The force X intoduces additional cornpressive force in column B as shown in
Fig. 12.9e. The distance between columns is
total axial load in column =
A -50 - 100 = -150 kip t=2{ =3.en
total axial load in column B =
-50 kip
The shearing stnesses transferred to column A are zero. Those transferred to The apFoximate height of the colurnns is 20 ft. Hence, angle B is about ll
column B are detennined frorn deer€€s and the axial force F in colurnn B is

u=W
h F : kips
#n:6e.61
The moment of inertia I of the whole cross section in Fig. 12.9c is given by force E = = 7O.lt fip.
BA
"n
 vtss suPPokrs
I2,5 RING GIRDTRS

total lirrcc in colunrr : --l5() kip

A lhc shgll duc t() support cccentricity is givcn by

total forcc in column B : -50 - 69.61 : 119.61 kio
total force in bracing : 70.91 kips I
If the cross-bracing is eliminated in Example 12.4, the shear force tends to
cause a bending moment in column B. Assuming the bottom end of the columns
pinned, the horizontal force causes a bending moment at the top of the column
of magnitude 12.5 x 20 ft : 250 k-ft. Thus, without a bracing system, column
B must be designed to withstand a compressive force of 50 kips plus a bending
moment of 250 k-ft rather than a compressive force of 119.61 kips with a bracing
system.
Note that the absence of a cross-bracing causes the tops of the columns to
sway laterally because of reduced rigidity. This can also cause excessive vi-
bration or deformation of the vessel.
M": Fe ( r2. r5)
and the maximum stress in the shell is calculated from reference 2. Both mem-
brane and bending stresses are calculated. Details ofthe required calculations are
well established in reference 2. Further treatment of this topic is unnecessary in
this book.
I2.5 RING GIRDERS
Ring girders (Fig. lz.ld), are common in elevated vessels supported by a
structural frame. An exact analysis of the stresses in a ring girder due to various
loading conditions is very complicated. For a uniform load, the stresses and
forces can be determined easily with the following assumptions:

I2.4 LUG-SUPPORTED VESSETS l. Supports are equally spaced.

2. Vertical deflection at supports is zero.
The main design consideration regarding lug-supported vessels is the stress 3. Slope of ring girder at supports is zero due to symmetry of loads and
magnitude in the shell. Bijlaard's method is usually followed in such a design.2 supports.
It consists of determining the stress in the shell at the vicinity of a support lug 4. Torsion force at supports is zero. This assumes twisting of the girder due
of height 2C2 and width 2C1, as shown in Fig. 12.10. The bending moment in to flexibility of shell.

Based on these assumptions, t}le moments, shears, and torsion at the supports
and in-between supports are given by

M, = Kzwr2 M^ : Kswrz
V, : Ka,wr v^:o (12.16)

r, =0 T^:o
where M,, V,, T" = support moment, shear, and torsion, respectively. Posi
tive direction is shown in Fig. 12.11.
M,, V^, T^ = midspan moment, shear and torsion, respectively

K3 = (t = constants obtained from Table 12.5

\__ w : uniform load

)r-l
t4 1,.,
t
r: radius

The maximum torsional moment occurs at the ansles shown in Table I 2 .5 and
Fisur€ 12.10 is given by
Ifl' Viiiliti,hom f 2,t milo ottDltt 4t
_ In deriving Eqs. 12.16 it is assumed that thc loade and thc rcactions rct
through the neutal axis ofthe girder. In pressure vessels the loads are tansfcrre.d
to the ring girder through the shell. If the ring girder is taken as a channel section
as in Fig, l2.l3a, tben the loads in the sh-ell cause a bending moment in
the
girder because they are not applied through the shear (flexural) center.
This
moment, shown in Frg. l2.l2a, has the magnitude

m=-we
Figuro l2.l I where e is the shear c€nter moment arm, which can be expressed as

: b2d2h
T*" Kewr2 (r2.r7) e=
41,
The moment, shear, and torsion expressions for any given location between
The uniform bending moment m causes tension hoop sbess above the r_axis
supports are obtained ftom
and compression hoop stress below the.x-axis as shown in Fig. l2.l2b. T\e

Me : V,r sin d * M,cos 0 - wr2 (l - cos 01

Ve = V" - wrg (l2.l8)

To = V,r(l - cos d) + M" s:rr,e
-wr.z (e - sn 0)
whete M6, V6, 76 : mornent shear, and torsion at any location
0 = angle as define.d in Fig. 12.11 \ 'r Tr-
Tqble 12.5 Ring Gider Coefficienrs 'l--zt{-
Angle of
Maximum
Angle Torsion
Number Between ftom
of Supports Support
Suppons (degrees) K3 Ka Ks Ka (degrees)

2 180 -1.0000 1.5707 -0.57m -3.307 x l0-r 39.55

J 120 -0.3954 1.0471 -o.2091 -8.278 x 10-, 25.80
90 -0.2146 0.7853 -0.1107 -3.313 x lo-2 D.21
5 72 -0.t351 0.6283 -0.0690 -1.654 x 10-2 15.30
6 60 -0.0931 0.5235 -o.M7l -9.471 x l0-3 12.74
8 45 -0.0519 0.3926 -0.0262 -3.9q x 10-3 9.53
t0 36 -0.0331 0.3141 -0.0166 -2.W x l0-! 7.62
l2 30 -o.o229 0.261'l -0.0115 - 1.154 x 10-3 634
l6 22.5 -0.0128 0.1963 -0.@65 -3.722 x l0-3 4.72
(b)
20 18 -0.0082 0.1570 -0.0042 -2.469 >< l0-" 3.79
Figw. 12,l2
"--*tr*"wffruruilr-
12.5 RINO OtRDlRt Uf
momont and corrorponding strcso can be cxproosod ac

,,
M=-mr= -v,rb2d2h
4L /.tsev-rr * rt
mry
a:
L
(12.19)

wb2d2hry
4I?

where o- = sftess

D = width of flange
d = distance between flanses
ft = flange thickness
I, = rnoment of inertia of girder
r : radius of vessel
r = shell thickness
w = unifonn applied load

At the supports, the reaction eccentricity tends to produce compressive forces (bl
.
in the top flange and tensile forces in the bottom one as shown in Fig.. 12.13c.
(c)
Figurc 12.13
The.top and bottom flanges can be assumed to fansfer the loads as shJwn in Fig,
12.13b. TIla forces are derived as
At the supports, 0 = 0 and

M,:+ ("o,a"otf - 'rr - 3) - t. t .t M,=+(*,;-i)

tt-Ha
= Zco.a
- roo, (t-i.,)
n,=Z---;- (t2.20)
ttt v,:-H
'2
and in-between the supports 0 = a/2
..
,,= -H..
z ---.
i) (a *
t-zi- Mr=
f coo ?
nrl . "- 4
;\sm;
 ''''tit'lttl

H W$tt tupPotll
f 2,6 SADDU tUPPOmt 49
Solutlon
r,_ = .f,| cos a
7_.i
smt w 200
(zXl00) =
0.637 k-in.
fia

v,: +!:!s
a .a
from Table 12.5, with N = 8,
t-z & = -0.0519 Kc= 0.3926
Ks : -0.02.52 K6==3.940x10-3
The positive directions of M1, F1, and % are shown in Fig. 12. l3c.
Maximum torsion occurs at 9.53' ftom support.
Exanp!9 12.5. The ring girder shown in Fig. 12.t4 is supporred at eight
points. If I7 = 200 kips, find the forces in the ring at the supports and at the The forces given by Eqs. 12.16, 12.19, afi 12.?I are detemrined in Table
point of maximum torsional moment. Fig. 12.15 at the supports and at the point of maximum
12.6 and illustrated in
torsion.

I2.6 SADDTE SUPPORTS

Horizontal vessels supported by two saddles (Fig; 12. le) act as simply supported
beams. For vesSels with dished heads (Fig. 12.16a) the equivalent beam lenglh
is taken as .L -l 4H 13 where L is the tangent-to-tangent length of the vessel and

.br (,
At Support At Point of Maximum Torsion
Eq. 12.16
M", M^ -82.65 k-in. 0 k-in.
v", v^ 12.50 k 7.20k
L,T^ 0 6.n k-ln.
Eq. 12.19
M -60.05 k-in. -60.05 k-in.
Eq. 12.2V
Mf +40.54 k-in. -101.50 k-in.
Fr 14.80k 13.58k
lxx = 587.4Inl u -6.13 k -8.50 k
" Ihese equatioas apply at poifis a and D; poirts A and C have opposite signs.
'-. Wk+e'\
_ 200 1.89 + 4
812
= 12.'26'

a==z:45o
6'
Flgure 12.14
 t2.6 SADD!! SUPPORTI 4tl
Il is the depth of the heads. The vertical load on each head is given by
V = 2IIw 13 and is assumed to act at the center of gravity of the head. Thc
horizontal pfessure on the heads due to liquid heads is resist€d by a horizontal
force F acting as shown n Fig. L2.l6b.It is interesting to note that for hemi-
spherical heads where 11 is equal to r, the bending moment at the head{o-shell
junction due to force F and vertical force V is zero. The bending moFent at any
M=60.05 K-in point in the vessel is obtained from statics as shown nFig. n/f6 lL b
The section modulus of the shell between the saddles is I/c and is expressed
as rr2t. At the saddles, the effective section modulus is reduced due to the
dqfonnation of the shell which renders the full cross section less effective.
Research has shown3 that the length of the effective cross section of the shell is
equal to the arc length of the contact angle of the saddle plus one-sixth of the
Fo.f.! or Support. Fotce. tt point ot l rrinr,n
unstiffened shell, as shown in Fig. 12.17. The section modulus of the arc length
Figur. 12.15 that is in t€nsion is expressed as

+
Z: r2t
[4
Thus the maximum longitudinal stress values can be expressed as

01 C1M6 for midspan between supports

,=
o1\ C2M, for unstiffened shells at saddles (r2.22'
or: CrM" for stiffened shells at saddles

L/
,TEI
'(. F=r.w

Fisur. 12.16
450 tigur. 12.17
112 Vllln tuPForTl t2.6 SADDI tUPPOtTt 4t0

whorc or - longltudinal bcnding shoss in shell (ksi) The shearing stress at the saddle area is influenced by the deformation of thc
unstiffened shell above the saddle. Experimental research has shown that the
I7 = weight of vessel plus its contents (kips) shear near the saddle is distributed along an arc length of
t = length of vessel between tangent lines (in.)
r: radius of vessel (in.) t=2,(!+9\
" \z 20)
t= thickness of shell (in.)

c,:
'
J-
,ft't
as shown in Fig. 12.18. The shearing stress can then be calculaied as

a, = CtV (12.24)
^-ll IsinA/A - cosA
"-r4LA+;inE;I-2Giltlfu)l
a
wher€
t=o+E
^
Cr : -;- sin d for saddles away from heads
The shear sress in tlre shell between the saddles is computed by assuming a n\n-d+srnccos)
sinusoidal distribution of the shear forces where the maximum value is at c sinacosa
ihe
- flI6 / -(l + Smdcosc/)
sin
equator, given by for saddles near heads
\n-
o' = I (12.23) where r : radius of vessel
nn 'io
' a: 0/2 + F/20
where @ is measured as shown in Fig. 12.18.
d= ang(e as rneasured in Fig. 12.18
\
h : ngle that varies between z - a and r
o-" = shear sftess
.
Equation l2.Z is also used to check.the stess in the head. In this case the
value of t in the expression for C3 is taken as the thickness of head rather than
shell.
The circumferential stress in lhe shell at the saddle area is calculated by
assuming the shell above the saddle 0o act as a fixed arch subjected to shearing
s&ess as illustated in Fig. 12.19. Using the theory of indeterminate stuctures,
the moment at any point along the arch can be expressed as

wrf - s I
Ma = *anLa | cos {(sin'zB - iFsin2F + 79'z cos2 F)
L
/1 | \
+ dsind(iB'z + osnzB -
sin,9)

I
+ jFcosPQF + sin2p)
. lr | | \1
Flgurc 12,18
-sinp [;B
\4
+ ;o sin 2B + ;+ gcoszllll I
 #a v||l|taultom 12.6 SADDtl SUPPOffg .ltt

160
3.#Pi
"r
o
o
6
o
140 V
.\
s1s
120

-Ut

t@ \
w
2 Fi$rc 12.19
o o.ol o.o2 0.o3 0.o4 0.(E 0.06 0.o7 0.G o.os o.t o.2
Cs ond C6
where
tigw.12,20 Volucr of C5 ond C6 or o tunction oI the loddlo onsl! 0. (R.f. 4, p. 212)

ll
Cc=s111.2|-:^P'-=sn2!.
'24 The maximum circumferential force P at the hom of the saddle is determined
from
The maxirnum value of M6 given by this equation occus at 0: B. Hence
the maximum circumferential bending moment in the shell can be expressed asa
,'= (v)", (12.26)

"r= H*, (r2.25)

where C6 is given by

where C5 is plotted in Fig. 12.20.

, /, Experimental work has shown that the wjdth of the shell that is effective in
..= + l*+ifu - "',8] . #*F (cs - c,)
, / j/resisting the moment in F4, 12.25 can be taken as four times the radius or and
" one-half the length of the shell, whichever is smaller.
It has also been showna that Eq. 12.25 is valid whenA/r is eqgg!-Io lf€reater
than 1.0. For A/r values of 0.5 or less, it is suggEGTll[llvalG-i@1e t, : frf,r,u(t - | "o,n * ) o"ne - le,)
reduced l tfre neaA. nor in-
between values of A/r, a reduction factor (Rf)
- l|rnA + llcosFQP+ sin2B - ssinp + B cosB)]
* = (;i -', 0.5<:<1.0 A plot of the Quantrtt C6 is shown in fi9. 12.20.
When the stess in the shell as calculated from Eq. (12.25) nd 92.?,6) is
excessive, stiffening rings are used at the vicinity of the saddles to carry the
can be used.
bending moment.
.t!6 v|llll luttotTl illuooRAPHY 1r'

NOMENCTATUR,E {, Browncll, L. 8., ald E, H, Young, Procr$ Equlpmcnt Datlgn, John Wiloy, Now York,
1959.

C = compressive force on concreie foundation

F = bolt load BIBTIOGRAPHY

"f" = allowable compressive stress of concrete

Ro8rk, R, J., aodw. C.Yot g, Formulasfor S''ast and Stain,sthed., Mccmw Hill, New York,
f, : allowable lensile stress of steel bolts t915.
Uteful ltdomation ol the Design of Plate Structwes, Steel Plate EnE Bering Data, Vol.2,
* = constant given by Eq. 12.5 American lron ad Steel Institute, New York.
Kr Kz = constants given in Table 12.4
K3 - (u = constants given in Table 12.5
/= length

h - h = lengths as specified by Fig. 12.2

M = bending moment
Ma : bending moment in a ring girder
N = number of bolts
n: f,/f.
R = radius
f: bnsile force on foundation
To = torsion moment in a ring girder
, = thickness
t" : equivalent thickness of anchor bolts
V = shearing force
Ve : shearing force in a ring girder
W : weight
o : shess

REFER,ENCES

l. Wood, R, H, , Pla.rric aal Elattic Design of Slabs 4nd Prater, Ronald hEss, New York, 196l .
t Wichman, K. R. , A. G, Hopper, ad J. L. Mershon, "Local Stiesses ir Spheric€l a|ld Cylin-
&ical Shels due to ErteErl lradings," BAC Barr"ri, 107, Welding Res€arch Council, New
YorL. 1965.
Zic}' L. P., "St€ss€s it Large Horizortal Cylitrdrical Pressur€ Vers€ls otr T\a,o Saddle
Suppons" in Prr$rr" Vesscl dnd Piphb DesigL, Collected Pqert 1m7-1959, lJreicat
Society of Mechanical Elgircers, New York, 1960.
 PART 4
THEORY AND DESIGN
OF SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

459
 ''"' 'rii tir

CHAPTER I3
a
T FLAT BOTTOM TANKS
't

.!
E

I
z5
,l
'b

*
p
g
o

461
 462 fl.At toTIoM TANKS

I3.I INTRODUCTION

Flat bottom tanks are normally constructed according to one of the following 7 F*
F llr.rF.=
four standards: < ld..l oZ zzz
1. API 650. Welded steel tanks for oil storage.
2, API 620. Recommended rules for design and construction of large, @
welded, low-pressure storage tanks. z F- - o.l XXX
3. ANSI 896.1. American National Standard for welded alumrnum_alloy < | 42 -i -i
storage tanks. cl cl
xxx
4, AWWA D 100. Standard for welded steel elevated tanls, standpipes, '6bE
qa- 9- E
and reservoirs for water storage.
:.: txz
Table 13.1 shows a general comparison between the requirements 6
of the various
standards. The values in the table serve as a general comparison;
however, a.l .- q. q.
specific requirements and limitations are obtaiied from the standards \o *9.9-
them_ 9e
selves.
-t tz zz zzz '6
.- Irr ,-
I3.2 API 650 TANKS
J t-z
The requkements of API 6501 are for flat bottom tanks containing
liquids with
litde or no surface pressure. The design criteria are based on simpti"fied F
equations ?
with a minimum amount of analysis.
o
ao
(,)
| 3.2. I Roof Design
o
.+ :.9
XXX ed b
Flat bottom tanks with large diameter and fixed roof normally are
designed with o ERE
E<
column-supported roofs. As the diameter gets smaller, seif_supporting
roofs < txd aa .E e .<
}!'EU
become more economical. Dome and cone ioofs (t \o XXX
-" th" -ort popolar iypes.
The following equation for designing self-supporting do-" .ooi. E
(t
F frR g
9:-?,
is obtained
^ Eq. 9.2b, which is based on a fairor
from ot saiety (FS) four: *.E 6 EE ;
co 5?)XF-
290F
d, <zx-..; .E A.{l
'H€ ^" 3
E H.c ; ::
'^
P=-
0.0625 E
(n111' (13.1) 'o r.)oo
Fe{ife
0 a€EitE
The required thickness is obtained by assuming that the maximum pressure
an a ErEb::e
E r F3::i
consists ofa live load of 25 psf, which is the assumed maximum snow load,
l
o ^\ Es 8.9
E3 E€
.9*
a dead load of a maximum roof thickness of 0.5 in. as allowed by ApI.
and
Hence
o
E e 8-: EE^ gsEEctg
EFsE EEH
v 5t | , ,t g s.2
P : 25 psf live load + 20.4 psf dead load EtrEE Ve
= 0.315 psi o tsFEE ?sEFEfE
4 aa6e
-o
o
F
,= .9
>€ 5 e*ff s trtrtrE
a6.l ttAt lOnOiit IANK!
I3.2 API 650 TANKS

tptting f- 29 X lOi psi, expressing R in fcet, and r in inches, Eq. 13.l is

= /Pncos0\/a\
| -------:- || ^ |
R \ z / \zo/
' 200
(13.2)
DR
= 4t/(P o)
which gives the required thickness of a dome roof. "."
- The roof+o-shell junction has a stiffening ring to provide for the discontinuity
forces shown in Fig. 13.1. Force 1l is
API 650 assumes a maxirnum value of o for head-to-shell rings of 15,000 psi.
u, The value of P can be taken as 0.315 psi. The maximurn value of cos 0 for R
"*pr".rJa
is 0.8D and is equal to 0.909. Expressing R andD in feet andA in square inches,
11 = Ndcos d
the required area is
PR
zcos0 (13.3) .DR
and the required area needed to resist this tensile force is given
^: ux
by API uses the equation
H(D /2)
^_ (13.4) '-
DR
(13.s)
1500

for the required area at dome-to-shell junction.

The required thickness of self-supporting conical roofs is based on Eq. 9.19
and is

P" 2.61(t sin 0/D)25

E- /2D)
FS(L

10..14 /r sin 0\x5

= FS(,* g)\ D
/
Substituting t = 29 x 106 psi and P" : 0.315 psi in this equation and express-
ing D in feet and t in inches results in

. D lcs(tan 0)lo4
'= u" g zza,sq
( 13.6)

Figure 13.2 shows a plot of this equation for various factors of safety. A more
simplified equation used by API is

,: -J
400 sin 0
(13.7)

where 1 : pquired thickness of cone roof (in.)

D : diameter of tank (f0

Fis',.o 13.l
0 = angle between cone and horizontal base (degrees)
 rt,2 Alt $0 rAHKI

-3:sin 0.
A= 2645
API uses the simplified expression

D2
(13.9)
3000 sin 0

for the required area at the cone-to-shell junction where

% A = rcquired area (in.2)
D = diameter of tank (ft)
0 : angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)

For tanks with small intemal pressures, the maximum pressure is limited to that
which does not cause the uplift of the tan} in the ernpty condition. Hence ftom
Fig. 13.3 the upward force due to pressure is equal to the downward force
resulting from weight of shell plus roof:

Pt?2=w.(q)(')
4 r. -.2r. /

Flgure | 3.2

The required area at the cone roof-to-shell junction

_ is obtained from Eq. 13.4.
In this caee, H for a deed load condition is liven Oy

PD
n= 4sin0
and

A=Dz o (13.8)
8c sin 0
Using g: 1.5,000 p€i p = 0.315 psi, and expressing D in feet and.4 in
equare inches, the rcquired area is
tlg0re 13.3
'*""'- *-^ffi**Yffiiffiitnmr
13,2 API 630 TANKT {i60

or
lrtting a = 20,000 psi and I = 490lbfit3, this equation reduces to thc approx-
Imate equation
4
P==6w+h't
- 30,8004tan0
r'N=--2 + ^6th (13.1 1)
where P = intemal pressure (in. of water)
W : weight of shell (lb) where P = intsmal pressure (in. of water)
D: diameter of tank (ft) A = required area at roof-to-shell junction (in.'?)

t/r : thickness of roof plate (in.) = angle as defined in Fig. 13.3

Y- 49o lbttr D= diameter of tank (ft)

4= roof thickness (in.)

The equation for maximum pressure is then
Equation i3.11 may be rewritten to calculate the required junction area -A as
P*":W * t,, (13.10)
. --------:------'-
Dz(P 8t,\
--
A:
30,800 tan 0
(r3.r2)
The stess level at the head+o-shell junction must also be checked. In re-
o Fig. 13.3, vertical force V is given by
ferring
API 650 assumes failure to occur when the stess in the junction area reaches
32,000 psi. This is an increase of 60% over the allowable sness of 20,fi)0 psi
., PD ,D
v=__;__\th.l)-; used in deriving Eq. 13.11. Hence failure pressure can be expressed as

4: r.6P - 4.8r, (r3. l3)

whete P1 : failure pressure (in. of water)

H =J
tan 6
_ =
,P desigp pressure (in. of water)
A= roof thickness (in.)
1 IPD
H: ta'J9L4 -thrDf
4l The sepond tenn in Eq, 13.13 is an adjustment factor that corrslates this equation
with experimental data.
rcquired area is When the roof-to-shell junction is designed so that failure because of exces-
sive surface pressure occurs at the junction rather than the roof or shell, the
, HDlz junction is called frangible. A frangible joint design equation can be derived by
(f substituting Eq. 13.10 into Eq. 13.13, which gives
Dzl\
=#4r-to1 ryY . Bh, = 1.u, - o.r u

^ Mo tan d
r=--jr-+thy .

e=ffi+tt,
 It.2 AFI 610 TANKT ilTl
Sub8titutlng thia oquatlon into Eq, 13.12 givcs
which is the circumferential oeam between courses A and B, This mcthod
considers that the bottom plate on course B stiffens the next course at point X
0.153 W
(r3.14) 0nd the maximum stess occurs at a location higher than X. This location is
30,800 tan 0
arbiharily set at "one foot."
where .4 : required tangible roof-to-shell area (in.2) At point X the hoop stress is given by

17: weight of shell .PD

d: angle of roof with horizontal axis (degrees)
-2t
Note that failure of a frangible roof joint is only possible when or
the wetding is
from one side.
-_Gy(H-t)D
13.2.2 Shell 25
Design

API 650 includes two rnethods for the design of shells. The
Defining y : 62.4 pcf and adding the corrosion allowance to this expression
first is called the gtves
"one-foot method," which consists of calculiting Ae re4uir"O
ttrict<r,"ss of sn"l
course A in Fig. 13.4 based on the hydrostatic pressure
at I ft above point X r)G
t:2.6p(H_- + cA (13. r s)

where CA : corrosion allowance (in.)

D : diameter of tank (ft)
G: specific gravity of liquid
I1 - liquid height (ft)
S= allowable stess (psi)
I= required thickness (in.)

The second method, the 'variable point method," is an extension of the

one-footmethod in that it calculates a more exact location of the maximum stress
near the junction of the bottom or shell courses with differing thickness. In this
case the bottom course is assumed to be hinged at its junction with the bottom
plate. Hence the deflection due to intemal pressure at the junction is equal to the
deflection due to an applied shearing force as shown in Fig, 13.5. From Section
{t 1

4:6p
V PR2
TFo= n

Fisure 13,4
.. ZB3DPR'
'= E-
 ?AI'IKS
'IAT 'OTTOM 13.2 APt 650 TANKS 473

'l'osts have shown that this equation is too conservative because the maximunl
strcss can be many feet away from thejunction where the pressure is reduced and
the stiffness ofthe second course becomes signincant. Accordingly, the equatbn
lirr the desisn of the bottom course is modified to read

( 13. l6)

The thickness of the second course is determined from the following equations;

.2- t, ir +<r.37s
I h. -l
- ,r*--,1 ir l'375 <;;<2'62s
h,
Fieur€ 13,5
t-=t^ + (t. -t^\l
'4/t 7l
-''
.L
The hood stress at any point along the cylinder close to
the junction ls given by
.2- t,. it L-z.ezs (t3.r7)

Na=pR(l_Ca.) where t2 : thickness of first course (in.)

where.c& is given by F{,. 5.23. Taking the derivalion of
this equatlon with
/z= thickness of second course (in.)
respect to .r and equating it to zero gives the point
at
of maximum Nr.'This occurs lz = thickness of second course calculated from the equation for upper
course (in.)

3tr ftr = height of first course (in.)

4p r = radius of shell (in.)
and Design of the upper courses is based on the equation

lr, = rn(r 2.6DlH - x / 1,21G

: ___-
- "n,to "o"3!)
l
s- + L]A (13.18)

= 1.06 PR
where "r is the variable design point that is a function of the thicknesses of layers,
Hence tank radius, and liquid height.
In referring to Fig. 13.6,.r is the minimum value of .r1, -r2, and "r, obtained
from the following equations:
t= Ne/S

_ 1.06 pP q = o.6r{E + 0.32 ch,

s "' x2 = Ch"
or using the terminology of ApI 650 xz = l '22lrt"
where
rr.oor(a!429)
'= t ={.*,(*=-!
I + K\/K
--* nr-Tfflffiffiiifrir r3.2 Apt 6t0 TANKS 47t

_ 2.42E ( (t/o)rt 1
P
locATtot{
Fs (r - *zltte \n /o - o.4s \/;lDl
OF
CF TAN(
or for long cylinders with E : 30 x 106 psi and p = 0.3,
3 TA
VARIAELE \ SHELL
oEstcit Fo[{T

H =77.e2
" ro.#,l/*)"
0.3iI Gh,
'"1-: r" \u/
0.61 fr/ Substituting P", : 25.6 psf and FS : 2.0, this equation becomes

'TnI
(13.19)
/
iflN. Hrr. OF xi
WHEl,l
+'1.o;c-o.xr
,6+j.-l
'll I
v \ where Il = length between stiffeners (ft)
UNRESTRAIT{ED
MDIAL t : thickness of shell (in.)
0..'ffi t D, \ lh,,t1
t.-{// --Et-
GROTIT'TH
GROTITN
D = tank diameler (ft)

The required section modulus of the stiffening ring necessary for resisting the
Figure 13.6 Elo3fic nrov€ment oI rh€ll cour!€. ot girth lateral pressure is obtained from the following classical buckling equation of a
ioint (R€t. 5).
ring:

I *=? ^ 3EI
R3

After establishing the shell thickr

towindroadsm'it*.n*d.ri:;lil:J"-Hfr::3*Tilffi if:#,::;
as 3EI
-:
p = O.00256 " Fs(R)
V2
where
where p = wind pressure (psf)

V = wind velocity (mph) F= PH

Hence
API a__100-mph wind velocity for design purposes unless a higher value is
,yses
specified. Hence
PrlilFS)
3E
P = 25.6 Psf
Because the pressure distribution may cause a vacuum
on part of the shell, the
shell is designed to withstand a yaglum pressure of 25.6 psf.
expression for the buckling of cylindrical s-hells is given
A simplified z= PHD2 FS
(r3.20)
Uy fq. O. tZ as 2AE C/D
 !;rlll.rr{jwlillirfrs
1rt illT tonom ?aNl(t I3,2 APt 650 TANKT 4ll
API arsumca that tho rstio of thc outstanding leg of a stiffener to thc diameter
of the tank is not lcss than 0.015. Hence, C/D = 0.0075. Usins FS : 2.0.
P = 25.6 psf, E = 29 x 106 psi, and expressing D and If in feet,-the equation
for the required section modulus of a stiffening ring is

Z = O.Offit HD2 (r3.21)

where z = requirc.d section modulus of stiffening ring (in.3)
II : height between stiffeners (ft)
D : diameter of ta.nk (ft)

| 3.2.3 Annulor Plqtes

The requircd thickness of the bot8om plate in an ApI 650 tank is given in Table
13.1. At the shell-to-bottom plate junction, the ApI standard requires a butt- ( al
welded annular plate whose thickness varies between 0.25 and 0.15 in. and is
a function of the shess and thickness of the first shell course. The width of the
annular plate nust be adequate to support the column of water on top of it in cas€
of a foundation settlement. By referring to Fig. 13.7,

*=+ ,
lM

Using plastic analysis,

4M (b)
tisut 13.7

where tr : length of annular plate (in.)

L= R
Y; /a : thickness of annular pla0e (in.)
1l: height of liquid (ft)
L= t;fr G: specific gravity of liquid
yGH
"l Exarnple 13.1. The steel tank in Fig. 13.8a contains a liquid at the roof-to-
Letring p = 62.4 pcf, a), = 33,000 psi, and expressing H in fe,et and 4 in
inches, the equation becomes shell junction level. Eesign the various tank components if G = 1.1, CA =
0.0, S = 15,000 psi. Use the "one-foot" method for shell design.
._ 195 tb
- \/GH Sohtian, For the roof design, Eq. l3.l gives

API 650 uses a factor of safety of two for the length. The length of the annular n80
plate is thus expressed as ' 2M -' 2n
' = 0.40 in. Use t : 7116 in. for the dome roof
L= 390 h
Out not less than 24 in.) (r3.22)
\/ GH For the shell design the required thickness for the bottom course is given by Eq.
 ':.!1].:, ., ]''' ',]i!,!r
ata torTors ?A]{t(l r3,2 APt 6!0 ?ANK3 lV'
'ltt
The required inteffiediale stiffener spacing is obtained from Eq. 13'19 ae

I/ = 6(100t)

Usins a conservative value of t : 0.25 in.,

t o:sV
I1 :6(100 x 0.25)

ft
v\s"/
Zroo

= 26.20
(.)
Because this is larger than the height of the tank, no intermediate stiffeners are
needed.
The required area of the roof-to-shell junction from Eq. 13.5 is
Angl€ 4r4xt
,DR
" 1500
_ (80x80) ,

1500
: 4.27 n.2 Use 4 x 4 x 5/8 in. angle with A = 4.61 n.2

For the bottom plate use t = ll4 in. according to Table 13.1.
Assume the annular plate is 1/4 in. thick. Then the width of the armular plate
from Eq. 13.22 is

. 39oh
L = ------_
(b) YGH
Fisur6 | 3.8
-:ffi 390 x 0.25

13. 15 as L : 2JJ79 in.; Use a 24-in. wide annular plate

. 2.6(80\Qo - txl.t) The above details of construction are shown in Fig. 13.8b. I
' 15,m0
Example 13.2. In Example 13.1, determine (a) the maximum allowable inter-
= 0.29 in. Use r = 5/16 in. for the bottom course nal pressure and the maximum failure pressure, (b) the required roof-to-shell
area if a ftangible joint is required, and (c) the thickness of the shell using the
For the top course design conditions of Example 13.1 and the variable point method.

.- _2.6(80X10-1x1.1) Solation
15,000
(a) The maximum pressure that does not cause uplift of the shell is obtained
= 0.14 in. Use t - 1/4 in. for the top course according to Table 13.1
ftom Eq. 13.10:
-'. -*-ry--'fil?Yffiii irrxr
r3,2 APr 630 IANKS 4tl
wctght of eholl = (a0.82)(a)(EO)(tl)(s/16 + U4) h1 l0x12
= 57,800 tb Yrtr v(40 x 12x0.3) -10
. _ 0.245 x 57,800 ^
r'*=--lo-+Ex0.437s indicates that tz :
t2! as given by Eq. 13.17.
Equation 13.18 is based on an iterative process that is initiated by assuming a
value of f2, which can be obtained from the approximate equation
= 5.71 in. of water
: 0.21 psi 2.6H- t)' DG
-'
t":
15,000
The maximum pressure that does not cause excessive
stess ai the head-to-shell
junction is giveo by Eq. 13.11 as _2.6x9x80x1.1
15,000
(30,800x4.61x0.s77)
^ : 0.14 in.

: 16.3 in. of water From Eq.13.19,

= 0.59 psi r. O1n

K=-=1':-;=2.14
t" u. t4
Thus, maximum intemal pressure 0.21 psi. =
The failure pressure from Eq. 13.13 is C : 0,59

Pr: .r, : 0.6tV@l-iZXo5 + 0.32(0.5eX10 x 12)

1.6 P
4.8 A- :29.98
= (1.6)(s.71) _ 4.s(0.437s)
: 7.04 in. of water rz: 0.59(10 x 12)

p1 = 0.25 psi = 70.80

xc = 1.22Y(40 x l2)(0.14)
(b) The frangible joint arca given by Eq. 13.14
is
=10

^ -
0.t53 W
Hence -r : l0 controls and
t"" d
3oSoo

_ 0.153 x 57,800 - x /r2\G

tz=2.6D@ a,-
30,800 x 0.577
A = 0.50 in., 2.6(80X10 - ro/r2)(r.D
15,000
(c) The thickness of the bottom course is calcrilated
from Eq. 13.16 as
= 6.1a
f.
,=(t.*- 0.463 x 80 6x20x80x1. Because this value is the same as the assumed one, the analysis is complete,
m 15,m0 and no additional iteration is needed. Hence. use
: 0.30 in.
h: 5/16 in. for the bottom course
For the top cowse, the quantity
tz: l/4 n. for the top course as govemed by Table 13.1 I
-' -.---ru-*ryffiffiiuffiTtliii . ..2iL$tua
r3,3 APt 620 TANKI 4ts
I3,3 API 620 TANKS

API 620 tanks2 tend to be more complicated in geometry and are generally
:llJ9:Id g hiekr-ilptt^pressu'e than Apr 650 tank;. Accordingly, trr!
r€quirements of API 620 differ significantly fiom those of ApI 650
because the
mrckn€ss of the components is obtained from shess analysis that considers
the
biaxial shess state rather than a set of simplified formulas.
_ The shess analysis procedure in Apl 6t0 is based on Eqs. 6.10 and 6.11.
Equation 6. I I for /Vd can be determined- for any shell configuration
by using the 'l .62,4 pct
summation of forces obtained from a free-body diagram.-The advantage
of a
free-body diagram is that forces other than pressure cair be accountedlor
without
C:inF tryugh T inregration process. Once Nd is determined, the value of ly'e is
obtained ftom Eq. 6.l0 as

l&*&=o (r3.23)
R2 Rr

where Ne = X of forces at a given cross section.

Example 13.3 illustrates the application of

\. 13.23 ro ApI 620 tanks.
Example 13.3. The rower shown in Fig. 13.9 is filled with a liquid whose
Figur6 13.9
specific gravity- is 1,9 rlp to point d. Above point a the tower is subject€d
to a
gas pr9sswe of 5 psi. Determine the forces in the various
components of the
tower disrcgarding the dead weight of the tower.
and fron 84. 13.23 with R1 : Rz = 48 ft,
Solutian
^,
t\o _PR_ 5x576
Roof Forces - 2-
: 1440 lb/in.
The maximum force in the roof is obtained from Fig. 13.10a. Below section a_o,
a 5-psi pressure is needed to balance the pressurJabove sectjon a_a.
Force lVu and the unbalanced force 11. : 1309 lb/in. (inwards).
in the roofhas a vertical component V around the perimeter of the roof. Sum_
mauon ot torces in the vertical direction eives 40-Ft Shell

The maximum force in the shell is at section b-D as shown in Fig. 13.10r. Total
av - ,o,ll o weight of liquid at section D-b is

w
v=!=s"ff
= 600 lb/in. Total pressure at r-, is 5 + =:rr^;*:X,:,o,
(62.4/144)(35).

Hcnce P = 20.17 psi

-=ff;;% Sum of the forces at b-b is equal to zero. Hence,

2,744,s00 - (2O.17)GiQaD' + v1ay480; : 3

V = 600 lb/in.
' -- " -
ffi **ff IYI#iiiSii'ilirr r3.3 API 620 TANKS 4T5
\,4)"1'nr'

(e)

lV:i
c- +-
(c)

c- _c
b- - - .-b
Tfr-{-tT
v

o)

b"-

(d)

Figuro 13.10

----d
and
iV' = 600 lb/in' Figurc 13.10 (Continvod)

In a cylindrical shell R, = oo and Rz = R. Hence Eq. 13.23 becomes

Ne_pR=(n.n)(?/io) V: 600 lb/in.

and
= zt84l lbiin.
-. =
wo
600
Conical Trawition di6
At section b-b force V in the zl0-ft shell rnust equal force V in the cone due to : 849 lb/in.
continuity, as shown in Fig. l3.l0}.
In a conical shell R' = co and iz = R/sin L Hence Eq. 13.23 becomes
'"" -" --ilffi*-"""Tiiftl6ffii'iinn
13,3 APt 620 TANKS 4tt

&=g0=uo?o:!!)
-- srn 0.707
20-Ft Shell

= 6847 lb/in. At section c-c the value of V in the 20-ft shell is the same as V in the cone duc
to continuity. Thus
The horizontal force at trnint b is Ho = 600 lb/in. (inwards) !
Figure 13.10c shows the forc€s at point c. The weight of tiquid N1 = lt : -2777 lbli'..'
in conical
section is ,'1llol,ff^",,,',
*=4rl+R,R,+n3)
At section d-d the liquid weight is given by
_nx62.4 x 10..^" l0
.^
xzo+202) W: j,?rr,9oo + (62.4)(n)(r0)2(zs)
-3
: 457.2100 lb -(Iy+ = 3,692,000 lb

Total liquid weight is and the pressure is calculated as

W : 2,744jffi + 457 ,4n = 3,201,900 lb

/6) A\
P=s+l#l(70)
Pressure at section c-c is 5 + (62.4/ A0@S\. : 35.3 psi
p = ?A.5 psi
From Fig. l3.l0d the summation of forces about d-d is
Sumrning forces at section c-c gives
3,692,W - 35.3(r)(r2o)2 + v(r)(2$): a
('24.s)Gr|(r2o)2 - 3,201,900 - (v)Giea\ = o N6 : l/ = -2177 lblin'
V = -2777 tbtin. which is the same as that at point c.
- The negative sign indicates that the vertical component of iy', is opposite to
that assrrmed in Fig. l3.l0c and is in cornpression Ltner man No: PR = (35.3X120)
6nsion. This is
caused by the^column of liquid above the cone whose :4236lblin. I
weight is greater than the
net pressue force at section c-c.

-.t11'' 13.3.1 Allowqble Stress Criterio

- 0.707
The required thicknrcss of API 620 components in iension is d€termined from the
: -39271blin. (compressive) larger of the values obtained from these two exDressions:
24'5
l/o = RPlsin
' 0= tZOx 0.707
:
-sE
, =N'
4158 lb/in. (13.24)
H. :
.rt{"
3927 lb/in. (inwards) ' ,tE
488 FIAT SOTTOM TANKS 13.3 API 620 TANKS 489

whorc t : rcquircd thickncss ol'componcnt (in.) Compressive Stress with Equal Magniludc in the Meridional and Circum-
Ne = hoop force (lb/in.) lerentinl Dbections
No : meridional force (lbs/in.) The goveming equation is obtained from Eq. 6.35 for the buckling of a spherical
J = allowable tensile stress (psi) shell with a factor of safety of four. Using E : 30,000,000 psi, the equation
becomes
E = joint efficiency similar to discussion in Section 8.1

The API criteria for components in compression are as follows. a= srz,soo(*)

Compressive Stress in the Axial Direction wilh No Stress in the Circum-
ferential Directian which is approximated in API as

The rules for this case are based on the axial buckling of a cylindrical shell as
/.\
r,ooo.oool;l (13.26)
given by Eq. 5.28. With E = 30,000,000 psi and a factor of safety 10, this \^/
equation becomes
This value is 1.8 times smaller than the value given by Eq. 13.25. Accordingly,
,=,.,,,o'(f) ( 13.2s)
the limit ofEq. 13.26 is established as 15,000/1.8 = 8340 psi. Thus oDElc in
Fig . I 3 . I 1 is the criteria used for components having compressive stress of equal
magnitude in the meridional and circumferential directions.
To prevent the stress in Eq. 13.25 from exceeding the allowable tensile stress
of the material, an arbihary value of 15,000 psi is established as the upper limit
Compressive Stress with Unequal Magnitude in the Meridional and Circum-
of the allowable compressive stress. This is shown in Fig. 13.11 as line OABC
where 4-B is a transition line between Eq. l3.ZS and the upper limit of 15,000 terential Directions
psi.
The criteria for this case are based on the following equations:

(larger stress) + 0.8(smaller stress)

shess determined fuom OABC tn
< 1.0 (13.27a)

Fig. 13.11 using R for the larger force

1.8(smaller stress) < 1.0

at (13.27b)
shess determined from OABC in
E
th
Fig. 13.11 using R for the smaller force
o
o Compressive Stress in One Directinn and TensiJe Stress in the Other Direction
o
The criteria are based on the assumption that the capability of a component to
o resist compressive force in a given direction is reduced as the tensile force in the
other direction increases. The goveming relationship is derived as follows. Let

t ,
rrr
- actual comoressive stress
--ii_------:-i--------------
E allowaDle comDresslve sress
Figure l3.ll (Coortesy of the Anericon Perrol€um Inlritute.)
tuom OABC of fin. t:.tt
 fLAt lotTot TANKS
I3,3 API 620 TANKS 491

und
Rool ol l8nk
_ actual tensile
,r^, - r-i-----_:-i_--- stress
allowaDle tenslle stress-

Then

M2+MN+N2=1.0 (13.28)
The interaction of this equation with Eq. 13.25 is shown
in Fis. 13.12.
13,3.2 Compression Rings

As shovn in Example 13.3 there are unbaranced horizontal forces

at the roof-
to-shell and cone-to+hell junctions. These forces must be carried
by a com_
p_ression ring region at that location. The region
can be in tension or compression
depending on the direction of the discontiriuity as well as the
troop torces. apt
620 as-sumes that portions of the roof, shell, and cone shown
in He. 13.13 are
ring region._ Th9 total force given Uy tt-e torro*ing
equaron :*pt":tioT
t*^.,.l_Tls assumed to be supported by the ring region:
Fisur€ 13.13 Compr€ssion rins rasion. (Courtosy of rhe Americon Pelroleum Inslitute.)

6
Q=Na,Wn+N1'"W"+HR (r3.2e)

I where Q : total force at ring region (lb)

Nr. :
6
meridional force in roof or cone (lbiin.)
N0, :
!
3 circumferential force in shell (lb/in.)
I7r, = effective length of roof or cone as determined from Fig. 13.13
(in.)
W" = effective length of shell as determined from Fig. 13.13, (in.)
:
11 unbalanced horizontal force at junction (lb/in.)
R: radius of tank at junction (in.)
\
t:
i The total required area at the junction is determined from
B

:
l" *r'o is,ooo--L
when Q is compressive
(r3.30)
Flgura 13. | 2 Sioxiol stress chon for combinod retuion ond comprelsion
3O.Om p3i ro 38,OOO pst yietd srr$s
rt.oh. (Courrory of rh6 Am6ricon petrol€sm tmrirute.l = when Q is tensile
#
'.' --*""*'ffi **TffiTffi
f irmr
whorc A - roqulrtd a,rpa (in,2)

S = Allowabie t€n6ils stress (psi)

E = joint efficiency

Details of various ring attachments are shown in Fig. 13.14.

Example 13.4. Deterrnine the required thicknesses of the 20_ft shell and the
conical reducer in Example 13.3. Also detemine the required stiffening ring
arca at point c. I,et S :
20,000 psi, E = 1.0, and CA :0.O.

Sohttian

20-Ft Shell

From Example 13.3 the forces at point c are

No : -2777 lVn'
ffd = 2940lblin.

and the forces at point / are

Nt : -2177 lbln.
Nd = 4236 lblin.

z
Thus forces at point d control. From Eq. 13.24,
P..niisibl. wh.r. rEf (ft bor+.E)
pldl! thi.tn... i5 nor 6v.tiir.
4236
'- 2o"ooo x lo

kt
= 0.21 in.
4t
, tf-

. 9.
t=i6-' Y-J Not P.rh'.3rbrc
Figurol3.14 som€ Fmi.libl. qnd noip6rml$lble d.lcik ot compr€$ioo'ringFiuicturo conJ?udioi. (cour-
Then
!,6!y of {|. Amlricon Peholcum lnrtituL.)

f.: o.oo+z

actual tensile r*rr = ffi = 7530 psi

493
 .91 IIAT IOTTOM TANK! 13.3 APr 620 TANKS 495

actuel compressive sress = ffi = +S+O Vsi actual compressive ,o"r. = o%-
u.t)6 /)
= 5710 Psi
x
allowable compressive stess from Eq. 13.25 = l.g x allowable compressive stress from Eq. 13.25 - l'8 1q10 6875 = 7290 psi
8zl40psi 106 10.5625\
\-m-)=
From Eq. 13.28, ru=ffi=0.:o
7530
: 0.38
n =W:
7290
o.ts
20,000
0.302 + 0.30 x 0.78 + 0.78'? = 0.91 0K
4940
M = ,Ooo = O.SS use t = 11/16 in. for conical hansition section
0.38'? + 0.38 x 0.59 + 0.592 =0.72 < 1.0 or user=9/16in. shell.
Compression Ring
Conical Transition Section
From Example 13.3 the discontinuity force at point c is
From Example 13.3, forces at point , are
H = -3927 lb/in. (inwards)
N, = 849 lb/in.
w. = 0.6 (120X0.s625)
Ne = 6847 tb/in.
= 4.93 in.
and from Eq. 13.24 / rtn \ (0.6875)
Wt'" = O'6 {;+ |
\u. /u// '
6847
' = 20,000 = 6.48 in.

: 0.34 in. Na : 2940 lb/in.

Forces at point c are given by

No, = -3927 lblin'
Q: C3927)(6.48) + 2940(4.93) + (-3927)(r2o)
N, : -3927 lblin. : -482,190 lb
l/a : 4158 lb/in.
From Eq. 13.30,
L€t
", _
482,190
t = 11/16 n. 15,000

= 32.15 n.2 required area

Then
available area = (0.6875X6.48) + (0.5625X4.93)
, 0.6875 = t.25 |It.-
R= 120 = 0.0057 needed area = 31.25 - 7 .23 = 24.O2 in.2

actual rensile rt
"rr
=
ffi = 6o5o psi Use 2 in. x 12 in. ti"g. I
 .9O ILAT IO'TOM TANKS
I3.4 ANS 896.I AI.UMINUM TANKS 497
I3.4 ANSI 896.I ALUMINUM TANKS
lilllowing expression, which is similar to Eq. 13.5:
The rules for ANSI 896.1 Tanksr follow the same general
criteria as ApI 650
rules. Differences in various requirements between
ai-uminum anJ sieet tants are
given in Table 13.1. , = r"oo
- Y:-,e)I
897 sin 0
(13.34)

| 3.4. I Design Rules

ANSI 896.1 uses an approximate equation which, for the design of conical
The design of dome roofs is obtained from Eq. lrxrf.s, is given by
9.2b and is based on a factor of
safety of 4.0. Hence,
D \/F
-
t=-
1414 sin 0
( 13.35)
o.06258
\R/t)' where r = required thickness of cone roof (in.)
Using E = 8,000,000 psi at 400T, this equation reduces to D = diameter of tank (ft)
R- P = dead plus live loads (psf)
t= (13.31) :
ToiYP 0 angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)

where r = thickness of dome roof

The required area at the cone roof-to-shell junction is obtained from Eq . 1 3 . 8
R = radius of roof (ft) its

p= dead and live loads (psf)

PD2
-- 8o sin d
(13.36)
The required area at the roof-to_shell junction
is obtained from Eq. 13.4:
where A = required area (in.')
O_DRpcos0 (r3.32) P = dead and live loads (psf)
4o
A conservative value of cos 0 is taken as 1.0. Hence,
D= diameter of tank (ft)
o: allowable tensile stress (psi)
PRD
^_ (13.33)
0 = angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)
4o
where A = required area at dome roof_to_shell junction (in.z) The design of aluminum shells is based on Eq. 13.15, which is based on the
"one-foot" method given by
P = dead and live loads (psf)
4 = spherical radius of dome roof (ft)
2.6D (H
I:_----.4 - tt G
(r3.37)
D= diameter of shell (ft)
o= allowable tensile shess of roof, shell, or junction where r: shell thickness (in.)
area, whichever
is less (psi) D = tank diameter (ft)
The required thickness of a self-supporting conical 11 = height of liquid (ft)
roof is obtained flom the
G = specific gavity
 498 FLAT IOTTOM TANKS BIETIOGRAPHY

/: ulkrwablc tcnsile stress ol'alurninum (psi) dcsign of components. Instead it outlines the general requirements associatc(l
e = joint efticiency with design loads, earthquakes, allowable compressive stress in columns, radio-
graphic examination, and so on. Most of the requirements in API 650 can bc
ANSI B96.1 does not contain mles for intermediate applied to AWWA tanks. Some exceptions are given in Table 13.1.
stiffening
'iilio.
rings. For open
top tanks, a stiffening ring is required, *hich
is basJ;; a. i" *,,
Il is defined as the overall height of the t"*
,J-E{I.'liio;;";;". ""*, REFERCNCES

- _ PHD, (FS)
(13.38)
l. Weldcd Steel Tanks for Oil StoraSe, 7th ed., API Standard 650, American Petroleum Institute,
48 E Q/D) Washiqton, D.C., 1980.
2. Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large, welded, Lout-Pressure Storage
In an elastic body, Tanks, 7th ed., API Standard 620, American Petroleum lnstitute, washington, D.C., 1982.
1. American Nation^l Standard for welled Aluminum-Allo! Storage fdt tJ, ANSI 896.1-1981,
America[ National Standards Institute. New York. 1981.
f = Ee ( 13.3e)
4. AwwA Standotd fot Welded Steel Elev.tted Tanks, Standpipes, and Resen'oirs for water
and for a stiffener in bending, the relationship StoraS?, AWWA Dl00-73, Afterican Water Works Association, New York, 1973.
between strain and curvarure r 5. Zick, L. P., and R. V. Mcclath, "Design of Large-Diameter Cylindrical Shells," presented
at the 33rd Midyear Meeting of the American Pekoleum Institute, 1968.
t
t= (13.40) 6, Karcher, G. G., "Stresses at the Shell-to-Bottom Junction of Elevated-Temperature Tanks" in
2R l98l Proceedings-Refning Department, 46th Midyear Meeting, American Petroleum Insti-
tute, May 1981.
Hence, from Eqs. 13.39 and 13.40

t =f BIBTIOGRAPHY
2D 2E
Steel Tanks for Liquid Storase-Steel Plate Engineering Data, Vol. l, Americao hon and Steel
Substituting-this expression into Eq. 13.3g Institute, Washington, D,C,, 197 6.
and using a factor of safety 2.0, the
expression for the required section modulus
Z becoires

z = 0.084 PHD' (13.4r)

f
where Z = required section modulus (in.3)
P : wind pressure on tank (ps|
Il = height of tank (ft)
D= diameter of tank (ft)

/: allowable stress of stiffening ring (psi)

I3.5 AWWA STANDARD DIOO

Most water tanks are built in accordance with

the ..American Water Works
As.sociation Standard for Welded Steel
Elevated Tankr, Si_Jpio".,'_o n"r"._
voirs for water Storage.'a The standard gt";,
f"* ;;";#"
;;";ons rbr the
 CHAPTER 14
HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

Rod bdffle h.or €x.honsers. (Courr$y of ihe

Noorer corpororion, Sr. touis.)

501
 HEAT TRANSFER IOUIPMENT

Heet transt'er cquipment is used in many applications such as boilers in power raat aNo
atiEu tYPl5
plants, heat exchangers in the petrochemical industry, and condensers and evap- .'AT|oNARY I{€AO TY?II

orators in heating and refrigerating systems. Heat transferequipment varies from '1t'-ii'
miniature heat exchangers a few inches in diameter to power boilers over 100 ----tlll!-i l,-tn
E L
ft long. This chapter presents the theoretical background and design equations
A flxlo Tuscs8fEr
of heat exchangers and boilers. ONE PA3s SHETL LIKE 'A" STATIONARY
-lL---,?'-"-'---'JU
H(AO

!i i:
---{11=i l-\
-_

14.I TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS F ll,l

la-llrI
fIXED TUBESHEI
-Jl TWO PrSs SHEI! LIKt "8" STATIONARY IIIAD
Heat exchangers in the United States are normally designed according to the WITTI TONGITIJDINAL AAfRC
-tL---.>
Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA)I and the
ASME Code, VI[. In general, TEMA requirements are a supplement to the a I G N
ASME requirements, for they tend to include areas not discussed in the ASME. !ii!r I ftxED TutEska6t
IIKT 'N" STAT|oNARY I]EAO
Most of the TEMA design e.quations relate to tubesheet design when affected by BONNET (NftCRAI
differential pressure and temperature, expansion joints, bustles, and so on.
TEMA uses alphabetical designation to differentiate between vadous types of p
frequendy used components. This is illustrated in Fig. 14.1. The components H
OI,i'!;IDE PACKCD FLOATING
can be interchanged to form a wide variety of heat exchanger configurations, as c 'IEAO
+J11------
shown in Fig. 14.2.
Their rules, which apply to thft€ different classes of construction depending ----Lfn\ \
s .---LI $.=.!a_(n===
on the severity of service, are referred to as R, C, or B. A summarv of the J FLOATING HEAD
differences between these classes is given in Table 14.1. WTH DEVICE
'ACKNG

N
I
Tqble 14.l Some TEMA Requiremenfs of Closses R, C, qnd B Exchongers PUTI THROIJOh fLOATING HEAO

K o_-
CIIANNEL II '1-1-------------\\
|| ,l
u
Paragaph KETILf TYPE RE'OILEN
fu-
IJ-IIJBf SUNOLE
Service t.l2 Severe Moderate General
Corrosion allowance 1.15 i rn. * in.
-l in. D x __'ii', __
(cafton steel) w --r-€:++:.,:zlTT
-----t=:E-+ \ lu
6---r=--l
Shell diameter 3.3 8-60 in. 6-60 in. 6-60 in. SPECIAL TiIGH PICSSUR€ CTOSUNE
€xrERft^trY slatED
FIOAIINC TUBTSHEEI
Minimum thickness of 4.42 i h. I in. carbon I in. carbon
longitudinal baffle ste€l steel Figurs l,(.1 Vorio{rs IEMA component6. (Courtesy of the Tutulor Exchong€r Monufo€turoi! Alsociotion, Inc.)
I in. atloys in. alloys
Minimum tie rod 4.71 ; in. i io. "1
i in.
diameter
Prefened gasket 6.32 !+ None None
contact surface
tolerance
Minimum bolt size l0. t ?n. s j in. t in.

503
 AJW
Fis'lrc l,{.2 (conrinued)

I4.2 TEMA DESIGN OF TUBESHEETS IN U-TUBE EXCHANGERS

The basic equation for the design of heat exchangers is obtained from Examples
7.l and 7 .2
^s
|.'APaz
= for simply supported Plate
" T
0.7 5Pa2
o= -7= for fixed plare

Letting G = 2a and solving for the required thickness gives

, typicol h6ot er(chons.r confisurorion5. (Court€r), of

:'l*: rho tvbolor Exchonser /$dnurodurers
].o _
, =ttE {', rornxedprate

5(M
50s
 5OO HIAT TRANS;IR IOUIPMTNT I4.2 TEMA OESION OF TUBESHETTS IN U-TUBE EXCHANOTNS 507

whcrc Cr is a constent that is based-on such parameters

as ligament efficiency,
tubc.stiffening effect, and method of edge suiport. n" fiV"e
for the
required thickness of a tubesheet in bending is based "q""tion_ g.77.
on a t^t6i C,
Hence.

'-7 Vst,
-_FG (14.1)

where I = required thickness of tubesheet

G = diameter
P = applied pressure
S = ASME allowable tensile stress
F = factor equal to I 25 for simply supported plate and I
.
. 00 for a fixed
plate.

Tle $earing stress in the tubesheet at the outer tube perimeter must
- also be Fisurs l,{.3
checked and kept below an allowable stess. The
tota force W aue io press*e
in the tubesheet of Fig. l4.3is
C : perimeter of outer tubes, as defined in Fig. 14.3
W=PA d"= outside diameter of tube
The shear area A" through the outer perimeter is obtained
from Fig. 14.3 and is p= distance between tubes

e,= cr( -e) Example 14.1. A tubesheet for U-tube exchanger has a 12-in. diameter and is
subjected to a design pressure of 100 psi. If the tube layout is as shown in Fig.
Hence the shearing shess o ls expressed as
14.4 and S :17,000 psi, what is the required thickness? Assume the edge to
be simply supported.
w PA
A" Cr(l - d,/p) (14.2)

The allowable shearing s[ess in the ASME Code, VIII-I, is given by

a= 0.8S

Thus Eq. 14.2 becomes

T _ 0.3tDL lP\ (14.3)

0 - dJpt\i)
w\erc DL = 4Af C
A= area of tubesheet Figuro l,{,,(
within outer tube perimeter
 IOI HIAT IRAN3IIR IOUIPAATNT
I4.3 THTORffICAI ANALYSI5 OT TUBISHEITS IN U-TUBE EXCHANGTRS 509

Solullon, F'ronr Lq. 14. l, :

where M7 bending moment of tube
Er : modulus of elasticity of tubes
- _ (r.2s)\r2)
2 11 = moh€nt of inertia of tube
= 0.58 in. I= baffle spacing as shown in Fig. 14.6
From Eq. 14.3 with 0 : rotation of tube at tubesheet junction

4 = factor relating effect of baffles on tube-end bending moment

A = rR2 : 98.17 in.2 given by Fig. 14.6

and
Similarly, the radial bending moment in the tubesheet is given by

C = 34.97 in. ,. = __:,-

NErlrF,a,r
M, ( 14.))
_ 0.31(4 x 98.17 /34.97, / too \ TA'l
-
(1 - 0.7s/r) \17,000/
M, : ndial bending moment in tubesheet
= 0.08 in.
N = number of tube holes
Thus f,*, = 0.58 in. I Ar = radius increment as shown in Fig. 14.5

a = radius of tubesheet
r4.9 THEORETTCAI ANArySts oF TUBESHEETS tN U_TUBE
EXCHANGERS

Gardner in 1959 published a papef that explained the

interaction between the
tubes and tubesheet in U-rube ireit exchangers. Gardner
assumeJthe interaction
to be represenr€d by Fig. 14.5. Hence thJ bending in th";1;.;-
,r= -nTt (r4.4)

Fn

DX 1 2 3Or
More
o 4.OO 400
o.2 3.83 3a3
OA 3.69 3.70
o.6 359 3.60
o8 3.52 3.53
1.O 3.OO 3.43 3.46
F'sur6 la.5 (R€f. 2) Figure 1,t.6 (RcI. 2)
 I)clining I4.3 THEORETICAT ANALYSIS OI TUSTSHETTS IN U.TUBI TXCHANGTRS 5l I

for fixed edge ( 14. r0)

IIU")
'= cry#)"'
(14.6)

where D* is the modified flexural For simply supported tubesheets, the moment at the edge is not zero because the
rigidity of the tubesheet and ly' is the total
number of tubes. The differential erquation outer tubes have a bending moment that is transferred to the tubesheet. For this
of the bending ofa plate as given by
Eq. 7.7 becomes boundary condition, the value ofAl is given by

dlt d (.dw\l _ e .,/d,u\

drlr dr| El ] - o.' ,\d,) (14.7)
A1

This equation can be solved in terms

ofBessel functions. For
for simply supported edge (14.1l)
plate, the solution can be expressed a uniformly loaded
as
With the value ofA; established for the two boundary conditions, the values of
. =uJ-{1g1_!1_ Afto@") _ r"(U)t} (14.8)
M,, M,, and Q can be obtained from Eqs. 7.3a, 7.3b and 7.10 as follows:

dw pa3 / -I\ _ u,: r*fi{o + p+y - alro14 - 5Or,<rr]}

dr= o.\zu2)LU-Alt(utl (r4.9)
t'0
w = deflection
a,= r' fir{o + p.t - elsaul +9nP4u,]} "'
P = applied pressure
9 = rafir,<u)
U.= (a
u=tr The maximum value of M, can be obtained from Eq. 14.12 for various
A= constant of integration boundary conditions and U values. Hence,
10, 1r = modified Bessel function of zero and
first order, respectively M'* = Pa2 F. (14.13)
D*= E*73
where F. : coefficient obtained from Fig. 14.7.
.E'*= effective modulus of elasticity of perforated tubesneer The maximum bending stress is given by
Z = thickness of tubesheet
t,r = effective poisson,s ratio of perforated tubesheet ' =e!e\
lt \T/ (14.14)
a = radius of tubesheet
where r; = ligament efficiency of perforated tubesheet in bending
r = radius of a given point on tubesheet
d : tube diameter :p - d
p
p= tube pitch
Also the maximum value of Mr in the tubes can be expressed as
For fixed tubesheets, the rohti,on
at the edge is zero and Eq. 14.9 can
solved forA,: be
maxMT =
i(#),", (l4.ls)
 ,22

.20

.18

.16

74

12

.10

.oa

.ou I

""1 234567
.o2 |
rigurc 1,1.8 (ReI.2)
u .t , Or-U 6 7 8 9
" 10

Fisurs ra.; Equations 14.16 and 14.17 arc combined in a plot, as shown in Fig. 14.9.
Ger. 2l

*lY€ . 4 = coefficient obtained from Fig. 14.8. Example 14.2. Find the thickness of the tubesheet in Example 14.1 if
The interaction between the tubeshe"t
,
oy combining Eq. 14.6 with Il"
ttii"t n"r. _O tt e pressure is illustrated E* : 9.0 x 106 psi lt* : 0.3
= !a: Etvng
N= 88 Ir = O'0166

(:)=h Er=30x 106 psi n= 3.46

l= 12 in.

t r-zts T
- AA (14.16)

where

1a\
L l
^=ftztl=il4f.Nr,lt/t
E+ Iasl
Also Eq. 14.13 can be expressed
as

/l\=
\qo/ ^'
6F^U2n
or

5t2
ff: ar.utu (14.17) Fisurg 1,{.9 (Ref. 2)
 drAr la srlR laulPMlNT
I4,4 BACKGROUNO OF THE ASMT DESIGN TQUATIONS FOR IUBCSHTETS 515
Solullon. tct ?.= 0.24 in. Then

(9.0 x
^* _ 12(1 106X0.24)r
_ 031) 11,390

U.:(a=18.78
T=THIcKNESS Or PERFORAIED PIAIE
From Fig. 14.7,

f. = 0.008 (conservative)
,=10--9'7s=0.r,
and from Eq. 14.14,
< 0.6
(6)(0.008)(100)/ 6
o_ Y (,6 o.s
0.2s \o.z+) > o.4
o= 12,000 psi OK
I H o.s
UI

r4.4_-.BACKGROUND OF THE-li_t4E
DESTGN EQUATTONS FOR
TUBESHEETS IN U-TUBE EXCHANGERS

The ASME Code, VII_I, uses the

sheets. The tigament efficiencv
method in- Section 14.3 for designing
tube- o.1 02 03 04 05 06 08 1.o
4^obtained from o',D#Jiii.Jrk, is sum_ LtcaMENT EFFrcrEt{cY, ? =+cq
manzed in Figs. 14. t0 and 14. il
. Because the diamet , oiti" ouirt"
ls normally less than the tubesheet tuu. ,o* TAIANGULAB PITCH
dlameter, an adjustment is made
t4. t4.t3. The tubesheet is assumed ," to Gardner,s Figure 14.10 (Ref. 3)

a and an outside ring of outer

radius ,. Accordingly,
,
iirilr"i"Tllj,. r"or,
"r"riri.ii"Fig. 14.9 must be modified
ft"-y,io_ot b/a. A sample of the curves
::.J.j:.,
ruSgr_o_up on Heat Exchan8ers
developed by the ASME
is shown in nigs. r+. r z anJi+ifr ,
r,xpressing Eqs. t4.16 and 14.17 rlr. .r I .os.
in rerm's oi r;;;;;;;;;;". ^ g,"". Also Eqs. 14.16 and 14.17 can be expressed as

, = T2 P ,".
(14.18)
",e.J )t2 a2 )t'rlo'" '
where f = 6F^
c,=+s
r, : otl(f)
110
(14.19a)
 6 HIAT TRANSITR IQUIPMINT I4.4 BACKOROUND OT THT ASME DISION TQUATIONS FOR TUBESHETTS 517

6.00
4.00

3.00
-0.1
\
2.OO

\
SIII'AFE P|ICII ROTATED SOI'ARE PITCH
T-THICX ESS OF PERFORATED PLATE 1.00
0.80
1.O
0.60
09 0.50

0.40
o8
0.30
o:l C6

2 0.20
o.6
2
o
o 05
OA 0.r0
0.04
uI o3
0.06
a2 0.05
0.04
o.l
0.03
oo rtl
o.2 0:i o4 05 05 oa o.o2
LGAmENT EFFrcrENcy , - PFd'
SQTJAFE PITCH
Fisure l4.l I (Ref. 3)
o.2 0.3 0.40.s 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.O 3.0 4.0 5.0
T/ c^
Expressing Triangular pitch
Figvre 14.12 (Coud6s), ot ihe Amsricon Sociaty of Mechonicol Engineers.)

D
K' F4. 14.19a becomes
a
G
a ,: of rlZ,,
(l4. r9b)

and
where /* is obtained from Figs. 14.14 and 14.15.

li'
"r*:
Example 14.3. Determine the thickness of the tubesheet of Example 14.2
2K' using ASME's Eq. 14.l9b.
 t tl IAT TTANIIII IOUIPMINT
I4.5 THEORETICAT ANATYSIS OF FIXCD TUBESHEETS 519

(
;; \,
t 66
,) FfiF (/
2AAeA
I*AE / er=6o"
ile\
\7 \
SOUARL
P]TCH
ROIATTD SOUARI
P TCH

TRIANGUTAR
PlTCH

(.Ya K: bA
Fisur. l,l,l/a Fis'rra l,(.15
(Court sy of th6 Am6ricon Soci€ty oI ntechoni.ol Enginsers.)

I4.5 THEORETICAT ANATYSIS OF FIXED TUBESHEETS

The shess analysis of fixed tubesheets in heat exchangers is very complex due
to the large number of variables that affect the analysis such as difference in tube
and shell strain, the ratio of shell and tubeshe€t stiffnesses, effective applied
pressure, and relative thermal expansion of shell and tubes. The development of
Tlar the simplified TEMA design equations for determining fixed tubesheet tlickness
SOUARE PIrcH is based parfly on the theoretical work done by Gardnel'5 and Miller.6 From Eq.
Figure l,l.l3 (Court .y ot rh€ Arn.ricon So<ie, of riG.honicol Engin.er3) 7.9 the differential equation for the bending of circular plate is given by

I d [,d lt d (.a\ll g (r4.20a)

r drl'drlr dr\ dr/l) = D
Soluti^oy._ From Fig. 14.4, a : 5.0 and D = 6.0. Hence K, = t.? and
q = o.25.
The next s€ction shows that in a fixed tubesheet the quantity q, which is the
From Fig. 14.15,
local pressure at radius r, is not a constant. Rather it is a function oftll given by

f+ : o.sz Q:Cz'rKlm-2w)
From Eq. l4.l9b with G - 3.0, where g: local pressure
C2 = constant
r = 3.0(0.s2) (0.25X17,000) Nt(d!;-t)Er
Kr = tube bundle stiffness =
= O.2A in. I R = bolt circle
 !20 HIAT IRANSFIR TQUIPMENT I4.5 THIORTTICAL ANATYSIS OT FIXTD TUSESHEETS 521

:
L lcngth ol tubcs l'he valuc ol C2 can then be deternlinctl liorn this cqualittn as

4: outside diameter of tube

a,:
- r'#ll
r = thickness of tube wall \t4.22)
"f-----"----=tt-l
,,? = distance tubesheet edges move with respect to each other. fzzi,,rfr
}1, = deflection of tubesheet
Now define
Equation 14.20a can be written for perforated
tubesheets subjected to pressure Q" = FqP (14.23)
4

where qo :
local pressure at radius a.
*ffi*2,'fi-*#*,ff**oo=o Then from Eqs. 14.20b and 14.21,

Z,(x.),,
where
^
-,
,a =--
x. Zz@.) h6) - " (r4.24)
2 zi&"\
, = (4\*
*,/ (r) = Br
'1-IJ'-"'" zl?.)
\D
and and from Eqs. I 4.20e and 14.2Of

f rr-,r\ I | (l- ttt I

p* = E*73 lzz6.) + vzltr;l - alz'G) -::------r!'zt9a)l
xa
M" _ L-- x4 I L I
12(l - p*21 BD*
0" zl(x") + Hzte")
This equation can be solved in terms of \14.25)
Bessel functions. For symmetnc loads,
the solution can be taken as
or

q=C2[27@)+HZ2@)] zl(x)
(r4.20b)
H=-
. =
ffiV,<ol - Z1@) + HLzze) - z+(x)l| (14.20c) ZL@.)

(14.26')
e=ffifzX,l+Hz!(x)l (14.zod)
The value of 11 is based on the edge condition of the tubesheet. For fixed
: 4:
{1", . (*)'r-,1 -,f,,<,t - (*1,*111
tubesheet, 0 and Eq. 14.26 gives
", ft
(14.20e) ,=-t# for fixed tubesheets (14.27)
whcre the Z functions are as defined in
Chapter 7 and C and II are consranm to :
be det^ermined from the boundary condidons. Similarly, for simply supported tubesheet M" O and E9. 14.25 becomes
Definrng P as the average pressure acdng
on the fubesheet, its total value is
[zzb) + l0 -
,.. = -\ffi] ttt/x"Vt,- r\ simply supported hrhesheets
, =
# I"
*o * = r,z&)lt - rffi] (14.21)
"t 04.28\
 i|IAI IiAII'IIR IQUIPMINT

vuluc or',r,,, the H constants can be carculated

f1t^u.uiu"n from and Eqs. 14.27
f.o_fi.'il.;j.",i"i? *a C, ar"
14.2[1. Constanr C2 c{rn then be determi""d
known, the of the benolng moment
at any rocation in the tubesheet
-magnitude
is obtained from F4. l4.2oe. The maximum uAu" oi tf,l.M.
obtained from 84. l4.ZOe and *'*t
---- "" ui url g,u"n ,. ,,
normally u,
"*p."r."a
M^ = pazF^
(14.29)
where fi is obrained from Fis. 14.16.
The maximum bending str6ss is

=T (1)'" (14.30)
"
For large values of -r, the Z val.uls can
be approximated by those gtven in
Table 7.1 and rhe quantities Fo and F^."n
u"
"' "'"
"ili..r"J ^i
I
F=
7{l + t/-X.l for fixed tubesheets 1234567A9

t/i (14.3 t)
Fieur€ 14.16
F^ =
=-:
IX"
I"rom Fig. 14.16, F. = 0.059 and T : 0.25. From Eq. 14.30,
and

,+P(ort)ro o'nr
F :
;O 2\/-2x)
+ for simply supported tubesheets ":
(14.32) a : 20,390 psi I
F- -,-n/4
''' 2x"
I4.6 TEMA FIXED TUBESHEET DESIGN
Example 14.4. Determine the stoess at the edge of a fixed Development of the TEMA simplified equations are based on Eq. 14.23 and can
tubesheet of thick_
? = 0.50 in. if the eeometry L u, ,to*n?
ness
lb/in.3. E* = 9 x 106 psr, p*
n!:'il;;?:
p = icrii-pri. = 52,800 generdly$e<fi.r'idedinto.thraseparateieps-..The first is determining an equiv-
=-0..1. -a alent local pressure on any given tube. The second step is establishing an
equivalent general pressure on an equivalent tubesheet. The third is incorpo-
Solution
rating the first two steps into the differential equation of the tubesheet that is
considered as a plate on elastic foundation. These three steps discussed in the
D.=q;#H#=103,020 next three sections are based on th work of Gardner. ? The notations used are the
same as those given by TEMA.I

o = (^\r'_ x 52.800\o,s
-\/2 ro3"oro-/ I4.6.1. locol Equivoleni Pressure
"-\o-) =I'0062
xa: 9(6) = 6.037 One of the main assumptions made by TEMA in the analysis of tubesheets is that
the tubes are uniformly distributed tbroughout the tubesheet. Referring to Fig.
 524 HIAT TNANS;ER IOUIPI,ITNT 14.6 TTMA FIXED TUBESHITT DESION

r,:r-Z\tt /d. - ztY/

14.17, it is seen that the total tbrce 4 in one tube due to
acting on the face of the tubesheet iS dxpressed as
a tubeside pressure li
:
"
N number of tubes
o= rl# - r(d' i "D'z1 = r#1, - i(+n 4: tubeside pressure
t= thickness of tube

Similarly, the total force 4 in one tube due to shellside pressure P, is expressed
n = nAf' (14.33)
where A = ra2/N
a : inside radius of tubesheet o:*l#-ry1=*+l'-i(*il
4 = outside diameter of tubes
4= force in tube due to pressure ,q acdng on face of tubesheet 4: nAf, (14.34)

where [ = force in tube due to pressure P, acting on face of tubesheet

4: shellside pressure

Besides forces 4 and force F" also acts on the tubes of Fig. 14.3 that
4 a third
is caused by such factors as thermal stresses, restraint due to other tubesheet, or
other unbalanced forces in the heat exchanger. This force is expressed as
'ti_il ||ttttPs F*= nt(d. -
li
wrl
t)on ( r4.3s)

where F- : tube force

or = longitudinal stress in tubes

Actual Contiguration The total summation of Eqs. 14.33,14-34, and 14.35 is equal to an assumed
equivalent force q acting on an equivalent tubesheet of radius r. Hence,

4na2
N
= E- n+ F* (14.36\

or

s=@f,-u)+\u,-ttot, (t4.37)

The axial stress dr in F4. 14 -37 can be written as

Equlvalent Confl gurafl on

Fieuf.e 11.17
,,=!,6,- u,,",) ( 14.38)
 iIiIO HIAT TRANSIIR IOUIPMINT
I4.6 TEMA FIXTD TUBESHTET DCSIGN
whcrc Ii, [x)dulus ol.clasticity ol.tubcs
wlrcrc L : length of tube
€i = longitudinal strain of tubes
w: deflection of tubesheet
pr : poisson's ratio of tubes
c, : coefficient of thermal expansion of tube
oc, = clrcumferential stress of tube
a1, = longitudinal stress of
AI, = in tube length
tube "1tunt"
0r : temperature change in tube
The circumferential shess due
to 4 and i can be expressed by
suhstituting Eq. 14.40 into 14.39 gives

"'=(#),'(*)- q: @t- P,n ++(d.- rl"(Y- ",4]

(r4.41)
Thus Eq. 14.38 becomes
.
oh: E,eh.
"l(ry)'-(*)-l
"[(#), - (*)-] (r4.39) lluation 14.41 has three unknown quantities: q, w, and LL..

T"^I1r",9t ** Eq. 14.39 can be.obtained Fig. 14.18. The strain of 14.6.2 Generol Equivolent Pressure
tube at a distance r fromthe centerline .r ,r,. lrom
r,."i i_ir,_g". i,j*L*"o
a

", 'l he total longitudinal force

W1 in the bonnet due to tubeside pressure f is shown
in Fig. 14.19 and is expressed as
a,=a-!t-L-o,r, (14.40)
Wn : ta'P, (14.42)

where W1 = longitudinal force in bonnet.

If the tubesheet is assumed as an equivalent solid plate subjected to a general

cquivalent pressure P, then the total load on the tubesheet is

Wp = ra'P (r4.43)

where P = general equivalent pressure

Wo = total load on tubesheet due to pressure P

Because W|, is not necessarily equal to w', the unbalanced force transmitted
through the shell is

W: 1ra'(n - P) (14.44)

where ll{ = unbalanced force on tubesheet.

The longitudinal shess in the shell can be expressed as

w (14.4s)
Figur6 14.18
nt!(Do - ts)
 .,.,6r$g.t,.rr:t,r^tr1rtii4t;ti.
14.6 ilMA flxlD luBllllllr DttloN lt9
Flnally, the value of €,r can be written as

+ = ^! - (4,47)
",e,
whcre d" : coefficient of thermal expansion in shell
AZ, = change in shell lengtrh
4 = temPerature change in shell
And the value of 4", is

*,=o#* (14.48)

Substituting Eqs. 14.44, 14.46, 14.47 , and 14.48 into Eq. 14.45 gives

ot=*o.m-ee;ln (14.49)

Equation 14.49 has two unknowns, Atr" and P. It is also based on Eq' 14.47
which does not take into consideration the strain due to an expansion joint.

When the dhell has an expansion joint, E4. 14.47 must be modified accord-
ingly. In Fig. 14.20a the expansionjoint can be approximated as shown. The flat
FigurE l,t.l9 plite aD in Fig. 14.?-Ob is assumed fixed at points a and b' The total deflection
of the shell is given by
where D, - outside diameter of shell LL"= 1" + La"Q * 6 (14.s0)
= thickness of shell
r"
where 6 = deflection of expansion joint.
ob = longitudinal stress in shell
The expansion joint deflection 6 can be expressed in terms of two components
as
and the longitudinal snain is given by

6=t"+6, (14.51)
,*=!6r- 1",o*'1 (r4.46)
where 6. : deflection due to mechanical load
where d, : modulus of elasticity of shell 6p = deflection due to pressure load

e6 = longitudinal sfrain of.shell Furthermore, the deflection due to mechanical load 6, can be written as
ratio of shell
" = Iroisson's
tr

o" : circumferential sness of shell a": + w,"l (14.52)

{rw
 ,.n.rnier'_lrti,iirllilrw, ]lt
14,6 TIMA ftXNO TUBrSl{ilT DllION tOl

Fisur. 14.21

s
2n=Lyra-!(w+w+wet)t3
8 EIi 3 EjIi - lMol"
2 EIr
(r4.54)

Similarly, the slope is

+w)lz +MoI
"' :!w,il2
e -L(w+w"
6 EiL 2 EiIi Ey'i
(14.55)

where D; : outside diamet€r of expansion joint as defined in Fig. 14.19

Ei = modulus of elasticity of expansion joint
Figur. I ,1.2O

/i = mornent of inertia of expansion joint

where 51 : spring constant of expansion joint = 4,24(Dt + D)tj
l7r, = load on shell from expansion joint I - lengtlt of expansion joint
= 1rt,(D"- t,)P"
n : number of convolutions in expansion joint
Substituting Eqs. 14.45, 14.46,14.51, and 14.52 flta 14.50 gives 4 = thickness of bxpansion joint
joint
L!"= w t/ + ^\ + wF) (r4.s3) l7e; = pressure force in expansion
- -t&- 4,4 +E(r
L E"r,t,@;4--il* X)W =4tp?-
4'- o?tp.

*..Tf:ilTl5^l1l:.f gy,iq g/6" can be derived from Fig. r4.2r by

9: to Letting 0 : 0 and substituting Eq. 14.54 into 14.55 gives
assumrng me expansionjoint be subjested to the forces shown. Thi deflection
oue Io priessurc torce Woy end forceW" + +
obtained from stucturii analvsis as
Wpj Wo", and end moment M0 can be
u=ffi,w+w^rfr+#@l
 Conpulng thlr oquatlon wlth thc last tom of
Eq. 14.53 shows that Equation 14.54 has two unknowns,l, and P. It is also idontical to Eq' 14.49
lor hcat exchangers without expansion joints, that is, for Si '-+ o.
('.*) =r+---at- (14.56)
14.6.3 Relstionship Between Locol ond Equivolent Pregsure
and

Tho TEMA design equation for fixed tubesheets is based on F4s. 14.23,14.41,
I 2nl3 rnd 14.49. At r : 4 it is assumed that the quantity 2w in Eq. 14.41 is negligible.
ISj r2Ey'i Substituting Eq. 14.23 into Eq. 14.41 and equating the latter with Eq. 14.49
. tlsult,in the following expression:

P=Pr'-P!+Pa (14.60)
^' = 968,L"
,); (r4.57)
2n(D1 - D")3

P
r4'4' 14'48' 14 sc and the expressions ror Pi =
xrolr + 0.,UK(l.s
+/)l
.t:ii:tflTri HL w* afr woi +
:T*n{o.*lrsp*
-t I + r(r.5 +/r]
+=ffi_w*,,," ":
_(:)(j#)1,.,ffi])
* P) +
$1",<n - rt"(Do - ,sa + - Dhp"] o _ un,r, (o--rt'fu!__g!f\
[<o?
'- 1p"- a\ u )\-r+.nq /
This equation can be simplifed by letting .. E,t,(D" - t)
n=Effi@" 1s

I
Ir+"@"-t"t*t"1 Fe:0.2s+ tr - o.ol1e%&(ql]'A
J LZ4J (14.58)
E modulus of elasticity of tubesheet material
=
Hence,

The values P,', P:, P:, Pi can be simplified by letting

LL'
.-:_ a2
L =
E"tn(D. - t,\
d"-t .r d.-t
.......:-
d-2t - - l
frc * <4 - oztn 1r d,
L-'- "l1 8"t-\t - 1) - #r(D" - 2t)(D. - ,JP,] D"-t"-tu:G D"'2t"-2a=G
/t \p
*|.i-t/r-**a - t)
t,(D. h
(r4.se) (D.-2 z (D"-3t",
.,--_-_.*@"*,1r7@qrr'!l[t|ttEr|Eu|'mnr1* ,,,r..sr.tRtitrrttll]]]{{44e1

14.6 TIMA llxlD TUllSHllT DllloN ctt

Honco,

U =ffi;n + o.dr(r.s +nl

"'
=t*4{o'*Irr's + K(1'5 +Dr (+)('"5)t
,,-(#+)(w\
the stress in the tubesheet of the heat
3:Httf exchanger
"ti..L.iftrlate rrzo-*boruees
E : n x ld psi for tubesheet material on'lt"tnntout-lR pttct-t.
and shell
d" = 0.5 x 10-6 in./in."F
Iength of tubes = 144 in.
thickness of tubes = 0.065 fu.
f (assurne a simply supported
plare)
.= !,ZS
tubeside plessule = 75 psi (b)
concruTent shellside pressure
= 15 osi tigor'11.22
E, = 30 x 106 psi
d, = 6.5 x 10-6 in./in.gF From Se.tion 14.6.3
operating temperature of shell
= l87T Q7 x rO\(O.2s)(36 - 0.25) = 2N.73
operating tempexature of tubes
= ll9? K: (27 x 101(0.06s)(0.75 - 0.06s)
ambient temperature 70.F :
Solution. From Eq. 14.57
Fq = o 2s + (, 2s _, .,|#_qa#ft#% (#;l]'"
of Fq : l '8752

and from Section 14.6.1

tt = + 36xo.2sf = o.l6e8
f;1n in.a

a _ O6)Q7
"i -
x 106X0.1698)
= 165,300 lb/in.
t:t-i(*, 1
-@Xlxl?l)47=6t-- rr2o I 0.75 - 2 x 0.065
j =, * s(ry?E#H:1]q =l- +\ ,l 35.5
= 32 85
: 0.9146
OI

J= 0.0304
= 0.8750
 !36 HIAT TRANSfTN IQUIPMfNT
NOMENCTATURE
llcncc,
/r'\
1 + (0.0304X200. 73)(1.87 s'
7-)
Itll\:r-=
x [1 + 0.4(0.0304)(200.73)(l.s + 0.9146'
FLANOED 1I FLUED EXPANSION JOIN'I
/f,
=_ ""'
16 RO?7r
'
12.4428.-
: n.lnn
41.55

15
ilil||tl
___-/uuu\F._______
1 + (0.0304x200.73)(1.s7 s' l-.-------1
t s + 200.73(1.5+ 0.s75)l
EELLOWS EXPANSION JOINT
Fisur€ 1,t.23
{o.oro.orooltr.
_ rr.0 - 9.0304)/ot,; ll r,).I
\ 2 /\ 3s.52 lJ I4.7 EXPANSION JOINTS
l5 'fhe two most common types of expansion joints are the flanged-and-flued and
= nTarr<s.trst - 0.36s0)
the bellows, shown in Fig. 14.23. The flanged-and-flued expansion joints are
= 6.57 used where the deflection between the tubes and the shell is not very large. The
most frequently used method of analysis is that of Kopp and Sayre.E It treats the
joint as an equivalent rectangular structural frame with some modifications to
account for the inside and outside radii. Many experimental investigations have

x [9.5 x
been performed to verify Kopp and Sayre's method. The results have shown that
10 6(187 - 70) - (6.5 x 10-6)(119 _ 70) tbr most applications this method is satisfactory.
12.4428 Bellows are used for large deformations of the shell. The analysis based on
= 1.48 a NASA researche is similar to that of Kopp and Sayre in that the bellows are
treated as a structural frame with hoop stresses resisted by rings or equivalent
From Eq. 14.58 plate-and-shell segments of the bellows. A frequently used standard in the
united states is that of EJMA.I0
P=41.55-6.57+1.48
= 36.46 NOMENCTATURE
From Eq. 14.I
a = radius of tubesheet
. F2G2 P b = G/2
47" D. : outside diameier of tube
(1.2r2Q5.r2 36.46 F : modulus of elasticity of shell
4
E,r : modulus of elasticity of tube
: 8686 psi OK t G = diameter of tubesheet
 530 HIAI TRANSTTR IQUIP/IITNI
BIBLIOGRAPHY 539
/I, i: poisroo's r.ittio ol tubcshcct ntatcrial (r. Milfcr, K. A. G., "fhc Dcsign of l'ubc Pla(cs in Hc.rl Exchrngcrs," in l'r(!$ut? V(tii,l Ml
/r* : poisson's ratio of perforated plate P4ing Design Colletted Pape^ 1927 1959, Amcrican Socicty ol Mcchanical lirgirrccrs,
1960, p. 6'72.
o = allowable bending stress 7, Mcmo from G- P. Byme, Jr., Secretary ofthe Tubular Exchanger Manufacturcrs Associatk)n
to Members of the Technical Commiftee, dated January 3, 1964 regarding Standards Back-
K' = b/a ground Data prepared by Karl Gardner.

M, = radial bending moment in a tubesheet 8. Kopp, S. and M. F. Sayre, "Expansion Joints fo. Heat Exchangers," Contributed by the Heat
Transfer Division and presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Mechan-
Mr = tangentizl bending moment in a tubesheet ical Engitreers, New York, November 27th, 1950.
't. Analysis of Stresses in Bellorrs, Design Criteria and Test Resubs, Part l, Atomics Inter-
N : number of tubes national Repon NAA-SR-4527.

P = pressure 10, Standads of the Exponsion Joint Manufacturers Association,4th ed., Expansion Joint
Manufacturers Association, New York, l9?5.
P, = shell side pressure
4 = tubeside pressure BIBTIOGRAPHY
p = rube pitch
: Rubin, F. L., "What's lhe Difference Between TEMA Exchatrger Cl^sses,"? Hydroca/bon Prc-
g local pressure ce$in8, June 1980.
J = ASME allowable tensile stess Rubin, F. L. and N. R. Gainsboro, "Latest TEMA Standards for Shell-and-Tube Exchangers,"
Chemical Engineering, September 24, 1979.
Z = thickness of tubesheet Yokell, S., "Heat-Exchanger Tube-to-Tubesheet Connections," Cr"nical Engineering, Feh aty
8, 1982.
t = thickness
t" = thickness of shell
t, = thickness of tube
a" = coefficient of thermal expansion of shell
a, = coefficient of thermal expansion of tubes
n =(p-d)/d.

REFERENCES

Standads of Tubular Erchonper Manufecturers

Association,6th ed., Tubular Exchanger
Manufacuers Associarion. york,
Niw 1978.
Gardner, K. A., "Hear-Exchanser Tube-she€t D€sign_3. U_Tube and Bayonet_Tube
Jourrnl ol Applied Meclranics, American Soc",y Sheers,..
lf ,r4""_-Lat"*'i1r".", ,'S#:
O'Donrell, W. J., and T. Slot, ..Effective Elastic
Constants fo. Thiciperforatea plates wrttr
Squares and Triangular penet ation panerns,..
Noverbber 197t. American Society
A S!4! J*r;i ;I ;;;;;;;Ir'#"r'l*^o",
of Mechanical Ensineers.
A., ..Heat
Exchanger Tube_Sheer Design.,. Journal of
9**, ISociety
Amencar of Mechanical Engineers, Decembei tgag
Apptied Mechanics,
Gatdner. K. A.. "Heat Exchanser Tube-Sheet
Design_2 Fixed Ttbe Sheets,,, Jounat of
Applied Mechanics, American s;iety of Mechani.je nginee.., i;;; trr."' "-
 CHAPTER t5
VESSELS FOR HIGH
PRESSURES
I5.I BASIC EQUATIONS

This chapter presents some design aspects of solid and layered vessels with
pressures in the range of 10,000 to 100,000 psi and higher. In these high
pressures prestressing, or autofrettaging, becomes an important consideration in
the design.
It was shown in Eq. 8.1 that

PR.
t=. sE ,,,
- 0.6P

is the design equation for vessel shells. As the quantity (,SE - 0.6P) approaches
zero, the thickness approaches infinity. In other words, as the pressure increases,
the allowable stress of the shell material must be increased higher than 607o of
the design pressure for the equation to be valid. This increase in allowable stress
requires materials of high tensile and yield properties. The limitations ofEq. 8.1
for high pressures are usually overcome by using a different equation that is
based on the theory of plasticity as discussed later in this chapter.
Equation 8. 1 is shown in Fig. 5.6 as being very similar to Lame's Eq. 5.9 for
thick vessels. Disregarding extemal pressures, Eqs. 5.9 and 5.10 become
A thick-woll loyercd vsss€t (Courres), of rhe Nooter corpororion, Sr. touis.)

/ ,2\ (1s.1)
o,=P'lt-41
r-l
\
540 ot = P'
541
 512 vt33!13 foR HtoH PRtssulEs
r5.2 PRESTRESSTNG Ot WAU"S
whcrc
whcre W = strain energy
/,?\
P' = Pl ,!! "l t, : poisson's ratio
\r; - rfl E = modulus of elasticity
.
The shess distribution given by Eq. l5.l is
shown in Fig. 15. 1 for a vessel or, cz, 03 : principal shess
with rJ 11 = 2.2. The max-imum stress is in the
hoop direction and is at the inner
surface where r = ri. As the pressure is increased,
the stesses increase until bar stressed to the elastic limit in simple tension,
F-or a 02: a3 : 0 and the
they reach a maximum limiting stress where cncrgy of distortion expression becomes
rainre is assumJ ti oc-cur. r,o. trrin
vessels the ASME Code assrirnes that failure
occurs *f,"oG-ii"ra poin, l,
reached. This failure criterion is conveni*t
*a
sfess tleory. In thick vessels the crirerion usually""lf"i
t tir"'rni*iriut pnocipat
;p;Iil f;;;i" mareriats
w:--6-
0 I u\ol
is the energy of dislortion theory. This trr""q,
-combination .lt"Jil;i
tl,;lrrii.o"
in a body under any of sfesses begins only when""uor,the", lror a pressure vessel with the tbree principal stresses given by Eq. 15.1, the
TI,I)oi",
*oCy .I per unit volume absorbed at trrefiiit cnergy of distortion expression is
Sstorrion
^s:11 energy of distortion
stain
is Squar to tfre
absorbed per unit volume at any poi* in u
to the elastic limit under a state of.umaxral
i*
.,r"rr"O
+ De),
test. The equation that expresses this theory
i, giu"n iV--
"'* """,
stress as occurs in a simple t€nsion
-o (#
/t + p\",f ,'; .f1tY
* = \!t<r, - oz)2 * (sz - o), * (o3 - c1)21 (1s.2)
=
\- l \r;- ri/ \r/
Itecause Ws, : l4lr, the maximum pressure at which yield is assumed to occur at
the inner surface is given by

'.:($(T)Gl (15.3)

It is interesting to nole that when the axial strain is assumed to be zero, the
axial stress becomes

o1 : p,(21t)

and the maximum pressure given by Eq. 15.3 becomes

rl - r?f ri , \r - 21t'fl-t/z
or
\/3 --l-Ll - 3 I (1s.4)

In most applications the difference between Eqs. 15.3 and 15.4 is negligible.

I5.2 PR,ESTRESSING OF SOLID WALL VESSELS

.L As the pressure in Eq. 15.3 is exceeded, the inner part of the shell becomes
plastic, whereas the outer part remains elastic, as illustrated in Fig. 15.2. The
Figu.e 15.t
derivation of the relationship between dle elastic and plastic regions is beyond
 ,4 vtt!!t! fot HtoH PnlssuRrs
15.2 PRESTRTSSTNG OF WAU.S 545

wlrrrc or, o,, a1 = hoop, radial, and longitudinal stress, respectively (psi)
or, = yield stress of material (psi)
Rrc,o, 't' r, = outside radius of shell (in.)
.," o'r"sr'c
ri : inside radius of shell (in.)
r= radius at any point in the shell (in.)
p= elastic-plastic interface radius (in.)

lklrution 15.7 may be used to determine the lower bound pressure P* at which
ytrl(ling occurs by letting p : 4. Hence

Fisurc 15.2

".=#( -1) (15.8)

the s9ory of this book. However, it
suffices to say that the derivation is
."r"c-i *irl, *." "*i"i'.nn.. rr,"
on plastic analysis of an incompressible based l'his equation gives results very close to those given by Eq. 15.4. Equation 15.7
resultant equations are as follows: lnn also be used to determine the upper bound pressure P+ at which total
Elastic region: yicfding occurs by letting p = ro. Hence

-2o" lnr
(+)H ('.!) \r5
(15.9)

@)6 (t -'4\
Itlxnmple 15.1. A pressure vessel with a solid wall has an 4 of 8 in., r, of
(15.5) l?.6 in., and o,, : 80,000 psi. Plot o6 and o, when P = P* and when P =
({).000 psi.

@e) Solution. From Eo. 15.3.

Plastic region:

.e+ _ 80,000 /17.6, - 8'z

V5\ 3' )(-''J

(#X'*1*znt) = 36,650 psi

(#J(-' * 4.* znt) (15.6) rrnd from Eq. 15.1,

o, = ss+o(r. ,,-/!g\
@(5"*z'n!) \

*:trfl':H[X ?iween
the applied pressure and the elasric-plastic
interrace
o,=rsno(r -ry)
'l'hese two values are shown in Fig. 15.3.
:
#(' -4
f; - zr,L\
p/ (r5.7) From Eq. 15.7 with P = 60,ffi0 psi and o,
calculation gives p :
80,000 psi, a trial-and-error
11.50 in. Hence from Eq. t5 5
 t46 Ytlstt3 foR HtoH PRISSUnES
I5,3 I.AYERED VESSEIS 547

Figlro'15.4

Solution. The maximum autofrettaging pressure of 60 ksi is less than fwice the
lower bound pressure P*. Accordingly, the stress distribution resulting from a
pressure drop of 60 ksi is in the elastic fange, as shown in Fig. 15.4. FromEq.
RaDrus , lNcH t5.1.
Fisurc 15.3

"'= -t,*t(rrr, - s.---g-)

qe=rs.72o(t*!g) P' = - 15,625 psi

\ r'/
o,=rs,72o(t-!g) oa= -rs,ezs(r .ry)
\ r"/
and from Eq. 15.6 The stress distribution given by this equation is superimposed with that in Fig.
15.3 for a6 at P = 60 ksi. The resultant residual stress is shown in Fig. 15.5.
The internal pressure of 45,000 psi gives a stress of
a,= 46,Do(1.427 + 2rn;3)
/-
o; = +e,loo(-o sz: + z rn
oe: rr.tzo(r.ry)
;)
A plot of these equations is shown in Fig. 15.3. and the total stress distribution due to this and residual stress is eiven in Fie.
i" Fig . I 5 . 3 are significait because they show the 15.5.
^. ,1.^.y:-p_t"g
or the stress pattem as the inner region of
redistriburion
the cylinder beco_"a ptu"ti". ato not"
the reduction of rhe stress at ttre inner
the elastic-plastic boundary as the pressure
surfactrrrd;;il;;;,i'?iL" ,o"r, u,
I5.3 TAYERED VESSETS
i, ln"."u."Ji"yoro ri. f
Example 15.2. plot the circumferential Layered vessels were developed in the United States and Germany at about the
residual stress a, when the auto_ same time during World War II. In Germany they were used in ammonia plants
frettaging-pressure j: !f-pl: rs r. i, ."o""ic iJr"r, ;i; irlT o, *r,"n u as well as for producing gasoline from coal. In the United States they were used
oeslgn pressure of 45,000 psi is applied.
for ammonia-synthesis processes for the ultimate production of nitrates. Since
 vlssg.s Fon HtoH PRESSURTS
I5.3 LAYERID VESSTTS

od ar P=45Ksl

c(

o
o
f

i,:)SBRINK Fr-r (d) ColL WRAP Figure 15.6

The earliest reference to layered vessels was made in the 1951 API-ASME
( bde. In later years when the API Standard and the ASME Code were separated,
'?iiLi;i* llre layered-vessel criterion was deleted from both. It was not until Jan'tary 1979
that layered vessels were included in the ASME Code. In establishing the new
Wodd War II the technology of building layered llyered-vessel rules, consideration was given to the state of the art as well as the
vessels has improved substan-
tialty..Today layered vesseJi are used ii'",i,ia"i"re" and research accumulated by the industry in the past 50 years. An
tions in the penochemical industry
;i[nfT"."ru." "iperience
c l ibrt was also made to provide rules to accommodate all types of known
as heat exchangers, "pp,,""-
ammonia conven€rs, autoclaves. and-such - reactors,
urea l:ryered-vessel construction.
coal gasificati;;
Layered vessels consist of a multitude of layers
,#il. Today most layered vessels are constructed in accordance with the ASME
wrapped tightly around an ('ode, VI[-1, Division 2. The majority of the design equations given in the code
inner shell to form a pressure-retarnlng envelope,
as shown in Fig. 15.6. The lor solid wall vessels are applicable to layered vessels. For fabrication, the
vent hole system is a safety feature incorporateainio
ttre iay"iJu"."sel o"_ ASME Code, VI[-1, Division 2, gives additional rules for layered-vessel con-
hon. It consists of a mulritude of small holes "on.t _a
drilled radiity lntoit fuy"., struction. One criterion for controlling wrapping tightness of layered shells is
extending from the ouiermost layer to and including "
tfr. i'uy", uj1'u""nt to tfr" rhat the area of any gap between two adjacent layers, as measured from the end
inner shell. The holes are sized and spaced so
that they do not affect the of a shell section, must not exceed the thickness of a layer expressed in square
structural integrity of the vessel. The venting
potential problems such as erosion and
,yrt"- uJt, u. u'rnonitor of inches. This is illustrated in Fig. 15.7.
at -ay oc"urln ti" inner rt
during the operation of the vesset. "orrosioritt Another criterion used occasionally to measure the tightness of layered shells
"tt is limiting the circumferential expansion of the outer layer during hydrostatic
Layered vessels are constructed by various
-
these methods is in the thickness of inoiuiaua
methods. The difference between testing to a value not less than one-half that ofan equivalent solid wall thickness'
Uyeri *.ap-piig !.-o""ou.", tlencJ the stress at the outer layer due to internal pressure P as given by Eqs.
In^ general, layered-vesset "nA
construction can be divided inro
I:l1ilg-r."ryiqy
three categories. The first is 5.9 and 5.10 is
the colcentric_ or spiral_wrapped method where
layers.consist of segments welded together the
i
in spiral ;;;;;;fashion to 2Prl
ItT ft::"guld ftickness, as shown in Fig. 15.6a andb. The second
method
co = --;--"--
r;- ri
is the shrink fit method wherebv layers ."'inOiuiOuutty for_"Jiito
and shrunk on each other to form thl reguired total ,r,t'L"*'ii]g.'is.orl.
"yfmO"r,
rr,"
C,=0
to. ft: coil-wrapped method whereby
ItlO a .rrti"u""r-J""t i. it ip i, *ounO Pr?
rn a spiral or helical fashion to form a cylinder
as in Fig. 15.4:' ' r;- ri
 wtt|tt tot HtoH PR!33UR!3
15.3 t/aYIRED VISSILS 55t

'l'hc uctusl measurcd growth must not be less than one-half the value given by
l!. r5.10.
A third criterion for determining the maximum permissible gap in layered
rhclls is by relating the gap height to a given shess level. Referring to Fig. 15.8
End Eq. 5.12 and assuming the end to be fixed against rotation, it can be shown
lhd the gap /, can be related to the bending moment by the expressron

Mo
,F; (15. 11)

GAp AREA a=f r,.n !l u bstituting

AREA OF GAP < TH ICKNESS t ex pnesseo rN nl 6Mo
Figurc 15.7 cb = -- .)-

and from Eq. 2.1,

B=

*: |b, - p(o, + o)l

,:d+
e,' = 9.--DP'J into Eq. 15.1l gives
E(rz. - r?)
The circumferential growth can - O.55ro,
h= (1s.12)
be expressed as E
,
_ ,*,
=,#ii
-Ee=A-
Lt n-tr', defined as the mean radius. Then

11 =P--!
-2
,.=n"+|
and the circumferential growth
is given by

e _ t.71rp(Z?.^ -t)2(?R^ + t) (b)

SERnt (15.10)
Figur6 15.8
 5!2 V!!t!ts toR t{toH PRESSURIS
r 5.3 TAYTRED VESSfl.S 553
Equati0n 15.12 cannot be used directly becau-se
the quantity o, is not readily by
known. This. quantity, however, can be related llv('I
to un uiio*udr"-Jt uy
lating the principal stresses at a layer as ".. "ut"u. 1-n / o,.
K= I + --:--- - l:i--
,?(m - l) \JJ6
( 15. r 6)
oo: S + pab ')
a,= -P wlrcrc m : 3.0 for carbon steel

ot=tyt+) = 2.0 for low-alloy steel

: 1.7 for austenitic stainless steel
where o6, cr., ar = principal stresses ' n: 0.2 for carbon and low-alloy steels
,S = hoop stress = 0.3 for austenitic stainless steels
;r, = poisson's ratio S. : allowable stress:
o6 = bending stress due to gap l,
lrluation 15.16 can be expressed in terms of S" by substituting Eq. 15. 15 for o6
p = intemal pressure uxl letting m = 3.0 and n = 0.2, which yields
The maximum stress intensity is given by
K: -!- ,[!-!t"
t'Va-5s. (1s. r 7)

ah=ob+r+p (15.13) li(luations 15.13 and 15.15 can be expressed as

The maximum stress inrensiry o; is limited by the ASME Code, VIL[, Section 15. 18)
2, to 3S,. Or in general terms
",o+f,+"=#r. (

oo+]+p<KS^ or assuming S = S. and

(1s.14)

where K = 3 for indefinite number of cycles.

.'u:T"KS^
. _Ircases where aa is greater than 35, Lut less than 3rn,S,, the rules
ASME Code, V I, para-sraoh q_rce .q,"
of the
apiti i"r s.pilfr!a""ir"'rr,"_pr"rri" liquation 15.18 becomes
analysis. In this case "
o6=NS.-+-P
t": *Z
and Eq. 15.12 can be written as

z^\-
'
o= o'ss/s"
E fN L
- 0.5 - :lJ..l ( 15.19)
(15.15)
^ where N = 25"/KS^
where & = alternating stress as defined in the ASME Code,
VIII, and K is : 3 for indefinite number of cycles
 vtttttt tot HtoH PnrssuRES
r5.3 |AYERED VrSSfl.S

K=-+.,,"[**
& = maximum allowable alternating stress
S. = allowable stress
E = modulus of elasticity
r= radius where gap is measured
P : design pressure
Fisur€ 15.9

t:.r, A layered vessel with a 42_in.. inner d.iameter

carbon sleet with. E = 29,000.000
l::10L" is constructed of ( irmbining these two equations gives
psi. D.,.r*in. ,ir" ni"iriorn
iito*uor" g"p
i:r:*ifff:'' s' = 20,000 psi,i"d th".;i;;"y;;'iiiii'h" RZ - R?: a2 - ?aYs (1s.20)
".,,"r 'i
Also from Fig. 15.9
of the ASME code, vrr,
f31#fl' iffi il:IlTr1 Fis. 5-r10.r, & =
RyI h= R2 Ia (15.21)
I
K=-:+ rnd

: l.2l Ys : ,R1 cos d (ls.22)

2 x 4o,ooo
^r- 1.21 x 2O,nO
Substituting Eqs. 15.21 and 15.22 inoo Eq. 15.20 gives

= 3.31 h(h + 2R.)

(1s.23)
x
2(&+h-R'cosc)
_ 0.55 21 x 20.000
_ 0.5 _ 4000
\ 'l'he circumferential saain determined from
29,000,000 Fig. 15.9 is expressed as
20,Oo0/
= 0.021 in.
t -
2RzB -
2Rra
(rs.24)
Equadon 15. 19 determines the ZrRr
uulue of anv one gap in a lavered
n"t'"l wh"r. tl,".Jil;ffi;""1TlTYl
rn a given cross secdon' a
n"eteo to tar.e uc"u,nui"##;:1""91t criterion is Substituting
tT9 account' rhis can be accom-
prished by ;;il;;;; ilJ'#:,li1
91,p'
st uin i,
tr,eo zu--'J""; ilij};T,=fffifj ..X*nsap. rhe toar
ffif:T,: t= B- d
rn gettrng the strain required to
close one gap, refer to fig. iJ.S
,1,"r"
x6 + yE: R?
c
and 'Rz
asina
xE+(Yo-a)2=Rtr R2
 l!6 VttSlt! foR HtoH PRTSSURES 15.3 TAYERED VESSIL3

into Lq. 15.24 yields r1 + -2

o, ='rr, _j,P * l* p,-- ) .
Rr | /c sin a\'l q
'="'&1"*""'\ & /l
_,
; (r5.25)
The maximum radial stress is given by

The total snain required to close one gap is obtained by substituting Eqs. 15.21 o,= -P
and 15.23 into 15.25, which gives
Hence the maximum stress inlensity is

,=fre+4sin-tc (rs.26, co,: oo- o.

where

A=l- 2+ h/Rl
'1*'1r, + + P < NS,
2(l-cosa+h/R) ri- ri r- lL-- e
=l----).
4: I r h (2 + h/R)(h/R)
and
Rr 2(l -cos d+h/R)
C: + h/R)(r - d + h/R)
y.=!d(rs. (15.28)
2(1 cos - (2 + h/R)(h/R)

A plot of Fq. 15.26 will show that the lines are a linear function of strain Example 15.4. The following gaps =)
were measured after forming a layered
versus /r/R1. Hence, the ASME Code, VItr, Division 2, approximated 84. 15.26 vessel of 11 = zl0 in. and rz = 55 in.
by the quantity
Gap lrngth Height At Radius

e = 0.109(2a)3 I 5 in. 0.008 in. 43.25 in.

/(1
2 9 in. 0.005 in. 43.25 in.

or in terms of Fig. 15.7 terminology 3 7 in. 0.010 in. 48.50 in.

4 6llr. 0.009 in. 53.00 in.

. < 0.r0er4) (rs.27) Determine if these gaps are acceptable 1f E = 3O x 106 psi, P = 6000 psi'
\/-/ /, = 0.3, S. = 20,000 psi, and N 3. :
Equation 15.27 calculates the strain needed to close any given gap. The total
stain required to close all the gaps is determined by summiig all -the individual Solutian. Frcm 84. 15.27 ,
shains given by Eq. 15.27. The hoop stress in a layir due o all accumulated gap
stains is approximated by .,:o.loefi# =2.33x10-6

ue =;lt- ,)e ., = o.roeff# :2.62 x 1o-6

lL--
The total hoop stress due to gap shains and intemal pressure can be expressed
as
.,=o.loe*#:3.25x10-6
 vlttl|.s foR HtOH PRTSSURtS
I5.4 PRESTRESSING OF LAYTRED VESSII.S 559

6(o o09t
eo =9 1"^ UYJJII = 2. l0 x tO-o whcrc r/, : radial dellection of layer l, shown in Fig. 15.7, duc to intcrlacc
pressure ffa1
rotal€=10.30x10,6
d. = radial deflection of all layers beneath layer i due to interlacc
From Eq. 15.28, pressure fl11

-;t
| - u2/ ,.?D \
("t - f+,) = rr,. *-,r,- (, x 2o.ooo - H#)
Substituting Eq. 15.30 into Eq. 15.31 gives

NS
a.-4,: ( 1s.32)
= 1O.47 x 10-6 Z

Because total e is less than 10.47

x 1g-d, gaps are safisfactory.
f
'l'he deflection of layer i and all layers beneath I due to pressure 4+r can be
olrtained from Eq. 5.8 by substituting ar = 0 and disregarding the term p'z. The
cxpressions for the deflection, using the terminology of Fig. 15.10, becomes
I5.4 PRESTRESSING OF IAYERED
VESSETS
, - 4*'R,*, /Ri*r + ni - n.\
fn
tfe gniral or concentric method,of
fabrication, the transverse weld E \Rl+,-rR? "-l /15 ?1\
m me rongitudinat seams causes prestressing shrinkage
snnnkage is influenced bv
.f ,h. ;;r;;i6#: Such weld , 4*rRi*r /Ri,r * tRi., , ^ ,\
o'=
r,.ut input, unJ
manv
niiiiil;"',ffiI
t

ff:"iffilr:'"X.ll,ii,X#ill1ffi:J.T
r \n,t,-ni-,-"''/ (1s.34)

;i Substituting Eqs. 15.33 and 15.34 into Eq. 15.32 and reananging
s=kw (Is.29) yields
where s = transverse shrintage rn welds
^ nsE ____lRL
(Ri. | - RiXR:-2 - Rr'?- r)
ft = coefficient of transverse shrinkase ,i-,: 4.IrRr-j _ R?) (1s.35)

w = width of seam weld

'lhe stress in layer i can be expressed as

Refe'ing to Fig. 15.10, the total radiar

deflection due to transverse shrinkage
ot- a number of seams in one layer o': .4*tRi*t
---J (15.36)
rs

,ns
2t (15.30)

where d = radial deflection

n = number of welded seams in a layer
Weld shrinkage decreases the diameter-
pressure between the of a welded layer. This causes a
welded laver ravers undemeath it' rhe deflection
"ompatibitity
equai;;'ffi; ;?::;:"trh€
d-dt=4" ( 15.31) Fisure 15.10
 560 vt3$tE toR t{toH PRtssuR[s I5,4 PRISTRCSSINO OF TAYERED VTSSEIS !6I
Substituting Eqs. 15.29 antl 15.35 into Eq. t5.36 gives
und the stress in inner layers is given by

o' =
nkwE (RIt
v'nR'n-'
- 4.iR!*z -
lRi'z - Ri)
R!.)
(rs.37) * = -\t/- **)
R?\
4
4*rR?-'
- Ril:E
Stress in the layers below I due to welding i is Itxample 15.5. Determine the wrapping stress in the-vessel shown in Fig'
l5.11lf n =2,k=o.1',8= 30 x 106 psi, w = 0'375 in'
-i.,,Ri*r /. *;,7
R?\
Solution. From Eq. 15.37, stress in layer one due to wrapping of layer one is
"'= il:;r-1t
Stress in any layer due to welding other layers around it is

= 8733 psi
,,= {\ 1R?,,-nl
- -(t\ * x'/ r !-,Ri,. (r5.38)
Stress in layer two due to wrapping of layer two is
Substituting Eqs. 15.29 and 15.35 inio Eq. 15.3g resulrs
in 2.25 x tO6 - 2r\(21.52 -
or:4igffi@ (21'z 21'z\

(1s.39) = 11,365 psi

Equations 15.37 and 15.39 are necessary to determine

the precompressive Stress in layer three due to wrapping of layer three is
sress in a layered vessel due to wrapping Uy *,"
oiri-ira.etnoA of x
fabrication. "on""oG" 2.25 tO6 (2t.52 - 202\(222 - 2l.5'z1
In the shrink fit rnethod, the orecompression equations ot = 4o(o.s)er.sf
are the same as
15.37 and 15.39 except that the'qaanniy n*w/2iir"pfuJJy-Jrn. Eqs.
n"*" = 12,487 ps|

, ='#,' r' *r, (15.40)

ra,(i!'!Liul

"'::!f('\.#) + ry#::t (15.41)

In the coil-wrapped method, the initial stress in the outer layer

..
Hence the applied
i is known.
pressure for Eq. 15.lg is

n-r=#
and the total sbess in the outer layer is

oi= o" Figur€ 15.l I

 362 vt33!ts Fon HtoH PRESSURIS SIBTIOO[APHY

From Eq. 15.39, stress in inner shell due to wrapping

all three layers is l{ = inside radius as defined by ASME
llm : mean radius
o,, = :??l l_]ou
(, . #) (ffi
_
r = radius
21.52 - 212 , rr = inside radius
-r- 2tetF=6\* n6=65)\
22, 21.52
r,, = outside radius
-(179,049)(1.97s)(0.0247 + 0.0163 + 0.0120) J = shess
-18,737 psi ,1. : allowable sfress given in ASME
Stress in layer one due to wrapping layers two and three is t : thickness
/ lnz \ w = width of weld seam
d' = -17e,04e(l * ffis,)to.otos + 0.0t20) rr = coefficient of thermal expansion
: -9774 psi pn

Stress in layer two due to wrapping layer three is

= change in temperature
A.r

o,= -tls,rNs(t + c = strain

ff)ollllt p = proisson's ratio
: _4052 psi I : radius at interface between elastic and plastic zones
Total stress in inner shell :
-1g,737 psi
: bending stress
Total stess in layer one = g733
- 9744 = _1041 osi : stess at layer i
Total stress in layer two = I I ,365 4052 7313
- = osi .,1 = longitudinal seess
Total srress in layer three = 12.4g7 psi f
(fr = radial stress
(ft : stress at layer .r
NOMENCTATURE
(f, : yield stress
ITtl
D = tr-T, U0 = hoop shess

E = modulus of elasticity
BIBTIOGRAPHY
e = circumferential growth
h = gap Armstrong, W. P., and M. H. Jawad, "Evaluation of Thermal Conductivity in Layercd Vessels,"
ASME Jounal Prcssure Vessel Technology, November 1981.
K = weld shrinkage Brownell, L. W., 8trd E, H. \onnl, Process Equipme t Deiqn, John Wiley, New York, 1959.
Jawad, M. H., "Wrapping Stress and lts Effect on Strenglh of Concentrically Formed Plywalls,"
Mo = longitudinal bending rnoment
NME Publication 72-pvp-7, Seprcmber l9?2.
n = number of seams in a layer Prager, W., andP. G. Hodge, Theory of Perfectb Pkstic Sortrb, John Wiley, l'{e\t York, 1 5.

P = pressure
 CHAPTER t6
TALL VESSELS

Tollve$el. (Co',rtesy oI rhe Noorer Corpororion, Sr. touj3 Mo.)

564 565
 566 TAtt vtssfl.s
16.2 IARTHQUAKI LOADING 567

I6.I DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

cornbined with the internal and external pressurcs and any other kradings that arc
Special design considerations are required for tall vessels lpplicable to the tall vessel. The following sections describe dift'erent methods
vertical position. These vessels may utilize support skirts,
that are installed in the lor establishing the forces, moments, and overturning moments from extcrnal
girders, lugs, and other forms of support attachments
sffirt nngs, ring kradings. In addition, methods are given regarding how to combine those load-
as describid in Chapter 12. ings with other loadings in order to determine the highest stresses and to satisfy
However, the vessel itselfrequires special design considerations
proper thicknesses and stiffening rings, if neided,
in setecting the tid-22 of the ASME Code, VI[-1. Included also are methods ofconsidering the
to adequately support the rlynamics effects of the wind loading and wind velocity on vortex shedding and
vessel and to resist the applied loadings.
In addition to loadings from intemal and external pressures, ovalling vibrations.
.
De capaDle ot.wlthstanding additional loadings
tall vessets must
from the dead load of the vessel,
the inlgmal parts, insulation, piping-, and externA equipment, anA
9onte.nt1
earthquake loading and wind loading. Thi tall vessel,
tiom I6.2 EARTHQUAKE LOADING
as we as'most otner types
of vessels,
T9y also be subjected to applied forces and morneni, fro- tt errna ln the design of tall, vertical vessels, one cause of stresses in the v-essel wall is
expansion of the piping. The niost critical combination
highest stresses may not occur when all of the loads
of loadings that cause the lhe overhr;ing moment from the lateral force of an earthquake loading' Al-
are appii.j u? ttr" .a-e ti-e. though most disign standards require vessels to withstand earthquakes, usually
Certain loads may cause critical stresses during the time
whereas other combinations of loadings ma! cuuse critical
of
".""tion
t"
of u".r"t, no sfecific applicible rules are given. The purchase order or design specification

vessel is filled with its contents. The propei design of

stre;ses when the ,hould list thi applicable code to be used for earthquake design, such as the
the veJmay require ANSI A58.1, "suilaing Code."r the Ilniform Building Code,a ot some otler
examining several different loading conditions to Jstablish
the proper thickness applicable building cod;. Additionally, the location ofthe installation is required
and other requirements for a safe desien. ^determine
t; the appropriate earthquake factor. Figure 16.1 shows a typical
Some of the cornbinations of loadirigs requiring careful consideration
are: oarthquake
"one
-up aicording to the Uniform Building Code (UBC)' Earth-
procedure
quakj zones given in other building standards may be different. The
l. Vessel. installed in place but not operating (no contents,
internals, or lbr determining the lateral earthquake loading is similar in most building stan-
insulation) and not under an applied earth{uake or *inJiouotng.
dards and is G same in both the UBC and ANSI standards Some coefficients
2. Vessel under intemal pressure with contents and other
dead loads with or in the formulas and the zones on the earthquake zone map may differ in various
without earthquake or wind loading. standards.
3. Vessel under external pressure with contents and other
dead loads with For both the UBC and the ANSI standards, the total lateral earthquake force
or without earthquake or wind loading. is calculated by the following formuia:

for a specific vessel, may be a worse combination than any V : ZIKCSW (16.1)
^t;*:::::,b,:l!:y:
or me condltons listed above. The designer must be certain
that all conditions
aretxamined for determining the controlling condition. where Z = coefficient depending upon the earthquake for the location of
The required thicknesses and other desigi requirements vary
somewhat de_ installation. For ANSI A58. I for zone O' Z = | /8 ' For both the
pending upon the design theory chosen. Thi .*i-u,
,o".r ,fi.o* is used for UBC and the ANSI 458.1, the following apply: for zone 1'
Ine oeslgn ot most tall vessels. This theory is used in Z= 3 /16 for zone 2, Z : 3/8; for zone 3, Z : 3/4; and for
the ASME Code. VI[_I,
and the API 620t and 6502 design rules. Tie effects
of using other theori"s a.e zone 4. Z: 1.0.
discussed later.
Iv = total dead load of vessel and contents above plane being consid-
The two-external loadings that are important in the design
are those due to ered 0b)
e:mnquake toadrngs and wind loadings. AJthough the ASME
Code, VI[_ | , does
not specify design methods or design codes th-at are considered,
application of I: importance factor; assume I= 1'0 for vessel

*^y: :"lryPt used design ruGs is discussed. nememUer,'ii'ile

specinc K= arrangement factor; assume K : 2.0 for vessel
rocauon where tie tall vessel is to be_ installed, as given
il the design specifica_ :
tion or purchase order, the design rules may be so-mewhat
oimere# tom eitrrer C base shear factor = 1/15\/7 = 0.12
()1 me two rules described
here. Local requirements are always considered.
Once the extemal loadings and overtuming moments
? = fundamental period of vibration of the vessel assuming a uni-
are determined, they are formly loaded cantilever beam fixed at the base by the following:
 16,2 IARTHOUAKE IOADINO 569

zn t;n"
^' 3.52 (16.2)
\ EI,s
Substituting I = 386.4 in./sec2 gives
r = o.osos.g. (16.3)

h = sfraight length of shell from tangent to tangent of shell-to-head

lines (in.)
w = W/h = average unit weight of shell (lb/in') of straight shell
length
E = modulus of elasticity of vessel material at design temperature (Psi)
/* = moment of inertia of shell cross section (in.4)

1,: (v/8)(tl + + t)/t < 20

t)3t when (d

L = O.Oa9@2 - dt when (d + t)/t > 20 (in.)

r = nominal thickness of shell (in.)
4 = outside diameter of shell (in.)
d = inside diameter of shell (in.)
S = site-sFucture resonance: assume S = 1.5 unless an exact value is
known.
O.l2 < KC s 0.25 for UBC.
O.l2 < KC < O.29 for ANSI, zones 0, l, and 2.
'hdrdhh|'b.dlol
O.l2 KC < 0.23 for ANSI, zones 3 and 4.
=
CS < 0.14 for UBC and for ANSI in zones 0, 1, and 2.
Figuro I 6. I Rirl zorc mop ot rhc Uniied $or€t" (Reproducld
CS 0.11 for ANSI in zones 3 and 4 when.l = 1.5.
tro,n thc Unifrofih Building Code, I 9g2 Edirion, =
CoPy'iglt 1982, wifi pcrminion oI th. p!bti3h6r, Thc Inr,arnotionot
Confera"* J g;tdr;Offt.uL.f KCS need not exceed 0.3.

When KCS = 0.3 is substituted into @. 16.1, the total lateral earthquake
force becomes

V= O.3O Zw (16.4)

When the vessel is rnade from shell sections with different dianieters and
thicknesses, the lateral earthquake force is determined for each cylindrical shell
section above the plane being examined. However, for a cylindrical shell of
uniform diameoer and thickness, the total lateral earthquake force V is distributed
as follows:

s68
 570 lAt I vrlslt 3
I6.2 EARTHQUAKETOADINO 571

1. At the.upper head-to-shell tangent line, apply a concentrated

force determined as follows;
horizontal fluid in shell = 7r(30F(360)(35 /1728) = 20,620 lb
fluid in heads = (4/3)n(30)3(35 /ltzt1 = 229916
4= 0.07 TV, except n shall not exceed O.Z5V and Fl w = total weight : 34,240lb
shall be considered zero for ? = 0.7 or less (f6.5)
/r = 360 in.
where ? is given in Eq. 16.3 and V is given in
- Eq. 16.1. w = Wlh:34240/360 = 95.1 lb-in.
2. Along the straight length of shell,
E:30x106psi
^ (V - hw.h.
n,=--;f, (16.6)
d+t 60 + 0.5
U.J
'
For a shell of uniform diameter and thickness, this gives
__ a triangular load
disnibution with the pointing downward. fo.
_apex
assume a concentrated loadine of (V _
tie momenr,
fl "ul1ufutirg
applied at the centroijof the niangle
that is equal to 2/3 tr from the-lower he"j_t,i'rr,"rr
arg"riiiJJri Jio*n rn nig.
t6.2.

-f
Ongg A9 values of d and .{ are determined and
the moment arms to the
respective forces are known, the overtuming moment
is determinel as

M": 4(h). n(!^) (16.7)

I

Example 16.1. A vertical vessel with a cylindrical shell and hemispherical

heads is installed inside a building in Boston.
fhe sheU is i ftlnril aiurn"t"r,
0. 5 in. noninal thickness and 30 h
, from t"rg"nitl i-t"r,t. ft uiJ."r
a fluid at 35- lb/ft3. The purchase order speclfies
tf,"t tfi" UsC"b" i"llowed
"ontuio,
for
earthquake design. what are the lateral earthquake
ro.", ur"a ro. t c"rigor
"
Solwion. The UBC specifies that the total lateral earthquake
force is calcu_
lated from Eq. 16.1 by the followrng:

v = zIKCSw
Z = earthquake factor depending upon site location. Boston is located in I

earthquake zone 2
where Z = 3/8

-+
I

1= 1.0
K=2.0
W = total dead load of vessel and contents is
shell weight = n(30.52 - 30\(360)(490/1728): g7gs16
weight of heads = (4/3)n(30.53 _ 3O?)(4gO/ |TZS\: 1630 lb Figure 16.2 Eonlquoks lood distribulion on o toll vos!€|.
 312 tAtt vrlstts 16.3 WIND IOADING 573

/, = 9.949161r - = 43,400 in.a

600) of g for the vessel in
16.3 What is the equivalent earthquake force in terms

r = 0.0908 (95.lx360f Problem 16.1?

(3d-i06x43/00 = o lo06
Azswer.' Earthquake force is 0.229.
=r = 0.2102;maximum is C = 0.12
" 16,4 What is the equivalent earthquake force in terms of g for the vessel in
KC = (2.0)(0.12): 0.24; maximun is r(C Problem 16.2?
= 0.25
CS = (0.12)(1.5) = 0.18; maxrmum is CJ = 0.14 Answer: Eafihquake force is 0.289.
KCS = (2)(O.M) = 0.28; maximum
rCS = 0.3
yis determined by using
Eq. t6.l and KCS : 0.2g as follows: 16.3 WIND TOADING

v = (3/s)(t)(0.28)(34,24o) _ 3600 tb Two distinctly different kinds of design considerations are generated from wind
Ioading. First, the static force from the wind-loading pressure against the vessel
4 = 0 when ? is less than 0.7 (T :0.1006). Therefore, V ou".to-ing moment that must be considered in designing tall vessels
4=0. I = 3600 lb and "our"a'-
installed in the vertic-al position' The second consideration is the dynamic effect
from vorlex shedding of wind passing arcund the vessel'
Example 16.2. The tall vessel described
in Example 16.l is to be supported
at the lower head-to-shell iunction. 16.3.1 Externol Forces from Wind Looding
Dete-rmin" ,fr" i"""".frg'iro-"n,
- -'i-'i''|b 'n
support line from the lateril earthquake
forces.
u, *"
As with earthquake loading, many different design lnocedures determine the
Sotution. previous calculations show that the period of vibration places wind loading and its applica:tion to i vessel. The two most widely used standards
&e horizontal earthquake force to-be all of
applie; ;t;r-""',,#;;i#loaoing. are the ANSI A58.1 Code and the Uniform Building Code'
For
the vessel in Example 16.1, this grves Although there are differences in tle procedure for determinilg the wind
loads betieen the ANSI A58'1 Code and the Uniform Building code' both
M" = (3600)(20 x methods use the same rnap for determining the wind velocity at the location
site'
rZ) = 864,000 in.{b I Building Code'
as shown in Fig. 16.3 for the Uniform
Problems When the ailst A58.1 Code is used, the basic equation for determining the
velocity pressure q, at various heights z is calculated from
16.1 What is the total lateral earthquake force
using the ANSI A5g.l Code for
the following vessel? A vertiial vess"t
*irh ;-;;;l;;.il-o.on"o o, q" = 0.OO256 K,(tv)2 (a)
lower head. The shell is a seaml"r, pip" *"
in. thick,.and 40 ft. long wirh 3_in.-ih'i.k
*i;h ;_i;: inrialtii.am","., ,.0
pressure (Psf)
ri;;;J#;. rd"uJrlr"r where q, = veloclty
gas at ambient temperature.
The vesset is instJleJin "ont"tn. importance factor; assume 1 = 1'0
4 where Z = l.O. --.*mqo"k" ,on" =
1
y= design wind velocity (mph) from Fig' 16'3
Answer: Lateral earthquake force is 3910 lb. : veloc8
K, Pressure coefficient
16.2 Consider the exact same vessel given
in problem 16.1. What is &e total In addition, it is necessary to modify Eq.a by the force coefficient C1' which is
lateral earthquake force using tri'"
u.ii"""-i",rar"!'C"iJ.ll"r, 0.6 for a cylinder, and by the gust factor G, for the height of the vessel above
-basic
ground bv!I. Once the wind speed is determined from Fig' 16'3' ttte
Ansu,er: Latel-3l earthquake force is 4970
lb; ielocity pressure for a cylinder is obtained from Table 16' 1a' To determine the
 16.3 WlNo toADlNG 515

Tqble l6'lo velocitv Pressure for cylinder' (q x Q) ucing ANSI A58'l codr'
P"t

\-, Basic Wind Speed (mph) frorn Fig 16'3

HN I
I
r.,:-rr1 alr^i,a
lcight Above
i -.r (;round (ft) 100 110 t20
E
d6
uI|
N*
k) g !E
: 9{
E ET
l,css than 30
30-60
7
911
g 11
14
13
17
16
21
19
25
23
29
!? g.a
r; 60-100 10 13 16 20 2s 29 34
: FT
i t; d -0H 100-140 11 15 rg 23 28 33 39

|il|
:F E €I
'E 5 *,J l40-200 12 16 20 25 30 36 42

_i 200-300 14 18 23 2E 34 41 48
i- F! E 5?
r-, ,!aA
gi >
=:! trr 100-400 15 20 26 31 38 45 s2

| :at
q

i*i 95
5 E +l
; a:- i E6' FT
eE I E::E €F
i!;
rb8 frE; ; $
*8i iEF sE tlesign wind pressurep, the velocity pressure is modified by G, from Table
16' 1b
'-9 i
I!t *EFE
: p:
9rE I
=:a
li
uccordins to
tr gEg
Ei=s
::5 b5
i:
-E€
p=(qxc)(G) ( 16.8)

A*g gE where (g x is ftom Table 16.1a and G, is ftom Table 16'1b'

Cy)
: 6r
IE !ai+'t for instatlations above ground level, G is based on the total height of shell
and supports. Depending on the total height, there may be several different
E !8
g ^wind
pr"riu.". f6r different height zones. For {.sig1 purposes, wind
.e:
;
q
i-e
tlesign
toaoi ure appiieC at the center of each height zone Gee Fig' 16'4)'
r." -* Wfren tdi 1982 Ilniform Buitding Code is used for determining the design
6d
wind oressure in the horizontal direction, the basic formula is

(16.9)
P = C,C"q'l

Toble 16.lb Gusl Foclor for €ylinder ot Vorious Heights

Height above
ground (ft) 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 '10 80 90
Gust factor 1.32 1.29 1.27 1.26 1.23 1.21 1.20 1.19 1.18 1.17

Height above
ground (ft) 100 Dn AO 160 180 2N 250 300 350 /100

Gust factor 1.16 1.15 1.14 1.13 1.12 1.11 1.10 1.09 1.08 1.07

574
 T t"t wtl .l
16.3 WIND LOADING 577

Tqblc 16.2 Derign Wind Pressure pfor o Cylinder Uslng the Unlform Bulldlng
€odo (psf)

Basic Wind Speed (mph) from Fig. 16.3

llcight above
(ltound (ft) 100 ll0 120

lrss than 20 t2 l6 20 z) 30 36 42
;10-40 t4 18 22 27 38 .to
40..{0 16 20 25 31 37 44 53
l,{l -10O t'7 22 n 33 40 47 JO
t(x) 150 t9 u 30 45 53 63
110-200 20 26 32 ,10 47 56 6't
t(x) 300 22 29 35 44 52 62 '14

){) 400 23 30 3'l 55 65 't't

Ituilding Code are different from those given in the ANSI standard. A typical
rlistribution of wind loads at various elevations for a tall vessel is shown in Fig.
I t6.4.

-f
Figrrr. 16.,t Wind lood disiriburion on o rollwr!€|.
where p = design wind pressure (psf)
C" = coefficient for combined height, exposure,
and gust
Cq = pressue factor = 0.g for cylinders
4, = wind stagnation pressure at 30-ft level
1 = importance factor = 1.0 for pressure
vessel
The Uniform Building Code basic. wind
speed map is shown in Fig. 16.3.
*._dg::rry_p for a cylinder for vari9";r,!r!itz"i",
1"11T
rs glven in Table 16.2. Aeain- there tn" grouoo
"ilou?jesign
may be sevlral aifferent
pressure Ioads for different-height
zones. The height zones for the Uniform
I 16.3.2 Dynomic Anolysis from Wind Effecfs
When a laminar wind flows by a circular pressure vessel, the air stream or wake
bchind the vessel is no longer smooth. There is a region of pressure instability
in which vortices are shed in a regular pattem. These vorlices cause an alternat-
ing force perpendicular to the wind direction that could make the vessel vibrate.
When the frequency of the vortex shedding coincides with the natural frequency
ol the vessel, a resonance is caused with increasing amplitude. To prevent this
condition, the natural frequency of the vessel is set higher than the vortex
slrcdding frequency determined by the maximum velocity of laminar wind at the
vcssel location.5 Resonant wind velocity is related to the heighfto-diameter ratio
ol a cylindrical vessel, as shown in Fig. 16.5.
The natural frequency of the vessel/, is greater than the frequency of vortex
sheddingJ, using the following equations:
I
(16.10)
f, = i = natural frequency of vessel (cps)
f,^= -t;
o.2v
= frequency of vortex shedding (cps) (16.1 1)
The
1 = period of vibration from Eq. 16.3
winC
I{ = maximum velocity of laminar wind or resonant
velocity (fVsec), (see Fig. 16.5)
 rAu. vlll .l
16.3 W|NO LOADINO

r60 shell is 5 wall thickness, and 100 tl.

ft.0 in. inside diameter, 1.0 in. nominal
0 in. from tangent to tangent. The contract specification requires the vessel to
140
be designed according to the Uniform Building Code requirements What are the
ltteral wind forces to be used for design?
,- 15,106.7
a 120

110
Solution, The UBC map shows that Corpus Christi, Texas, is located in a

.8.
100-mph wind zone. Therefore, the wind forces at various locations are calcu-
100 lated usins Table 16.2 as follows:
3
90
.s
!
E 0-30 ft ri = Qs)(2o)(62/12) = 2,580 lb

;l 20-40 ft Fz = (n)Qo)(62/r2) = 2,790 rb

I 40-60 ft 4 = ODQO)(62/L2) : 3,200 lb

60-100 ft Fq = (n)@o)(62/12) = 6,820 lb
E
. r0.5)( zrY3l Y(45)
-
,E

=
;l Upper
-- Head
Total
\r?r,
470 lb
15,860 lb I
Exampte 16,4.
What is the overtuming moment due to the lateral wind forces
assuming that the vessel is supported at the lower shell-to-head junction for the
vessel in Example 16.3?
12 t4 16 la 20 E--24---i
Height to diameter rario, ltD Solution
Figl|rre t6.5 Relononr wind velocir,, V,, v€rcus
H/D.
Load Arm
D= outside diameter of vessel (ft) 0-20 ft x 10 = 25,800 ft-lb
2,580
2040 ft x 30 : 83,700 ft-lb
2,790
f,>L (16.12) 3,2N x 50 = 160,000 ft-lb
4}-ffi ft
In addition to the vorrex sheddins. 6,820 x 80 = 545,600 ftlb
60-100 ft
Upper head 470 x 101* : 47,470 ft-lb
y,:.:.1 is examined for ovalling vrbration
as a dng. The ovalling frequenc-v l" at least twice the vonei shedding
frequeniyf, Mo : 862,570 ft-lb a
",i"s;;i;itil;;:,fi#11,f
Example 16.5. Determine if the vessel described in Example 16.3 is adequate
f' = # = ovalling frequency (cps)
(16.13) to resist vortex shedding and ovalling vibration.
r = nominal thickness of shell (in.)
Solution

I{i.l_!.. ,\*.T: ed a stiffening ring within 24 in. ofboth shelt-to_head

Junctlons, and additional stiffening nngs 1. Determine the total dead load weight of the vessel:
are evenly spaced to keep the
maxrmum of g0 ft. span a
= z(31'? - 301$200)@90/ 1728) = 65,219 16
Shell
Heads = 4/3 r(313 - 3or(49o / 1728) = 3,320 lb
f. > 2f, (16.14) Total weight = w:68,530 lb
Example 16.3, A vertical ves1l. m3de
spherical heads is to be installed with a cylindrical shell and hemi_
our ol doors near Corpus Christi.
Texas. The i,100 + 0.4 x 2.5 : l0l.
 !to rAu. vlll|lt
.,
I6,4 VESSEI. UNDER INTERNAT PRESSURE ONIY 58I
Dctcrminc these properties:
10.11 lJused on a support line at the lower head, what is the overturning momsnt
.= w 68.530
n= 1200 = 57.1 lb/in.
liom the lateral wind force for the vessel in Problem 16.5'l

Answer: Mo = I1,682,400 in.-lb.

E:30xl06psi
I = 0.049(62a - 604) = 89,000 in.a 10,0 A pressure vessel is 10-ft inside diameier by 2.O-in. thick and 150-ft tall.
l)etermine if the vessel design is adequate to resist ovalling vibration.
r' = 0.0e08.
""'""Yt:o/- (5ZJ.lg?99I_
xloS<as"ooo) =0'6047 Answer: Tl:,e design is not adequate because the "f, = 0.11 and
: f. 0.09i consequently, t does not equal or exceed 2f,.
.1 I
= 0"604? = 1.65 cps

H 000x12) I6.4
D= ii; = te.3s VESSET UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE ONLY

V : 40.33 ftlsec l,or tall vessel under internal pressure only, the primary additional consid-
F|rli(nr to the intemal pressure is the effect of fluid pressure head and the dead
_(0.2)(40.331 ['rrl. 'lhis is especially important at the bottom of a vessel where the effects may
D - --51? = I.56cps
'"s =0.2V r rrrubine. The fluid pressure head may occur only during hydrostatic testing of
lh{' vcssel or it may be a continuing load occurring during operation ofthe vessel,
f, > f, 1.65 > 1.56 oK lh' additional pressure caused by the ffuid head is calculated as follows:
- 683(1)
J. = .o;i = 25.55 cps
(16.ls)
f' > 2k 25.55 > 3.12 oK ",=W
Problems wlrt lc PJ = additional internal pressure effect from fluid pressure head (psi)
Il = height of fluid column above point (ft)
16.5 A tall vessel conshucted with a- cylindrical
to be installed near Denver, Coloiado.
shell and flat closure ends i8
7 : density of fluid. lb/ftl
Th" ffi;;#;;.or tlre cyfin_
drical shell is 8 ft, the nominal
length from head weld seam b head
*rl.rhi"k;;j, i.6't.l'Joo ,r," ,o"igr,, |l the fluid head exists in the vessel during operation, the value ofP7is added
are 6.0-in. nominal thickness.
*aJl""- i, izJ n.-rir" nut t"ua, t' lhe intemal pressure when the minimum required thicknesses are set. At the
Wt at is tf,e totA fa*J*ioO '
design of the vesset fouowing rh"
*d;irh";;i;rltili io."" u."O fo. lr(,ttom of tlte vessel, the stresses and minimum required thickness are set by the
tirtrl pressure. It may be possible to decrease the thickness when the fluid head
Answer: ""a"r rllcct is decreased in a vessel where a variation in plate thicknesses is accept-
Lateral wind force = 14,060 lb. rrblc.
16.6 What is the total lateral wi * the vessel given in hoblem 16'5
If the fluid head exists in the vessel only during the hydrostatic testing, the
using the Uniform Buildinf,%tff; plirnary membrane stress frorn the combination of the hydrostatic test pressure
rrrrtl the fluid head pressure may go as high as the yield strength of the vessel
Ansu'er: Laterul wind force t|r terial at the 0est temperature. However, if the resulting minimum required
= 21,100 lb.
tlrickness from the combination is indicated as more than that thickness required
16'7 Many_design specifications requirea-minimum lrrr the normal design conditions, substitution of a pneumatic iest or a combina-
design wind speed of r00
mph. What is the total lateral^wlnd torce tion of hydrostatic/pneumatic test should be considered. In general, the min-
on the vessel in problem 16.5
based on a wind speed of 100 irnum required thickness of a vessel should never be set by the requirements of
mph?
thc hydrostatic head unless it is impossible to test it any other way. Also,
Answer: Lateral wind force rcrnember tJlat a hydrostatic test may use fluids other than water if water causes
= 21,390lb.
rr rrroblem such as corrosion.
 ..7 TAtl Vt!!!ts
16.4 VESSCL UNDTR INTTRNAI PRESSURT ONIY 583
F'or u vcssel untjcr intcrnal pres
. lrr hoth Eqs. 16.18 and 16.19, the dead load term may be either tension or
iffi:i;:lJ:,.:ji,# ffi #*'#liilT":lji
Whether the ,t .ir", ;iilliJi,l,,lj,
vslrcr uur
;ii il.;",l:ll,l
also lts weight to be consi( q'orrrpression depending upon the plane being examined. In general, above the
pressive sresses a"p""a,
"uur.J.Un",t-,w cause tensile or rrrpport line, this term is compressive and the total longitudinal stress is the
"r# ,ii:e
: locatton
-addttronal.loadings
of the extemal supports or s[
sKrn tocation. rllllcrence between the intemal pressure effect and the dead load effect. When
llris is below the support line, the terms are both tensile. For some arangements,
. In th€ actual design, the minin is initiallv set by
circumrerentiaLsnesi;ffi il thc condition without inlemal pressure may be more critical than when intemal
#l}1T3ffi:*|"**' prcssure is considered.
ll
.rr is positive, the actual stress is positive and the allowable stress is
or=PR
_ rlctcrmined from the allowable tensile stress tables. If the value of or is negative,
t (16.1
lht: allowable stress is determined by the method that establishes the maximum
From the equation rrllowable axial compressive stress in a cylindrical shell.
in IJG_Z7tct(l of the ASME code,
ter-s or sr', tte vltr-I, expressed
'e;;#;"i:') l{xample 16,6. For the vessel described in Example 16.1, determine the total
kngitudinal stress in the cylindrical shell above and below the support line that
sE=P(4+o' (r6.1 lN at the lower shell-to-head junction. The value of SE
: 15,000 psi.
where = allowable tensile shess (psi)
,S
,l{rrtttion. Assume the intemal pressure is set by Eq. 16.17 for a value of
E = weld joint efficiency (E
= I.0 for seamless)
Jr, = 15,000 psi. Reananging the terms gives

P = intemal design pressure (psi) sEt _ (t5,000)(0.5)

R = inside radius (in.) 'p.=R + 0.6r (30) + 0.6(0.5) = )45 nci
t : rninimum required thickness (in.) 'l'he dead load of vessel above the support line is
Using this equation, a lentative
m.
circumferential .*;.. Wil;;;"f"rmum required thickness is set based on tho Shell 9,700
be necessary ro inci;" thickness is determined, Upper head 815
pressure. Based
d;;f;:litequ.ired tluid head.as
it may
well as the intemal desigir
^the-
10,515 lb
determined f.;; il;;iil#;
";;;;;;:r the total lonsitudinal stress'is
l"nili,ill"t'""'' 'l'he longitudinal stress using Eq. 16.19 is

,PR w (lo.sls)
30_n"\
oL: 2x0.5 "'- I -
2t rD^t (16.18) +Q45)(
a(60.5X0.5)
wnere ot: tatal longitudinal sress (psi) ot: *730O - 110 psi
W= total dead load of ot = 7190 psi tension with intemal pressure
examined(rb).rhl,;.h:#X,,:?lf being
:*;r.TdLJr""" ot : ll0 psi compression without internal pressure
D" = mean diameter of shell (in.) _
211 * ,
'lhe dead load of vessel and contents below the support line is
From the equafion in uG_27(c\et.:lg:
rearranged and the dead VI[_ | , with rhe rerms
load term added, 1tM-E.-C"de,
the following equation is grven: Lower head 815
Shell fluid 20,620
,,=+p(!-o.z)t w Head fluid 2,290
\zr / rD^t (16.19)
23,725 tb
 tta TAtt wr!![3
16.5 VESSEI. UNDER INTCRNAT PRISSUR€ AND EXTERNAI IOADINO 585
The longitudinal $tress usinS Eq.
16.19 is
16,12 What is the maximum longitudinal stress in the vessel in Problem 16.10
with and without considering the internal design pressure?
oy: + (245)l/ ;--30 - O.2l
\ oe:'<r
+ \'r'tzr)
\z ^u.r / r(60.5X0.5) Answersz ot = TllO psi tension with intemal pressure considered.
a1 : I 73C0 + 250 = 7550 psi tension with intemal pressure
ot: l7O psi compression without considering intemal
pressure.
Example l6J. For the vessel described in Example
16. 1, determine the
t;;*r;ivo'l.,jii'L,r"e,
l"TlT !Trftri".'tainingnuidat35rb/ft I6.5 VESSEL UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE AND EXTERNAT TOADING

When a tall vessel supported in the vertical position is subjected to internal

|rcssure and extemal loading from such sources as earthquake or wind, both the
l(#t. *f **.::
and at the lowest
line^
is-nee_ded
point of the lower lt
both the lower sheu-to-head tansenr
tcnsion and compression sides of the cylinder must be examined. These items
At the^r,ff
head.
lower shell+o_head tanr rurc similar to those for a tall vessel under internal pressure only, except for the
.jent line. rhe fluid height 30ft+2.5ft=
JZ.s ft. is
Irl(er only one of the sides needs examination. The earthquake loading or the
wind loading is resolved into an overturning moment that is further resolved into
fluid P7 lcnsile and compressive loads.
For : 7.9 psi Using the membrane shess equations given in Eq. 10.2, the total longitudinal
ntrcss is determined ftom
For water e, = GZ.$(Q.D = 14.1 psi
,PR W 4M"
(f':-|-=-=----..--:- (16.20)
At the bottom of the lower head, the 2t rD^t nDit
fluid height is 30 ft + 5 ft : 35 ft.
(3.5)(35) And in terms of the present ASME Code, VU-l, the total longitudinal stress is
Forfluid
----- P"=
't e {-
(1441 = -orPst obtained from

6t: lR \ w 4M.
For water P, = = 15.2 psi *P (t - or/ =i.,';fr (16.21)

As can be seen from this equation, many different combinations of stresses must
Problcms hc examined to obtain the maximum stress such as, with the first term equal to
zero when tlere is no internal pressure (vessel not operating), and with internal
16.10 What is rhe circumferential syss bgeO_o1_tfre pressure, with the second term either iension or compression, and with the third
ASME Code, VIII-I, at tcrm either tension or compression. There may be more combinations because
the bottom of a tall vessel rh"t contains
nuiC at sO tUTdJj an intemal
design pressure of 400 osi? .The. "#al'ta_eter
,"r."i; ;;:;. rhe value of W, the dead load, varies depending upon the location of the plane
uy lhat is being considered. Usually, the maximum stress is located at the support
0.5-in. minimum wan uv +s ft 0
heads on each end.
i".;;;;l ,."e,i,, *iii"i_il. n* line; however, when the vessel has various diameters, it may be necessary to
E = l.U and the vessel is supported at the ".*
bottom. cxamine stresses at different cross sections. This, of course, is not considering
any local stresses in the shell caused by the support.
Answer: c6 = 15,200 psi
16.11 What is the naximum shess in the Ilxampte 16,8. The vessel described in Example 16.l is to be supported at the
shell of the vessel in problem 16.10
during a standard hydrostatlc test Iower shell-to-head junction. What are the longitudinal stresses in the shell
of 1.5p?
above and below the support line? The intemal pressure is 225 psi.

Answer: o, : 22,700 psi Solutian. From Example 16.1, the dead load of the various components is
 386 TAtr vlssEls I6.5 VESSET UNDER INTERNAI PRESSURE AND EXTERNAT I.OADING

=
;::: i:;::i: M. = (862,570)(12) 10,350,840 in'-lb

l)etermine the total longitudinal stress o1 using Eq. 16.21 as follows:

Shelt fluid = 2O,62O lb

The overtuming moment is

Fluid, heads = 2,290 tb oL: + @7s)(*- o.z) t ftffi ' 11ffi#E
ot = + QO3O) -f (350) + (3540)
M" = 864,000 in.lb
Windward Side Stresses
Using Eq. 16.21, the total longitudinal stress is
|. Pressure, dead load, wind load = +(7030) - (350) + (3540) =
- = * <zzst(#* - o 2) !ft#6.u. ffi#3 2.
10,220 psi tension
No lnessure, dead load, wind load : 0 - (350) + (3540) = 3190 psi
tension
The side of applied force above the support
line is 3. Dead load only = 350 psi compression
dead load : shell + upper head = +
ITOO 815 = 10,515 lb I t eward Side Stesses
o1 = + (6705) - (110) + (ffi01 = 72OO psi tension

The side of applied force below the support

f. With intemal pressure, dead load and wind load'
line is = +(7030) - (350) - (3540) = 3140 psi tension
dead load = lower head+ contents : gl5 + 22,910 = 2. With no internal pressure, with dead load, and wind load
23,725 tb = 0 - (350) - (3540) = 3890 psi compression
o1 = + (6705) + (250) + (0) = 695S psi tension
A I lowable Stre ss-Tension
The opposite side of applied force above the
support line is
&= 15,000 psi for 5,{-516 Grade 60 at 6507
at = +(6705) - (110) - (600; = 56* psi rension with pressure and
710 psi compression withour pressure Allowable Stre s s-C omPres s ion

Example 16.9, The vessel given in Example

16.3 is to be constructed trom . = 0. 125 - 0.12s : o.0go
5.{-516 Grade 60 marerial
efficiency is E= 1.0. what--a o""ign"d f- +zS pri ut iSO;f."I.lle weto joint ^ nJ, (31/ l)
are trre tota longiirJina- rtr"rr"r' on uotr, tr,e
windward and leeward sides at the support line? What are
the allowable tensile and fron Fig. 8.1 I and also Fig. 5-UCS-28.2 of the ASME Code, VI[-l ' the
and compressive shesses? value of8 is 11,500. This gives an allowable stress ofS": 11,500 psi' All
calculated stresses are less than the allowable stresses. I
S1luti91, From Table UCS-23 ofthe ASME Code, VIII-I,
for SA-516 Grade
60 at 650'F, the allowable tensile stress is
t = 15,m0 psi. The weight of the
shell and upper head above the support line is'determined'from
I'roblems
Eiu-pt" tO.S u,
16.13 A tall vessel is constructed of a cylindrical shell with a flat head on each
W : 65,2rO + 0.5(3320) = 66.870 lb end. The shell is 4 ft inside diameter by 2 in. thick by 75 ft from end
to end. The flat heads are ?.5 in. thick. The vessel is supported on the
The. overtuming moment due to the wind
. loading at the support line is bottom that rests on structural supports that are 75 ft from the ground
determined from Example 16.2 as
level to the support line of the vessel. The wind zone is 110 mph and
 !tt8 TAtr vt33!r3
1000
800
thc Unilbrm Building Code prevails. What are the longitudinal stre
800
liom wind loading on both the windward and leeward sides above 500
support line? 400
300
-
Answer: o2from wind load = -r 1 660 a 200

t6.t4 Assume that the vessel described in problem 16.13 is supported

on
n

ground instead of supported 75 ft in the air. What are

the tonsituJ
! roo
shesses from the wind loading in the shell above the !eo
support iinei Foo
E50
Answer: oL from wind load : +1360 pel 340
30

16.6 VESSET UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE ONIY

For.a tall vessel under external pressure only, in addition to the basic 10
1.0 2 3 4 56 810
consid. 0.1
erauons tor external pressure design given in Chapter g, the effect Length to diameter ratio {t/Da}
of fluid lo uniform extornol pr€ssuro
pressure and dead load is considered. This is very iimilar llsure 16.6 Numb€r of Lob€!, 4, into which o .hell will collopse when subi€cr
to those conditiong
considered in Section 16.3 for the vessel under intemal pressure
only. When
bl9: caused by th€_ fluid pressure and dead load create a compressrv!
S::l
toadrng. lt has to be combined with the loading from the
extemal pressure. nnd the compression term m is
]he ASME Code, YI[-l, has methods to consider each of these rwo
- rypes
of.loadings separately. Extemal pressure, of course, is described in UG_2g 1.23 D:
and
aluar compresslve stress on a cylindrical shell is described in
UG_23(b). How_ "' L',
(16.24)
ever, there is no method given in the ASME code that describes how
to consider
both at the same tirne. An arbitrary method to consider these two
simultaneously and use the ASME Code, VI[-l, procedure was developed
loadings Ity applying Sturm's equationT for the ratio between the extemal pressure alone
Dr. E.O. Bergman in 1954.6 This method combinei the effects of
iy rrna thi *i"t loadings, an equation can be developed that gives an
axial loadinge "o-p."ssive
cquivalent external pressure Pj for the combined loading as a multiplier of the
and extemal pressure by establishing an adjusted pressure
used in the extem-al base extemal pressure Po. This equation is
pressure calculation procedure given in UG_2g.
Based on the von Mises instability formulas as discussed in
Pl= n2-1+m+mct
Chapter 8 for a
cylinder loaded with both radial and axial pressure fouaing, uju. D (16.2s)
oJ-r-i,
" tom wtrich
drtermined-for values of L/D. and t / D,. This is plotted in f.igl tO.O n2-l+m
the value ofz can be easily determined for varioius values of"Lf
D. versus t/Do, For a ) 1.0, the vessel rnay fail by yielding and should also be checked as
A comparison of results between pressure on the sides only and pressure on
the sides and ends indicates that the value of z changes very iinle u cantilever beam including the axial shess effect due to the external pressure'
for values
c < l 0. The ratio a is the axial compression unit toad divijed by the allowabloof fhe axial load from the extemal pressure is
extemal pressure that is permitted when it is acting alone. Eipressed
in an P* = 0.25 P"D- (16.26)
equadon,

p 'Ihe axial load from external pressure in Eq. 16.26 is combined with the axial
(16.22) load from dead loads in Eq. 16.23 to give the total axial loading on the cylindri-
Pp. cal shell. When this loading is divided by the shell thickness, the result is the
And the axial compression unit load is total axial compressive shess on the cylindrical shell. This actual stress is
compared with the allowable axial compressive shess determined according to
UG-23(b) of the ASME Code, VI[-l.
W
' = nD^
P.. (16.23',)
shell and two
Example 16.10. A tall vessel is constructed with a cylindrical
589
 I6.7 VESSET UNDER PRESSURE AND EXTERNAI. TOADINO 59I
TAu, VtSSH.S
psi' in'.is satisluctttry
?5
is less than the permissible pressure of 23 9
r
hemisphericul heuds. The vessel is designed for lull vacuum (15 psi
lir .:.0
is needed' I
pressure) at a design temperature of 550'F. The material is 5A-516 Grade
i;il;; ;i;;; tian I .0' no cantilever beam check

There is no corrosion allowance required. The vessel is l0 ft 0 m.

l'rohlcm
diameter and 116 ft 8 in. from tangent to tangent. The vessel is to be
in the vertical position and supported at the bottom tangent line. It contains vessel consisls of a cylindrical shell with-the lower
head a hemi-
ffuid weighing 50 lb/fd. Thee stiffening rings are evenly spaced at 30 ft 0 in -- A tall
16.15
"" the upper head
soherical head and the upper head a flat head Because
it
with 28 ft 4 in. from each tangent line. What are the longitudinal stresses
the support line?
ffi; ilp".t; J; *"igi'tt or zo,ooo lb from connecting
for full
equipment
vacuum at room
is rnaAe- 2'S in. thick. The vessel is designed
i".p".*."' Material is 5A-516 Grade 60' and there is no corrosion'
Solutian position and
The vessel is to be hydrostatically tested in the horizontal
is supported at the lower
installed in the vertiial position The vessel
l. Determine a preliminary thickness based on the extemal pressure
treoa+o-stt"tt tangent line' No stiffening rings are permitted' The vessel
using the procedure of the ASME code, vl[-l,
uc-28(c)(1). is 5 ft 0 in. insidi diameter by 60 ft 0 in' from tangent to tangent' The
a thickness of t = 0.75 in. D. = 129 + 2(0.75) = 121.5 in. D"/t - vessel contains only a gas during operation' What is the required thick-
121.5/0.75 = 162, and L/D":
360/121.5 = 2.9630. From Fig, ness of the vessel?
5-UGO-28.0, A = O.OO022.
Azswer.' Required thickness = 5/8 in'
^ = -----ffi
," 2(O.OW22)(26.38 x 101
:
= 23.9 psi: t 3/4 in. OK

I6.7 VESSEL UNDER EXTERNAT PRESSURE AND EXTERNAL LOADING

,,
Determine the weight of the vessel and contents when
to extemal pressure and
A tall, vertically supported vessel which is subjected
Shell-weight : zr(60.7 52 -602)Q4C0)@90 / 1728) = 112,950 in
.*rc.uf fouain! contains ,tre'set similar to those a vessel
with extemal
Heads-weight : (4 /3\n(60.753 -603)(490/ t728) = 9,740 ur"rror" on". ft *"thod of combining loadings as developed by Bergman and
il.,scribed in Section 16.5 is used to obtain Pj
" in the
:458,150 used analysrs
Contents-shell = n(61)z (l4N)(50 / 1728)
-iit" value
: between Sections 16'5 and 16'6 is that an expanded
Conrents-head (4 / 3) n(60)3 (50 / 1728) = 26,180
".f"-Aff"t*"e are used in obtaining P"
,,,'i;ii#J.i;;; which is given in Eq' 16 23:

3. Determine the maximum compressive load, (lb/in.) using Eq. (16.23) as

W *.4We 4M (16.27)
follows: P'= ;D3- nDz
-trD^
^ w (il2,950) + 0.5(9740) = rlu'o lDlrn' 'l'his new value of P, is then used to obtain new values of c and P/ from Eqs'
": no,= "il:lul, 16 .22 and 16 .25 .
4= 15.0 psi
what are the
P, (310.6) llxample 16'11. For the tall vessel described in Example 16 10'
2 using the
"= Fh= (,ffi
zone
= 0.1704 tonsitudinal stresses when the vessel is designed for earthquake
Uniform Building Code?
(1.23) (1.23)
forces and the
^=A/D"f:ffi=0.1401 Sotutian, It is necessary to determine the lateral earthquake
earthquake
,,u".t,-iog rno."nt at thl support line Using Eq' 16' 1' the lateral
n = 3.0 from Fig. 16.6 for L/D,: 2.963 andD"/t = 162 lbrces may be determined.
p; = e - l *t0:11 r?04)
(r5) = rs.04 ps' y=|fcrzone2
13,11(0
1= 1.0
As determined in step I, the maximum allowable extemal pressure based on
K=2.O
t : 0.75 in. is P, = 23.9 r", at 550T. Because the required pressure of 15.04
 392 TAu. VtSSEtS
BIBTIOGRAPHY 593
w 607,(xx) tb
+ 5698.3/().75) : lt,200 Psi'
Axill stress is (452.lt
I - l4(X) in. lirftowing the method given in UG-23(b) of the ASME Code' -Vlll-l '
thc
w 607.000
*:'h= 433.6tb/in. lllowable" axial stress on a cylinder is determined as follows:
ffi: "o-p."riiu"
E = 26.38 x 106 psi
determine A=
0.125
= 0.125181 = 0.0015
d+t 120 + 0.75
R.lt
t O.75 Code' VIII-I is
Ar 550'F, the value of B from Fig. 5-UCS-28 1 of the ASME '
I,:0.049(l2l.5a - l2O4) = 517,600 in.a l;ititi pJ.'
-ont"qoently, the actual compressive- stress. of 8200 psi is less than
(433.6)(l4ooF plate thickness of 0'75 in'
thc allowable compressrve sness of 8700 psi, and the
T=ooeo8./(26.38 x t06x5t7,600) : r noro
satisfactory. I
v rs

-1
c:_=--::0.{1666 l'roblem
ls v(l.0029)
r(C = (2.0X0.0666) = 0.1331 16.16 For the same vessel described in Problem 16'15' what is the required
CS= (0. 12X1.5) = 0. 18; maximum is CS : 0. 14 thickness if the 20,000-lb force is applied at the edge of the
cylinder

KCS = (Z.O)(0.14) = 0.28; maximum KCS : 0.3 rather than at the center of the head?
y = (3/8)(l)(.28)(607,000) : 63,740 rb in Although--the €ffect of the
Answer.' Required thickness = 5/8
F' = 0.07(1.0592)(63,7 40) = 4,7301b but not more than 0.25y = overtumlng moment ls added, the thickness originally selected is ade-
0.25
(63'740, = 15,940 lb; F, = 4730lb quarc.
F" = V - F, = 63,740 - 4730 : 59,010 lb
M" = (s9,010X1400)(2/3) + (4730)(1400) = 61,698,000 in.-lb
REFERENCES

Using Eq. 16.27, determine total compressive loading as

ANsvAPlstandard62o,RecommendedRulesforDesignandConstruc|ionofLarse.weucd',
Inw-Pressure Storage IdnIJ American Pelroleum Institute
Washington' D L '

ffr^@# : 310.6 +
Peroleum Institute '
," =
ffi* 5387:1 = s6e8.3
ANSTAPI Standard
Washington, D.C.
65 O, Wetded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage ' American

P, = 15.0 ANSIStandardA58.l-lgS2,BuildingCodeRequirementsforMinimumDesiSn.I'oadsin
Auiidings and Other Stntct r€r, American Nalional Standards Institute'
New York' 1982'
P /56OR 1r
Uniform Buitditrg Code, 1982 ed , Intemational Conference of
Building Officials' Whittier'
"=#r=ffi=3-t266 Cal.
Hydrccarbon Pro-
m = 0.1401 Dechetto, K., and w. Long, "Check Towers for Dynamic stability
c?rrir,g, Vol. 45, No. 2, February 1966, pp' 143-147 ' "'
n=3.0 Bergman, E.O., "The Design of Venical Prcssure vessels
Subjected to Applied Forces"'
it"?in vuutt ona piping Design ASME New York' 1960' pp 576-580
9-l+0.1401 Ctlinders' University of
= 15.8 psi 7. Strum, R.G., A Study of the Collapsing Pressure of Thin'walled
Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No 329' 1941

Because r :
0.75 in., MAW? = 23.9 psi at 550.F, the shell is still acceptable
with the earthquake loading. When a is larger than 1.0, the vessel is checked
as a cantilever beam. The axial unit stress due to p- is BIBLIOGMPHY

Vibratiots, 4th ed , Mccraw-Hill' New York' 1956'

P_:2!
=Gs)(120.7s) : 452.8rb/ in.
Den Hartog, J. P., Mechanical
Wrndenburs, D. F , and C. Trilling,
"Collapse by lnstability of Thin Clindrical Shells under
Extemil Pressure," Ttuns. ASME Vol 56' NewYork l9J4 pp ulv-bzJ'
 CHAPTER 17
VESSELS OF NONCIRCULAR
cRoss sEcrloN

595
 396 V!33H.3 0r NoNctRcutaR cRoss sEcfloN l7.r TYpES Ot vEsstls 597

17,I WPES OF VESSELS

Although many kinds of noncircular cross sections may be used for proces!
vessels, only a few configurations are used widely. The ASME Code, VI[_l,
limits design rules to vessels of rectangular cross section as shown in Fig. 1i, i
and Fig. 17.2 and to obround cross sections. Some additional rules are given fof
vessels with a circular cross section that utilizes stay plates to give addedltrength
to the vessel. The rules in this chapter are limiied to vessels with a straight
longitudinal axis and noncircular cross sections. Rules are given elsewhere ior
vessels with or without a circular cross section that is made into some other shaoo
than one with a shaight longitudinal axis, such as a torus.
Some vessels contain very few openings, whereas many others contain many
openings. If tlere are only a few openings, they usually are individually rein'.
forced by replacing the area removed as described in Chapter 11. In manv
vessels, multiple openings are calculated according to the rules for ligaments.
Ii
jlte diamelers of the openings are uniform through the wall thiikness, the
ligament efficiency is calculated very similarly to that for a circular vessel. Ifthe
opening consists of several different diameters through the vessel wall thickness
,
depending upon the type of calculated stress (either direct membrane sfiess or
bending shess), the effective opening size and the ligament efficiency calcu-

dnd flol w6ld ioint

Fiour6lT.2 "C" thops headeru wiih lorg€-rodius corne'5 {or minimum sire$ €oncanlrolion
for eosv rodiogroptry. (Courre3v EcodFo MR'vt Divkion)

with rectangular or square cross

lations are determined in different ways' Vessels
built with many different combinations of wall
thicknesses'
r;*it*t."y tt
;it"i"." sides have the same-wall thickness
where two opposite
ftom the
two opposite sides have a different wall thickness
"o.uinutions
^"J*ft".,ft" other
tiJ"..",ft-
nts $pe is often used in air-cooled heat exchangers'
"ii"#
ffiil;;;i; fu iioes or different thicknesses' wheteas still others mav

uiitir.
-'. ,tuv'ptut"t to stiffen the flat sides of the vessel'
for rectangular cross
i"n"rui diff"."nt combhations are shown in Fig' 17'3
for rectangular cross sections with stay
r""ii#ii rt ti r"yplates, in Fig' 17'4 circular sections with and without
;;;;d]; F s i'?.5 for obrooid isandsimilar forcross vessels with intemal pressure
Figur. l7,l
"*y ;il; ;ilf""gh the analysis plates on each type
witfr tnos! with extemal pressure, the effect of stay
Four-plore rectongulor hoodcr utilizo! wsld ioints or eoch corner. (Coortesy Ecodyne MR/r{
Diviiion)
"oirJarea
is di-fferent.
 +--J

+ l";

(Couriesy Americon So.isfy of Engine€n'

fioure 17.,1 Recrongulor crds s6ction' wilh sloy plot€s' '{echonicol
kim Fis. l3-2(o) of the ASl,tE Cod€, Vlll-l')

figur€ 17.3 Ploin ractongulor crols sectioff. (Courtesy of Americdn So.iery of rt^€€honicol Engineer!, from
Fis. l3-2(o) of the ASME Cod€, vlll-I.) s99
598
 I7,4 TIGAMINT ETFICIENCY FOR CONSTANT DIAMETER
OPENINGS 60I

I7.2 RULES IN CODES

cross section have been in

Spccilic rules for the design of vessels of noncircular
to that time' the ASME
:-(
;ifi ;ffi A;;, tI[- 1, iince the r97 7 Addenda' Prior
(ieaDDliedseveraldiftbrentmethodsforestablishingthemaximumallowable
ln 1963' the ASME
-,'rir"I i"it= i;; ".tt.it tr noncircular cross section This code
i,;[';:"ffi;A;A
"t Cu." irrs rot noncvlindrical pressure.vessels'
to UG-34' but
,,,r, *.rtin"O the heads and covers to bi calculated according
according
.1-- calculated
il;;i;il;tid;;iuie" p-a["] to ttt"thic[ress
longitudinal axis be
or maximum-allowable working
il;;;6. il;;;;i*rt", p"r-its ttre
permitted by
irr"r*i!',J" i","t-ined analytically or by one of the proof tests
tho-tnASME Code.
cross section given in the
addition to the rules for vessels of noncircular
vessels^are contained in
ASME-Cod", VIII-I, design rules for rectangular
code'2 and several
i ,i,,yd" R;;i;*;i strippin!,r the Swedish
Pressure vessel
other codes.

CROSS SECTION
I7.3 OPENING IN VESSELS WITH NONCIRCUTAR
number of openings that are
lirr those vessels and headers that contain a limited
mav be applied For
:';; ;;;g;-lrt p"n"m, the method of reinforced openings
the flat sides of noncircular vesseis, the
reinforcing rules for flat plates apply lf
ligament efficiencv
i;; ;;;;i;;t ;;angea in a reluiar pattern' the method of
rrrav be apDlied.
""i;;Jfi;i"ament efficiency appears in both of the equalions for
mem-
foi some opening confi€urationsit is neces-
brane stress and for bending stress,
stress and the
,^t a J"i".-it" both *rJ hgament efficiency for membrane
$ress' In addition' it is necessary to determine
ili;,-#;i"*t r- t"nain! to the degree of weld joint examination' The
iii**"Ld i"* relati-ve
"in;iency
k,wer effiiiencY of the two is used'

DIAMETER OPENINGS
(c) (d) I7.4 TIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR CONSTANT
Figure 17.5 Obround ond circl.llor cros. .€crions with ond wiftout sioy plote!.
a regular pattem as shown ln
l'or flat plates with constant diameter openings in
(Co,rrr,e5y Americon Socioty
oI lchonical Engiru.rc, tom Fig, t3-2(b) ond (c) of th€ ASME Code, V t_I.)
and bending stresses is the
i ig.'i?.6, ,ii" flg"."nt efficiercy for b;rh membrane
same. When the two opemng's being considered
for setting the ligament
an equivalent
rtu"" Ano"nt diam;ters, it is necessary to determine
"iil"i*"y
oi"-"i"i"i,ft" openings by averaging their diameters as
follows:

(17.1)
DB=O'S(dt+dz)

600 The ligament efficiency is then determined as

 r7.5 IIOAMENT ETFICI€NCY SUBJICT TO MEMIRANI
STRT3S OOI
vtssEts of NoNctRcutaR cRoss srcTtoN
rllicicncy equation i|s

Da=05(1 5 + 1'25):1375in'
.|.|rglisamentefficiencyisbasedontheminimumspacingofp=3'5in.ustng
tlrc eq-uivalent diameter Dr = 1'375
in'

€^ = €r:3's ,.1'3" = o.ao, T

l'roblems

l?.lAheaderisdesignedforaligamentefficiencyofe-=-e'=0667What
is the rninimum cen
for 1 ?5-in diameter openings?
".-,o-tJnt"' 'puting
Answer: d = 5'25 tn'
two.rows of 7 /8in'
17
'' .2
'- Theflat side plate of a rectangular header contains
ie openings,are on 8-in'
iiL"L th" 3-in' apan and the
Jt"-ui" "p"oing.' 'o*'
r6.gi*-oinal spacing along each row The header. aLso contains

i""d;JtJi*ao ioint ienter of the same flat side plate The

alon'g ttre
";;il'j"t"r, only visually eiamined' has a weld joint efficiency of
f = O.ZO. Wftut is the efflciency used to set the minimum required
thickness?
Figuro 17.6 efficiency'
Answer: E = 0 70, which is less than the ligament
Op6nings wiih constonr diomerer.

2 has the weld joint examined by fuli

radiog-
cm-eb--
P_DF 17.3
' ' '- If the header
in Problem 17 '
(17.2) required thickness?
p t"pfty, *ft" is the efficiency used to set the minimum

Example 17,1. What is the membrane and bending ligament efficiency in a Answer: E = 0'825' which is the ligament efficiency'
rectangular cross section header in which 11:6 lf|.-, h = 12 in., and
tt = tz = 0.75 in. with a single row of 1.5-in. diameter holes on 4-rn. cenrer-
OPENINGS
to-center spacing? I7.5TIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR MULTIDIAMETER
SUBJECT TO MEMBRANE STRESS
Solution. Using Eq. 17.2, calculate the efficiency as
Therearemanydifferentarrangementsofplateswith.openings.withmulti. the
4-1.5 ;;;; .iio*n in Fig 17 7' For use in air-cooled heat exchangers'
= 0.625 T ", ar" orr-gJd in increasing diameter through the-plate
."iiidi".J" thickness
tube
rolling in the
*t i", ,. tubJs the larger diarieters are needed for
may be considered'
!,xrmple 17.2. A single row of openings is altemately spaced on 4-in. and for "*",
holding "a-inAny nrrung"'fi"nt of various diameters
power.
3.5-in. center-to-center spacings. The opening diameters also alternate with first For me-mLrane stress, the ligament efficiency is
a 1.5-in. diameter opening followed with a 1.25-in. diameter oDenins. What is
the minimum ligament efficiency for setting thickness? D-Da ( 17.3)
p
Solution, Calculate the equivalent diameier DE to be used in the ligament
 vt33!t3 0f NoNctRcutaR cRoss sEcfloN I7.5 TIOAMINT EFFICIENCY SUBJECT TO MfMBRANI STRESS

nr

I
I-,--

IN
t:
:I P
11 . p- d1
+
lFl
I

a, tt.n>j
IF;--;;;'r
*1
do = 1,625"

J
figure 17.8 Hole dsloils Ior oxomple l7'3'

D, =1#(r.625 x 0.125 + l.s x 1.r2s + 1.375 x 025) = 1 490

in. I
Figur. 17.7 Op.ning! wirfi muhi{iomeier. Example 17'4. Tubes are expanded into a rectangular header that
is 1'25 in'
'fne grooves in the
tt ict. notes ute 0.875-in. diameter with two 0 3l25-in -deep
hole for holding power. The grooves are 0 125 in' high with 0 25-in'
spacing
between them.-The top gtoove is 0.25 in ftom the top edge
What is the
where membrane ligament efficiincy if the openings are on 3-in' centers?

Solutinn. Calculate the equivalent diameter DE using Eq' 17 '4:

o" = + dlt + dzTz + . . . + d,n) (t7 .4)
I@on
p:3in'
Example 17.3. Determine the membrane ligament efficiency in a header do = in. ?6 = 0.25 in'
0.875
where /r : tz = l.5O in. The header contains a series of openings on 4_in,
centers. The openings are multidiameter, as shown in Fig. lt.g. dr : O.9375 in. T : O.125 in-
dz : 0.875 in- 7i : O 25
Solution, Calculate the equivalent diameter DE using Eq. 17.4 as follows:
dz = 0.9375 n. \ = 0.125 n'
P:4in. d, = 0.875 in' 7i = 0.50 in'
da: in. ?6 = 0.125 in.
1.625
," = x 0.25 + 0'9375 x 0.125 + 0'875 x 0'25 +
dr = 1.5 in. T1 : 1.125 in. #(0.875
dz = 1.375 in. Tz = 0.25 in. 0.9375 x 0.125 + 0.875 x 0.5) = 0.888
 606 Vt33!r3 0t NoNctRcurAR CROSS SECTTON
I7.6 TIGAMTNT ETFICICNCY SUBJECT TO EENDING s]RESS 607
The mcnrhranc ligunrcnt cllicicncy rs
I =2 AXz ( 17.6)

lrrom Fig. 17.1 and Eq. 17 5'

",=1:jq=o.zo+
>Ax=bofr(;+4
/T^
+z+...+4)
-/
Problcms /a \
+ btrt l; + 7;+...+T"l
-/
17.4 A rectangular header contains a series of tube holes on 3.5-in. centers. (r7.7)
The holes are l-in. diameter with the ends counterbored 0.25 in. deeo to /'r-
a diameter of 1.125 in. ff the plate is 1.5 in. thick, what is the lisament + brTrl; +
\- "'n 4)
efficiency for membrane stresses?
/T\
Answet
+ u.nlil
\-/
etu = 0.702

17.5 A seamless square header that hasT l/4-in- inside measurement by 1.125 2A= boTo + bll + bzT) + .. . + b"T" (17.8)
in. thick is to be formed so that it will have a constant thickness. Thc
header contains a row of 2-in. diameter on 3-in. centers. The holes havc >AX Eq. 17 7
"-
(17.9)
one groove for expansion at the midthickness of the plate that is 0.125 in. >A Eq. 17.8
high and has a2.125-in. diameter. The opposite wall contains a series of
handhole openings 4.25-in. diameter on 7-in. centers with a seat on the From Eq. 17.6
outside 0.125-in. deep by 4.75-in. diameter. What are the ligament
effi ciencies for membrane stresses?
I=2Ior2AXz (17.10)

t * brTrt + bzTrt +.. +bE

Ansver2 e^: 0.328 on tubeside tz' t2 12
'-=boTo3 12
\2
e^ : /T^
0.384 on handhole side
* b'ft (? + rt + 12 + . . . + r. -I)
17.6 A header is to be made from 1-in.-thick plate. The plate contains a row
of tube holes on 3.5-in. centers. The holes are allernate 2 and 2.5 in. All .^lr,
-rarrrErT2* "+T,-X) (17.11)
holes are counterbored 0.25 in. and to a O.Zs-in.larqer diameter. What
is the ligament efficiency for membrane stress? lT -\'z
+brr,(;+...+r.-x)
Answer: e. = 9'339
?\2
/-
* b"r"v _;)
I7.6 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR MULTIDIAMETER OPENINGS
SUBJECT TO BENDING STRESS c = larger off or (r - fJ
For a flat plate that contains rnultidiameter openings, it is necessaxy to determine The width of the ligament is
an effective ligament efficiency in bending by locating a neutril axis of the
b6=P-DB (r7.r2)
various diameters and thicknesses of the openings and the effective moment of
inertia. From structual mechanics, the basic equations are
Because c = t/2 and I = bEt3 /12,
2AX
"= >A (17.5) c tll2\
-=-l-------=l=-- brx
6
(17. r 3)
I 2 \bEt"/
 I7.6 LIGAMTNT EFTICIENCY SUBJECT TO EENDINO STRESS 609
608 vtsstts oF NoNCtRCUtAR CROSS SECTTON

thc ligament cl'licicncy lirr bending strsss is calculatcd lrom liq lT l5 us

And
4 - 1.53
= 0.617 I
Dt=P -n o/
(17. t4)

For bending stress, the ligament efnciency is |.)xamp|elT.6.TheheaderinExamplel?.4issubjectedto'bendingStresses

in tt e nut sides. What is the ligament efficiency for the bending shess?
D_D" Solution
(17.15)
p
P=3in'
Example 17.5. Determine the bending ligament efficiency in the header
in To : 0.25 in. do : 0.875 in' bo = 3 - 0'875 = 2'125 tl:,'
Example 17.3.
Tr = 0.125 in. dr = 0.9375 n' h = 3 - 0'9375 :2'O625 \n'
Solwion Tz= 0.25in. dz=0.875\n' bz=3- 0 875
:2lZ5 in'
Z: = 0.125 in. dz = O.9375 in' bt: 3 - O'9375 : 2'0625 in'
P = 4in.
: Tr : 0.5 in. dr = 0.875 in' bq = 3 - 0'875 = 2'125 \n'
To in.
0.125 do = in. bo = 4 - 1.625 = 2.375 in.
1.625
r, AX : (2.125)(0.25)(0.125 + 0.125 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0 5)
Zr = 0.375 in. dr : 1.5 in. br = 4 - 1.5 = 2.5 in.
Tz = 0.25 in.
+ (2.0625)(O.t25)(0.0625 + 0.25 + 0'125 + 0 5)
dz = 1.375 in. bz = 4 - 1.375 = 2.625 in.
2 AX = 2.37s x 0.12s(O.o62S + 0.375 + 0.25) + (2.125X0.25X0.125 + 0.125 + 0.5)
+ 2.s x 0.37s(0.1875 + 0.25) + (2.062sX0.12s)(0.062s + o's)
+ 2.625 x 0.25(0.125\ + (2.12sx0.s)(0.25)
) AX = 0.6963 X AX = 1.6484
2 A = 2.375 x 0.125 + 2.5 x 0.375 + 2.625 x0.25 =
t A = (2. 12sx0.2s) + (2.062sX0. 125) + (2'r2s)(0 25)
1.8906
_ N KOK? + (2.o62s)(o.r2s') + (2.12sx0's) = 2'6406
X= = 0.3683 in.
1.8900::
x- = 1.6484
L64C6
= u.o4+)
r = + l(2.37 s)(0.12r3 + e.s)(0.37 13 + e.6zs)(0.2s)31
+ (2.375X0.125X0.625 + 0.375 + 0.2s _ 0.36S3f r=$ l<2. rzsxo.2r3 + Q'062s)(o.r2r3 + Q. t2sr(o'2s\31
+ (2.5X0.375X0.1875 + O.zs _ 0.36S3f + (2.125X0.5f
+ (2.0625XO.r25)3
+ (2.62s)(o.2sr(0.3683 _ 0.1212 (2.125)(O.25)(O.l2s + o.lzs + 0.25 + 0 125 + 0'5
+
/ = 0.0884 - 0.6243)2
c = the larger of 0.3683 or (0.75 - 0.3683) = 0.3817 + (2.0625)(0.125)(0.0625 + O.25 + 0.125 + 0.5 - 0'6243)2

From Eq. 17.14, the equivalent diameter is + (2.125X0.25X0.125 + 0.125 + O.5 - 0.6243)2
+ (2.0625)(0.125)(0.0625 + 0.5 - 0.6243)2
Ds = 4 -#ffi = 4 - z'47: 1'53 in. + (2.125x0.sx0.6243 - O.2s\2
610 vrsslr.s 0f NoNcrRcurAR cRoss s[cTtoN
STRISSES 6I
I7.7 DTSIGN METHODS AND ALLOWABTE I

I = 0.3451 in.a applied bad-

: solvc lbr minimium required thickness in terms of geometry and
c = the larger oI O.6243 or (1.25 - 0.6243) O.6257 \n.
ings. Even in these cases' some assumptions are. necessary because the thickness
shess, but, it is related by the square of
isiirectly related to primary membrane
Equivalent diameter is equal to lhc thickness to primary bending stress '
B;th il.rty;embiane and primary bending s$esses are determined for
th€
(6)(0 345r \ point examined' Where required' shesses may
De = 3 -ffi = 3 - 2 tl8 = 0 882 in' various configurations at each
t f"r the effect oi a weld joint efficiency' if there.is one' and for
1-ntR? """J "O.i"t*E
both thJ membrane shess and the bending saess ligament efficiencies
when a
eb : '-:------::-::= = 0.706 rspeating
-'n.""iai"gpattern of openings is used.
J
to ttre ASME-Code, VIII-I, a weld joint efficiency according 10
joints) '
uw- t Z ls reiuirea for longitudinal butt-weld joints (and-some other butt
In looking at the efficiency from Example 17.4, this is a case where the groovcl all points
.trtrr.ugn tftJ*"fa joint eficiency is applied to the membrane stress at
for expanding the tube have little to do with the efficiency because e. = 6.794 weld
: in tn" noi side plates, iiis applied to the bending stress only at the
and eu 9.796. a ri A" examined binding stresJ is located in the flat side plate rather than
"*u-in""O
tt" *"tA iom,, the weld j6int efficiency is not applied' The ASME Code'
'"i"i.
ui
Problcms VUi- t , is applying the weld joint efficiency to the allowable stresses
"onsiOAng any polnt'
instead of modifyinf thJcalculated snesses' However, in examining
either method worki when the proper weld
joint efficiency is used in the equa-
17.7 T\e header in Problem 17.4 is subjected to bending stresses as well a!
membrane shesses. What is the ligament efficiency for bending stresses? tions.
'"-Only
the lower efficiency of the weld joint and the membrane and
bending
is used. The weld joint efficiency is not modified by the
Answer: eu = 9.792 lit es."', efncien"ies
joint not
ii*u*"n only the lower efficiency is used' If the weld does

17.8 What are the ligament efficiencies for bending shesses in Problem 17.5?
"tn"i"n"y;
rt" p-", irxamined, only the ligament efficiencies. need be considered'
"3"* "i
Provisions are given to account for holis with different diameters
thrcugh the
determined for calcu-
Answers: et : 0.333 on tubeside olate thickness.-For those cases, an equivalent diameter is
iating
- the ligament efficiencY.
et : 0.367 on handhole sido iio- ttt"" for"going discussion, one realizes that care is. required
in deter-
a:t any location. In general, it is. easier to separate the
-i.i; tttd"s
tlt"-
a"-ti-" stress and the bending stress at each location examined
ln most
I7.7 DESIGN METHODS AND ATIOWABIE STRESSES , shesses should be ixamined at the
midpoint and ends of the side
"r"ig*"ti-t
pf"telt waf as at the weld joint, if one exists Other points may
also have to
Design rules given in this chapter are for vessels and headers that have a sraight be examined.
The calculated primary membrane stress is limited to the basic
longitudinal axis with a noncircular cross section and closure plates on each end, allowable
The fonnulas are based on assuming a unitJength vessel section with no t"nril",t gin"nin the applicablecode; however, the combination of primary
stengthening effect form the longitudinal direction of the plate. However, for
certain uniform thickness vessels and headers, provisions are given for plates
-".U.-""r..6tt pfus primary bending stress for a plate thickness assumed to be
rectangular in cross section is limited to the following:
with a length-to-width ratio of two or less to compensate for the added strength
from the longitudinal direction. govern'
1. At design temperatures where tensile strength and yield strength
The design rules in the ASME Code, VItr-I, provide for vessels of rectan-
the lesser of the following:
gular and obround cross section where different walls may have different thick-
(a) 1.5 times the basic allowable tensile stress at design temperature'
nesses. The method used in the ASME Code, VI[-1, combines plate and shell
(b) Yield strength at design temperature'
theory and stuctural design theory where it is necessary to assume wall thick-
nesses and calculate stresses that are compared with allowable stress values. 2. At design temperature where creep and rupture strength govem' the
These methods were described in Chapter 7. lesser of the following:
(a) 1.25 times the basic allowable stress at design temperature'
For vessels and headers of uniform thickness, e.quations can be developed that
(b) Yield strength at design temperature'
 17.8 BASIC EouAlloNS 0r3
612 VtSSttS OF NONCTRCUTAR CROSS SICT|ON
is
["br externll prcssure, where the total stress may be compressive, a limitation llcnding moment at cOrner O
also set based on buckling of the side plat€.
il
The basic theory is the maximum strsss theory that is generally used in
structural analysis. For cross sections of members and stifieners other than
M"=+Hl{'##) (17.18)

r. the combination of primary membrane plus primary bending stresl

Tlangular,
is limited to the shape factor of the member times the basic ailowable tensilc llcnding moment at midpoint
of long-side M is
str6s in the applicable code but is not to exceed the yield strength at the design
temperatures where tensile strengtl and yield strength govem. At design teir. u" __ un _P# ( 17. 19)
p€ratures where cre€p and rupture strength govem, the same limits apply,
but tho
shape factor multiplier is limited to 1.25 regardless of the actual shape
factor,
short-side N is
. As_mentioned previously, it is necessary to calculate shesses at various pointl llcnding moment at midpoint of
in order to determine which combination controls. Certain analysis methods,
(17.2o)
such as that in the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code, combine the mjmbrane stresg
and the bending stress in the same equation. It may be necessary to separate them
ur= un_P#
for evaluation when different efficiencies apply to the membrane stress rather
than to the bending shess.

I7.8 BASIC EQUATIONS

For analysis purposes, the noncircular cross section of the vessel is considered
as a skuctural frame. Each component of the rectangular or obround
frame
contains a load that causes a membrane stress and i moment that causes Internal Pressure, ?
a
bending shess. The total stress at any point is the summation of these
two
stfesses.
As shown in Fig. 17.9, the direct or membrane
_
by intemal pressure
skess at any point is caused
loading against the adjacent walls. fhls toaaine is resisted
by strength of material, and weld or ligament efficilency of the
-the-thickness,
lvall! that are carrying the load. The applied loading d e)(1,) and the resisting
loading is (&Xr)(2d. When these are equated to e;ch other and solved
for S,l
the membrane stress for the short-side iJ

-Ph
t^: xrn (17.16)

and for the long side, the membrane stress is

Ith'
^PH (17 .17)
2t2E

From the theory of structural frames,3 the basic moment equations for
a
rectangular frame under intemal pressure loading p when the two pairs MM
of
oppcsite sides have equal thickness and equal length, as shown in Fig. -.9, diogrom ior reclongulor !€crion heodor'
are lnbrnol pr*3'rr. looding ond b€nding moment 'ro$
as follows: rigur€ '17.9
 6t4 Vt!!!ts 0f NONCTRCUTAR CROSS SECTION
17.8 BASIC EQUATIONS 615
Momont ol incrtiu /1 lirr short-side is

L=\
t3 M,=ilffi)-?
. P /htl, + Htlz\ PHz (r728)
'12 (t7,2ll
('learing Eq. 17.28, we obtain
Moment of inertia 12 for long-side is
p /hJt. + Hjlz\
,. - L t:_:.L-- P l2rrz (17.2e)
|-
1..
r3
'2
""- t2\w,+at, J r28
n 07.22,t
Clearing P/12 in Eq. 17.29 gives
The basic equation for bending stress rs
M-=+ffi#-1.s''?) (17.30)

So:M'
I Multiplying Eq. 17.30 through by (-l),
Bending stress in comer of short_side is
M-=+('5"'- +J#) (17.31)

G)a=ryx!
Z.lt E (r7.23)
Substituting Eq. 17.31into Eq. 17.25 andcfor hf2:
Bending stress in comer of long_side is
$),=h(""'- +tuo,.; (11 .32)

6;)a=ryx!
2lz E (r7 .24)
Ilxarnple 17.7. Determine the adequacy of a rectangular cfo-ss-sectional
Bending stress at the midpoint of the short_side headeiwith a design pressure of 150 psi and made from a seamless forging with
oi t2,soo psi' The header inside dimensions are 14 in by
is
tn allowable .t
"ti
7.25 in. with a constant thickness of 1 in. All openings are reinforced'
tsr.lr: $
UtE* 1 (17 .2s)
Solutian
Bending stress at midpoint of the long_side is
1. Calculate the moment of inertia:

$,:ryx! (17 .26) ,=*$=oo',,

simplifying equations, the equation for the bending
stress at the midpoint of the
short-side is determined as follows: 2. Calculate bending moment at comer Mc using Eq. 17 l8:

Cross multiplying Eq. (17.18) .. 150 /(14)r/0.0s33 + (7.25)3/0.0833\

ua: i \- r+rerffi -llfr = 1838.28
/
= t2\(t!!!-!'h\
M..
P
(r7.27) 3. Calculate bending moment at midpoint of long-side M1a using Eq lT' 19:
hlr+HIz/
Substituting Eq. 17.27 in Eq. 17.20 gives
Mu = Ma -'+ =1838.28 - *Tq = - ft3632
 I7.8 BASIC EQUATION5 ot/
6t6 VtSSEtS Of NONCTRCUTAR CRO55 5ICT|ON

(S)c',v = (S')'v + (Si')or: 1050 + l l'030 = l2'0ti() psi

4. Calculate bending moment at midpoint of shorfside Mry using Eq.
14. Total stress at midpoint of short-side:
PH2 (150x-7 25)'?
Mu = Mo - +8 = 1838.28 - : 852.7J (sJ,u + (S)' = 1959 1 5120 = 6170 Psi
(S).,v =
5. values' so 1-in. thickness is satis-
Calculate bending stress at corner of lons-side: All sfesses are less than allowable sffess
lrctory.
(1838.28)(0.5)
(S)aa : : 11,030 psi from two C-
(0.0833) l,)xumple 17.8. Arectangular cross-sectional header is made
rcctions and butt welded along ule center
of the short-sides' Th€ weld joints are
6. Calculate bending shess at midpoint of long-side: r|)otexaminedwiththebacking,t.ipt"ftinplacefromTable.Uw-12ofthe
l15,psi,at room tem-
,ili*,riit"J", vrii-r' r = o.si' The design pressure.is
( 1836.72)(0.5) ,"r",ri."] *O tft" .","""f is se-S t S Craae
i0 with an allowable stress of 7 ' 500 1

(r"" = --O:d833- = I l'o2o Psi is 6 bv 0 625 in' thick'

ilI. ri'!il;; ;il;ir.i uv r in thick and the short-side
holes on 3'75-in' centers ls
( )ne lons-side contains a row ot i'S in diameter
,f
Calculate bending stress at corner of short-side: thc desiln acceptable?

(S6)qv = 11,030 psi Solution

long-side with the tube holes:
8. Calculate bending moment at midpoint of short-side: 1. Calculate the ligament efficiency of the
s=oeo
^ =
tsr)"
(852.73 )r0.5
-to.offi : 5120 psi
)
c^=€t=:'ls,;1
9. Calculate membrane stress on long-side: 2.Calculatethemomentsofinertiaofboththelong-Sideandtheshort-side:

,",
rs-,u=_PH=
(t50x7.2s) \-'Y:-' = o.o2o3 I,: tz\ (lt -= 0 0833
l,r (0.625)r
T ,(D :540 psi L = i= i=;-
Mp using 8q 17 18:
10. Calculate membrane stress on short-side:
3. Calculate the bending moment at the comer

Ph t50)( 14)
(J'),v=t= (
lo5opsi
r(ri:
ll. Total stress at corner of long-side: 4. Calculatethebendingmomentatthemidpointofthelong.sideMMusing
Eq. 17.19:
(S)o,u = (,S.),r.r * (S)aa:540 + 11,030 : 11,570 psi

12. Total stress at midpoint of long-side: M, -- Ma - ( = ror.rr-

(115X13'5f : -1778'so

(S)u = (&)v + (Srr : 5,40 + 11,020 = 11,560 psi 5. Calculate the bending moment at the midpoint
of the short-side Mrv using
Eq. (17.20):
13. Total stress at comer of short-side;
6t8 vlsSIts of NoNctRcutaR cRoss stcTtoN 9 EOUATIoNS lN THE ASME CODt',
vlll'l 619
. 17

Mn = Mo -'+ = 84r.3s - t+q :323.8s (S)o,v = (S,)'v + (Sr')o'v = 1550 + 12'950 = 14'500 pst

15. Total stress at midpoint of short-side:

6. Calculate the bending stress at the corner of the long-side with the
(E = 1.0): + (Sa)rv = 1550 + 6230 = 7780 psi
(S)p = (S'),v

'l'hc allowable stress for membrane stress is 17'500 p:'-Td ft^t't* combined
<s,t*=W:ffiffi=5o5opsi rrrembrane plus bending t*t""t-'it"i i-s = l 5(li'500) = 26'250 psi All
stresses and are acceptable'
|rlculated sfesses are tess tnan tne aiowable
7. Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the long-side with
holes (E = ea = 0.60): l'roblems
C-sections that are-buttrvelded
along
Mucz : ( 1778.50X0.5.) 17.9 A header is made ftom from two *eld is not examined and the backing
tsttu = -ilF: I /./eu psi fn"
(0.0S33X0O the centerline of th" bv 6 bv
il;;;. in pro""; tr'"tiiott' E = 0 65 -The.header-is 12
'tto*-'iA"
at the weld
is the stress
8. Calculate the bending stress at the comer of the short-side (E = 1.0): I in. thick with a de"gn p'";tit" oiZoO psi' What
joint?
Maq: (841.35)(0.3125)
= 10'160 Psi
(o^oro3xl3) =
ttilaN = 12'950 psi Answer: Maximum stress
iE
along
C-sections that are bxtt welded
9. Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side (E : 0.80): l?.10 A square header is made from two
wetd- efficiency
liJes' The is 0 65'
ioint
the centerline or t*o oppoiit" 2-in diameter on
of openings that
The adiacent side co"tain' u 'ow
t.)att : Mucr= (323.85X0.3125) = bzru Psr 5.75-in. centers' fr'" O"'igtipt""ut"
ii ttoisi and the lreader is 7'25 by
'are
lF (oJro3xojo) it tfi"''l*ito* where is it located?
stress and
0'75 in. thick' Wf'ut
10. Calculate the membrane stress on the long-side (E = e^: 9.691
Maximum stress = 5950 psi at corner of welded
side
Azs*er"
\r.)M =
PH= (l rsx6) :
Ui ,(lx0f) )uu PSr
I7.9 EQUATIONS IN THE ASME CODE'
VIII-I
11, Calculate the membrane stress on the short-side (.E = 0.S0):
Appendix13.r,h:f y:::*h#t" j;,:.lllllll1lH"',,'Tl:H jiJ,::iT;
=
Ph= (l1sxt3.5) jfi *::*'ffi
\r^tN
zttE ,(o.6rsxo3) = l55u Psr
ttriillT:l:i:Tfl
ASME :re
Code irs:i;if#l:h'#'
mexpressed c
'll"l,l:
to the sPecific geometries shown'
12. Total stress at corner of long-side: same thickness' the equations
in the ASME
When the opposite sides have the lT lT However'
Code, V[I-l, are the same * tnot" *iu"n in Eqs 17 16 and
(S)oy = 6^)u + (S)e1a = 580 + 5050 : 5630 psi *"tt' *"*rt"" theri are rounded comers' or when
when opposite thicknesses a specific
ue ,esM! code has
some other variation occurs , iir"'g"".""y,
13. Total stress at midpoint of long-side: oiut J"utiopta ttot the theory of structural
equation for that conngo'ut'on
'f'ui
(S),v = (S.),y + (Stff : + ftHl'"quu,ion, The prin-
580 17,790 = 18,370 psi for the bending stresses were similarly.developed
t4. Total stress at comer of short-side: .ipi",oi"*o*a f.T::"',::1"*f .J:rT: ;#:ffiil:tX"il:^1f'""?#'fl
to sive different equatrons rol
 +
Z:

\-l
'{
-!:

-(\
-+
I
,: -s
3 +: +
*sl
+I j

crs \l* \i ;
I
I I
t(a

-^-r-i- T 5 i T-r
't!.
-i
+ (J
9,)
€-E-'"r
lt5\(l
l- c.l

;
:' I

Fst.
^slv
,n ^r
F .*
,-..:\
^;l{
al
+ +
:
{lv +I
c'l
\]:
ol+ -l+ \) di
*l+ + I

ll-=l-
-l-tir Eo N +
\]
N
+
.:_-:-\
+ '{
ol
f'l
r_]d
dl
d
.\ilNI
6Jor
i
!J
.-i-
-i1c.|
i-]^ F
"? ^' ]: : \"1^ :J I a.a\
*+.F\E I
tl$ ti! rl$ tlH ;F it5 ].
E
le
{-l$
IN
*<-
<\'
lai '--:a
-l tN ,lla -t{ :l lA:
rN
s
.+Y
+< dl-
*llc ili

"l! rls q,i

ll-
tl
-Nl

^ t!.1
I
qJ

-B 3a93qLraa Fa O lrl Qaa

'Ed
9!
YE
EEEFEEEE
E:>S"a'Si
€E! 6

-> <at\ a<

ri
o 9
0
F
ii3333Ss
rxrrSSrC
$\J
r- c- F-
ul!"4
Fe-rr (J

620 621
 622 vfssg.s oF NoNctRcurAR cRoss sEcTtoN

bending stress at thc midpoint of the short-side of a rectangular cross-sectlr Iqble 17 .2

headerisEq.3of Article l3-7 of the ASMECode, VIII_1. bevelopment of
l,rIure Location Membrane Stress (Psi)
same equatlon as given in Eq. 17.32 is

as,: ffiltsn'- o,ttti :ff (t7 l'l .3a

t't .3b
Short-side
Long-side
Short-side
Ph /(2hE)
Ph/(2t28)
Ph /(2^D
(17
n Long-side -=:=--=l4NH'-2h'? | (K, + k?)
b./Yttt2l I L

K= -kt(Kt + k) + Kr - Kr))\
t;td (r7 , "'k
P(a + L)/^E
|+ = t. * l4 *
I:, 1] h3lt + H3t2 17 .3c Short-side
P(h + s)lhE
o2K -
r,^i]____Fh
Lh,..
(r7. Long-side
p(tE l17 + d/ns
comel
+
r+K=l *11 "',.1 -htt+Ht2 (r7 t't .3d Short-side Php/2(At ph)E
Lh rtl hll Long-side PHp 12( z + pt)E
_h2(l + a2n = _orlhtl, + Hrl, u H, I _ h3lt + H3I2 l7 .3e Shon-side P(L+L.l+a)/hE
(l+K) -L h'1, "ht,+Htr] hlt + HI2 (t7 .
Long-side P(h+h+a)/t2E
tt.)a Midpoint, curve P(a + L)/nE
Substituting Eq. 17.38 into Eq. 17.33 gives Pa/hE
End, curve
Side PaltzE
@,:#,rftt"'- +:#] (17 t't .5b Midpoint, curve
End, curve
P(a+L)pl(At+ph)E
Pap/(A, + ptt)E
Pap/(At + ph) E
Equation 17.39 is identical to Eq. 17.32 and shows the relationship between Side
thl
gquations in Appendix 13 of the ASME Code, VI[-l, and those derived fron
basic theory. The ASME Code contains extensive nomenclature in Article
13.!
fo-r yarioug configurations. Equations for the bending stresses in Table
l3_lg,l
of the code are shown in Table 17.1. In addition, equations for membrana Tqble 17.3
:hTle! for various configurations in the ASME Code, VIII_I, are summarizod LtlH or Lr/h Cz
in Table 17 .2.
Although all the formulas have been developed on the basis of a length_to. 0.56 0.62
1.0
width L1/H and Ly /ft of four or more-the ratio where there is no long dimen. 0.70
1.1 0.64
sion effect-provisions are given for the simple rectangular header shown o.77
in 1.2 0.'13
Fig. 17.3a to reduce stresses when the aspect iatio is lei than two. The mem,
1.3 o.79 o.82
brane stresses remain the same, but the blnding stresses are reduced
by multl. 0.85 0.87
plying by the factors in Table 17.3. The stressei are then obtained by 1.4
using tho 0.91
following equations: l.) 0.89
1.6 o.92 0.94
For the short-side at the comer: 0.96
0.95
1.8 0.9't 0.9'l
(Sa)o = Eq. 17 .23 x C2 (17.40)
1.9 0.99 0.99
2.O 1.00 1.00
For the shon-side at the midpoint:
623
 r7.9 EQUAI|ONS lN THI ASMI coD[,
vlll'l
vEssH,s oF NoNctRcurAR cRoss sEcfloN

(Sr,),v = Eq. 17 '25 x Cl ( r7.4 (Si,),v = 5120 Psi

For the long-side at the corner: midpoint of the long-side using Table
17 l'
Calculate the bending stress at the
lirst equatlon:
(sa)o = Eq' 17 '24 x Cz
f, . - I +-t(0.51?9)rl = lr.020psi
(l50x0.s)(l4f I
For the long-side at the midpoint: (s,)" =
1;(o58txt L' ' I o.5l7e I
(Sa),r.r = Eq. 17.26 x Cl ( 17. truilt with a shortened
l,lxample 17.10. The header in Example 1?'9 is to be
midpoints considering the
For those cases where eitdrrer Lr/H or Ltf h is elss than 1.0, it is necessary ffi;;ffi;;; = ia in. wttu' trt" foesses
'"
at the

rho-rtened length?
reorient the axes of the header and to recalculate all properties such as
of inertia of the wall. Dimensions are chosen so that the longest dimension is L1,
Solutian. Zr = 18in';H = 7 '25 in'; andh = l4it' Calculate the following:
the next dimension is ft, and the shortest dimension is 11. This may result in
pafi which was originally considered to be an end closure becoming a wall
the header. All calculations are based on this revised confieuration.
L'
= 18 2.48 cr : c2 = l.oo
Vessels of noncircular cross section may be subjected to external pressuro, H 7.25 =
Membrane and bending sfiesses are considered the same as for intemal pressun L:
unless the resulting stresses are compressive where stability may be a possibh =9 =
h14
t.ZS Ct = 0.79 znd Cz = 0.82
mode of failure. Interaction equations are used to examine the various plates fot
stability. Calculated stresses are compared with critical buckling stresses with I long-side only because the length-to-
The strengthening effect applies to the
factor of safety applied. This is described in Article 13-14 of the ASME Codo,
width ratio ii less than 2'0 This gives
vl[-l.
(s6)r x cl = (11,020)(0 79) = 8?10 psi I
(s)1q' =
Example 17.9. The rectangular cross-sectional header in Example 17.7 il be built with a shortened
made according to ASME Code, VIII-I, rules. What are the bending stresses at ExamDle l7.tl. The header in Example 17 9 is to
axes for analysis and what
the midpoints of both the short-side and the long-side? ffi1ilfi;;''= iz in' whnt is aonejo trt" n"aaer long-side?
midpoints oi the short-side and the
,rt"
^r"",il"'r'o""". "
Sohttion. Knowns: Il = 7.25 in.: h= 14 in.; r= 1 in.; c = 0.5 and geometry properties as follows:
Solution. Calculate the header
E = 1.0. Calculate a. 1. and K as follows:
Lr: 12 = t.66
H 7 '2,5
"=#=T:o.ttn 4 =9 = o'ss
rl fl\l h14
r=i=;-=0.0833
( reoriented for analysis ln the
Lr/h 1.0, the axes of the header must be
. = (,:)" =
0.0833
(0.0833X0.s 179)
:0.5179 Since
ffi;#, r,) tqin.,h= 12in', andrl-= -,,1:
7'tf in' -
flat end closur-et^which have now
The first assumption is that the originat
Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side using Eq. 17.33 b".;.';i;;";'also I in trti"t on'tttur basis' 1= 0'0833 remains'
and Table 17.1, second equation:

" =+
=ff = o.suz
/t4), I
(1s0)(0.5)
fr s,z rsv - rr+,
+ (0'5t79)3'l
(Ja)":
l2(0.0833)(1) Lt.J\t.zJ, K= O.6042
 VESStLs lN OTHER CODES 627
vEsSEt s o; NoNCtRCUtAR CROSS SCCTTON l7,lo DGSION Of NoNclRcutAR

il proof tests Among those design codes lirr

Check thc strcngthening I'actors apply: vcurs based on dellection and burst Llovd's
l';;";;;; ulrr"i, *" the Swedis'h Pressure Vessel Code and the
L, : t4 il"*'.i"' ii*p*g n"r"-"1'*i::l"T",i ;$,"%il'ni-":X',"*"';1ff #:1':,1
V 1O = t.lZ Ct = 0.99 and C2 = 0.99 Lrl "i ftames, spectnc appt
structural
luro different.
L, 14
h= i= 1.17 Ct = O.62 and C2 = 0.68
Method in Swedish Pressure Vessel Code2
l7.lO.l
are rules and
Shengthening fagtors apply to both short_side and long_side. (i)ntained in Chapter 18 of the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code
headers subjected to intemal
Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the sliort-side
using Eq. 17.4 il;;;t-f- ilGning rectangular cross-sectional all sides' There are no rules
:ffi;";;;;i,h G ,ut"-ttti"tn"" of walls on
when the wall thicknesses are con-
ts,r,=ffffil' rrrrrl - ozrfffilro.el i;ff;5;it ffi ;tilerent watl thicknesses' both
;;;i;;;
*i{;-basJ;q"^u';
J;"i, ;iu"n for ttre st'"ss"s in the long-side and the short+ide'
Pressure vessel Code
for the long-side from the Swedish
(Sa),v = 2280 psi
is

Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint ofthe long_side

^ equation:
fust
using Table 17. l,
;=(;,-&*6 (17.M)

/c, -- (150X0.5)(lD2f .- - I + (0.6042)r'l (0 62; One term in the denominator is the membrane
effect and the other term is the
'""' D6lEl5?i) 1t': 1; fi,ai | = ae5e o,'
t em"ct. Substituting terms from the ASME
Code' gives VI[-l'
"nOing
Problems h eb K = bending moment tenn
I 2: €n =
^ =;
21
s*i. =
17,11 A rectangular vessel of the cross section shown in Fig. 17.3c ir 100 for kilo x=d
constructed from 5A-516 Grade 60 material. The design pissure
is 75
psi.at a design temperature of 300.F. There is no cfusion and
full Substituting these terms into Eq 17'rg gives
radiography is applied at all weldjoints. What are the total stresses
in tho

s= (z'
long-side plaies and in the comer section using the method in the ASME
P- '2 (r7.4s)
Code, VI[-1, Appendix 13? Dimensions are as follows: 11 0.75 in,;
a=3in.;L=6in.;h:3:[il. = \/'/ *i;. +1hKtr'
Rearranging terms and solving Eq' 17 45 for S gives
Answen At center, ,t = 14,100 psi
Ph lta 3hK\
At end, ,S : 1480 psi s=*\*= )
(17 .46)

In bend at 26.e, S : 10,720 psi "

lf e- = e6 = E, F.q' 17 '46 may be simplified as follows:

Ph
I7.IO DESIGN OF NONCIRCULAR VESSETS IN OTHER CODES
-s = 2Et'= (td. '+ 3hn
(r7.47)

In addition to the ASME Code, VI[-l, design rules for noncircular pressure
the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code
vessels are contained in other design codes as well
as in various textbooks. In The basic equation for the short-side ftom
addition, empirical design rules have been developed and used is:
for a numUer of
 628 VtSStts of NoNctRcutAR CROSS SECTTON I7.IO DESIGN OF NONCIRCUTAR VESSETS IN OTHTR
CODES 629

p_ cross-scctional headcr givcn in

/100\ rz krng-side and the short-side of the rectangular
s- \;i ! 6^k/4
( t7.48)
lixrrnple 17.7.
'^,Jz
Substituting terms from the ASME Code, VI[-l, into Eq. 17.48 gives Solution. Design data ftom Example 17'7 are as follows:
p /)\ tz h:14\n. H= 7.25in' P = 150Psi r:1'0tn'
-S = I:l (r7 .49)
\1,/ t/e^ + 3hKfe6
:H =7 25 g.51g E:1.0
=
h14
Rearranging terms and solving Eq. 17.49 for S gives
use Eqs 17'52 and 17 47 as
li)r the stress at the midpoint of the long-side'
li)llows:
'=#(*='+) (17.50)

If e^ = e6 = t, Eq. 17.50 may be simplified as follows: K:K^=

1s0(14)(1 x x 14 x 0'250)
s_
0.5_1_8_-t__?
= 11,570 psi
s=#e+3hn (r7.5t)

The various values of K are determined as follows: lrortheStressatthemidpointoftheshort-side,useEqs.17.53and17.51as

lbllows:
Midpoint of long-side:

K = K^ =(o.s18f
+ 40.s18) - 2
= -0.116
\-LA--rZd
K^: (17 .s2)
+_1lj-_lj x (0 116)
T
s_
1s0(14X1 = 6170 psi
Midpoint of short-side:

q-ttq-z Problems
KN: ( 17.53)
17.12 Using the design conditions for the vessel described in Example 17 12'
Any point y. from midpoint of long-side: if thJ same cross_sectional area is kept but the cross sectlon $ square
midpoint
at the
iort*A of a""t-gular, what are the maximum stresses
and comer of thJ side using the Swedish Code?
K^,: K.- o.s (Y-)' (17 .s4) : 4560 psi
\m/ Ansrver: Stress at midpoint

Any point n from midpoint of short-side: Stress at corner = 8370 Psi

lT.l3ForthevesseldescribedinExamplelT12'what-isthemaximum
K^' = K, - 0.5 f)-)'
\n/
(17.55)
allowable working pressure for the header if the thickness
is increased
tot= 1.5 in'?

Example 17.12, Using the Swedish pressure Vessel Code formulas for n Answer: MAWP = 600 psi based on the stress at the corner of the
rectangular header, determine the maximum stress at the midpoint of both the short-side'
 lN oTHER coDts 63l
630 Vl33tr3 0F NoNctRcutaR cRoss stcTtoN l7.lo DESIGN Ot NoNclRCUl'AR VESSELS

surlace of b = {7L'
17.14 A vesscl of the dimensions in Example 17.12 is made from two cular limits measured from the vessel is the nominal
Aia*"tet and
sections welded along the centedine of the short-side. The weld ioint where d, is ttre actJ op"nin^g
'd
only visually examined and no backing strip is used (E = 0.70). Wt ,fti-.tn"t' of the tube stub (in'')
are the maximum stresses at the midpoint and the corner of the
determined from either Eq' 11 44a or F4'
side? Once the ligament efficiency.ls
from
fl.+S, th. valie of K is determined
Ansrrel: Stress at midpoint = 8810 SE
Stress at comer : 12,530 psl
x=V
17.10.2 Design by lloyd's Register of Shipping Rules where S : allowable tensile stress
(psi)

Rules for the design of forged, rectangular cross-sectional headers air given P = design Pressure (Psi)
Chapter J of Lloyd's Rules. In order to use the rules, the header has\i con
E = ligament efficiency
radius of not less than 0.25 in. As with other desisn methods for
cross-sectional headers, stresses at the corner and in the ligaments betwecn A= distance ftom centerline of hole
'l'he value ofA/8 is then determined where
from tangent of comer to tansent
openings are examined.
The method used to detennine the efftciency of ligaments between openingl
il;#;;;;";;,uaio' -a r = ditt*""
in Fig lT l0 Using the value of K'
enter
of corner (both in inches), u'
't'o*n the.value of A/B'Readhorizontauv
is similar to that used in other codes except that Lloyd's Rules permit coniiderin'g
the reinforcement area in a welded tube stub as giving a smaller equivalent
lri.'"..iiJ" #i;.;t. irj"'ii
""4 ""'JJlvio
uJui r' the minimum required thickness'
of
ro determine the value ot
diameter. Without welded tube stubs, the hole diameter is used.
H;"ji.i;',H*1""a. 'lo' 'n" of r tnitt U" greatel than t. [f the values are
fi,"
"Au. pto""doi" repeat€d until the values are
For a regular pattem of holes, the ligament efficiency is
uDart. the value of I ls reduceo und th"
cIose.
(17.s6) doss-sectional htd:t using the
p Example 17.13. A rgctlnSlr| -square wittr no ftbe openings' -lt-,*t]t The allow-
Llovd's Rules. The header rs I :]in' 150 psi'
For an irregular pattern of holes, that is, one in which the spacing between th" d"tign pt"ssure P equals
abli stress of the materi* is rs,o0O fsi':oJ
op;nings is variable but the opening diameter is the same, the ligament ffi"ij, ,it" rnrnrfi required thitkness of the header?
efficiency is
Solutinn
p, Io,-Zd
L- =" - (17.s7)
Ptrpz 4=o
B
anct J= 1.0

K=Y= lfiH
For an opening without a tube stub, the hole diameter d is used. For an
opening with a welded tube stub, the diameter used is the equivalent diameter = rooo
d. determined by
t
0.056
d"=d-LT (17.58)
B
B:7'5-2(o'2s)=t'o
where I = nominal thickness of shell or header (in.). r = (7 0X0'056) :0 392 in' I
A, = excess area in tube stub over that requ ed for internal design on 3 5-in' centers lies along
pressure plus area in attaching fillet welds within perpendi_ Example 17.14. A row of2-in' diameter openings
 6t2 vtgSlrs 0i NoNC|RCUTAR CROSS SrcTtoN BIBTIOORAPHY 633

A/B
4 = 0.s0
E3333SB I B

B
1 = (0.23)(7.15 - 2 x O'25) = 1.668 in' I
I'roblems
of a
17.16 Using the Lloyd's Rules' what is the minimum -requi-red.thickness
' "^" 0'25-in corner radius and 9-25--in' inside
wall-to-
;J";;er'with psi and the
i^l;i;;;;"rtrl" urro*uur" tensile stress is 1s'000
10865432 contains a row of openings that is
desiqn Dressure 1800 psr' One side
K i.o-in. aiut.t.t on 3'b-in' spacing along the center'
AIB Answer: t,ni,, = 1'75 in'
0,30

u.lTwhatistheminimumrequiredthickness(withinl/16in')inProblem
The tube stubs are
17. 16 if welded tubestuus' are added at the openings?
o,m
anA aftached by a 0'25-in' fillet
1.O-in. inner diameter uy O ZS in' ' tttict
0,15
weld.
tlB
t";n: 1'75 in Cannot be reduced to 1'625 in'
0,10 Answer:
0,08
0,07
0,06
REIERENCES
0,05
and Other Pressue vessels"' it Rules and
l. Lloyd's Register of Shipping, chap J' "Boilers
the Co structon and tlassirtcaio of Steel Ships' London' lg72'
K Relulatiotls for
of the Strength of Pressure^Vessels' Publication
Figuro l7.t0 Rcclongulor r
hooder thickness 'aquiremenis for tlovd's regisr€r
ot shippins (courl'elv Llovdl
2. Swedish Pressure V essel Code' Calculation
Stockholm' 1967'
Rssisior ot shippins) Series A No. lE, Swedish ttessure vessel Commission'
August 19?6, James F. Lincoln Arc
r, tiJg"t, o.", w ., DesiSn ofwellments, 8th printing,
the centerline of a header that is 7. 75-in . square Wetdog gounAation, Cleveland' Ohio' 1963'
with 0. Z5-in. inside corner radii.
The material's allowable stress is.15,000 psi tf," J"riln
-a
What is the minimum required thickness bf the f."rr*"
fSOO pri.
header?
BIBTIOGRAPHY
Soltrtion. Calculate the ligament efficiency as follows: Barberton'
Recnngular Headcts' Rabcock & Wilcox'
Allovlable Working Presswes--square vnd
Ohio, 1950 (private communicatlon) '
^ 35-)
E=::_:____-::=0.42g6 Roark, Raymond J. andwaren Young' Fom ulasfot Stess and Strai'' 5th
c ed Mccraw-Hill'
'
'
New Yolk, 1975
Calculate the other properties of the header
as follows:
sE (15,000)(0.4236)
r = P= (1500) = 4.286
 ,!t

APPENDICES

635
 GUIDE TO ASME sEC.
VIII' DIV' I

fu|.fu4'A*dirr'.'cu^nno
1r

il

APPENDX A lt

GUIDE TO VARIOUS CODES I

I
il
Lill:;ll;T;X;'i: . ,' ,"'
'lif;f;l'l'
'3,S'11i1"?t1'**'
u
tl

ll

Is:s''x: ** : :i;'-T,l'j'i-Ir"? *. '$ll r';:*::r;

G l'"*;+.r*, ":"1ili*d,*:1. -,, r;l*"t+lg;_:'tiix -
;$l;::J: -J T:.
;;;;i*i-.6 -'$: :5:.:ji:s Jil:Ti;
*,-
",. ,".',

**iir:'**';*:.::, qgt:l.l**" *,*::"";,";.*.1;t;," _" ., D

ffibv ft e Am€ricon
:l:;1ffi
nn''""''
societv or
.'liJi"l
i,Li; lill iH' Lv ioo'z''o'n'"'i
e

H;:ij,'"3ill:"1il'.f;".)'li
l'Jll"i'i,J-*it, ""** ins' De'' \ela \

637
 GUIDE TO BRITISH CODE BS.55OO CODE
GUIDE TO A. D. MERKBTATT
J. W. Strowson, Oil Componies Mqleriols Associotion, London e'V''
H. Steffen, Vereinigung der
Technischen Uberwochungs-Vereine
Essen, Wesl GermonY

1,---^-*--J:l

sb,ve-J'.tNol..

taen tftu*) 6on- 35!

tribi (,dud) dm
rr.iriLon (o!u{n rdrcn
^o.B?- -aos2

lB:i'",-,..*'
srh..ic.rt d'hd B
^D.s3- 11 e lf$<

3:llll"ft-*-^""""" :liEEry,.+
ii*ri*;;'::m*:::::*l i'drcnit G!-11:::
PEumia Gi
LEg I

P'oo' rer .ea.:

r#r:g:'liJ.Tffi:
tmF
-",..::::",""
Fif
-aY-:.-:
ddd4e/od_
- -- '::;:;
"."f.";Y'
18-32,
cort HeymonnsVerlos KG, Gereoftrr*!€
Fisuro A.2 cuid6 to Brirish Cod6 SS.55OO. (p,rblirhed by rhe Britilh gondords Insriturion, 2 pdrk Sirser,
ffi ot Germ i3,'n- a n'***bon Prccessins' D*
1978')
London WfA 2BS, co{r.t sy o-sOm s cotogn", F.derot Republic ""i'
ot Hy&ocatbn kocessing, De<. lg7'.)

639
 VESSET CODE
GUIDE TO DUTCH STOOMWEZEN CODE GUIDE TO SWEDISH PRESSURE
The Swedish Pressure Vessel
P. von Rossen, Diensl voor hef Sloomwezen, ,s-Grovenhoge, The l. Berglund, Tryckkirlskommissionen'
Netherlonds Commission, Stockholm

lo,5-xozh..dorc.h.d

sE'9.|4-Geo'12!)
D &h'c. ri.

..1.' [h -G@oqn) :ffll" i i

-oo8l?!.o..0|
etn-oo.o3{10'd) -i;;'
hl.|plpic-6@013e| id,.,",--d--1'1.

*'-""---- ":::7"
l1rli?..-i,-",".'--) H:H l*T'":il -,"..?,r il
"x

sd..! .,,,i.1 F*. ?9Tt

-.""
gtigffi
uwT
rEedm 6Fi^ll strlt.l'
rxvl.vi|.
*f;?sl;ffi!ft:
fi ;;,."",-..,.-_''.,,
x'.,Jffi
nnd.bl
ilT:I$ll;:i
j
;;;;
X;1;1
eli,
ssdd.c @ido3g1l,.

F.DrD _Ooaqs.|s@or.Mr,o7oi

'"' :i#lBffiil$rj#'1fiilj{ffilljlf;3$C*{E"F}::#'3'ff:U'ii
Sf{*,.*if
(Published bv Trvchkkorkkommi'3ion€n
lvA' P o Box
Fio'ireA.5 Guide to Swsdi3h P'e$ure ve$er code Prccessins' DEc teTa')
ot ttdrcnrbon
fisu.6 A.,{
cuid€ to Dukh Stoomw.zen Code, (Published for rhe Minisrry of Sociot AfidiB [Di€nsr voor h6r l":ti. l-iti;;1.anorm, sweden; courtesv
Stoomwezenl by Govornm€nr Publishing Offico, Chrisioffel Plonriinsrroot, The Hdgue, N€thendnds; courbiy
ol Hydrea$on Processing, Oe<. l979.l

&1
640
 VESSEL CODE
GUIDE TO ITATIAN PRESSURE VESSGT CODE GUIDE TO JAPANESE PRESSURE

M. Koike, NiPPon Kokon K'K"

R. lV\ozzoncini, Brescio, lfoly TokYo

".!-$ll'#:'""'"'-

-a1..=1e-lAH{H'rud",.
rird ,itit ;:.d.;;i#6i."!-?o?1r"
r\
wdd oFrir
-r,r.o2 I
a
tt \=lE!-T
-v.s.R.r.t,s
^l.t.iob-v.s'i''''i
rrntu l'-G.n Bbi
:1-- l,llx.li'" ----."r{; iEEi'i' J Xl ;":;-.-, -""- "
-v5e.r.F.3
I=IHH ::il'H*4fi' iX'bF *t;;* :tt'i= I
atu6,d rul.
fr;;u^d o{gd-nt!
.".--'' '5
5'
.rdn.lor.u.--4rie

ur. w.rd loiir or.9

-s3

2'0 I
ffi
-s

Fisu.o A.6 Guide to ltolion Pres5ur6 Vossal Code. (pubtkhed by Co3o Ed;rrice tuisi Di G. piroto, vio bv rhe
% Ab'irvoku Yo'iki Kouzou Kikohu'
CorFlico, P.O. Box 3680, Mifon, lt'j,ly 2468Ar <owtety ot Hdroc bon pro.essing, D... 197A., Fisur€ A.7 G!i& ro rory:a
P:'*:"::::;;iln s-ss-r st'il'o r^ino'o-Ku,Iokvo,
roPon' courtesv
the JoPon borrc
r.rinirtrv oI I'obor, poblish€d bv
tlioeorbon processns' De'
19741
"l

&3
g2
 tAW
PRESSURE GAS CONTROT
GUIDE TO JAPANESE STD. PV CONSTRUCTION GUIDE TO JAPANESE HIGH

M. Koike, Nippon Kokon K.K., Tokyo M. Koike, NiPPon Kokon

K'K" Tokyo

hi.rn6 ridi.l r.gr 3 2..t 1?

tru'.
r d.D .nrni rtur i45..5.t
-rh'cri..n.d..r
f-'ikhd{n@.|pr@[
-

.r. not 2c-^di.c-r oP-r.lt

-^cj.cd.F

i;;;;d;F;'-,.,5
5

cod,|6imn.!-..''4| t22r -rN?,*l'

Ar- sor
Lndb tdl6t ..en r2..1-r'.n|lM (r.dd) d4
^r.rt4.
rrx30.. t'dldr d'd
-ir'tl
il lJJt::l
,hr*'u itund ,'uur_r4{,
'nfi|*.i.n.''i.@-..
-4r,.r

-arrr
rhddh'dd9.dd.-1.
thB|lA.eij'.d.-B T-ffi
12
-senrk
rv dbH @
;liliiffi
PF-.J
ii:}i:F,s--- ";
Mrr rndrbb *dit p,[*r-t3 n::,ffi;u:--"*.'.
flllf:i"---------;li ,ffi
tu:;;::
f,ll*1i:!l-=--' '{i=----------=1r'
fuol4[ch( Ej-.':;
sq
stud. l\

Figur€ A.8 Guide to Jor,ono!€ Srondord pV Construction. (JtS B B2tg-IgT?, pubtished

by rhe Jopcn
Sfondor& A5.o€iotion, 4-l-24 Akcoko, Minoto-Ku. Tokyo, Jopon; courrery oj Hydrccchon pft,cassing, *l;::l:$:'J"T:J:1
D€c. 1978.)
hiu:rrv, poblished bv th6 In3lil"le tor wr€ry
Hvdrocorbon Procassing' D* 1974'l

645
d44
 HEAT EXCHANGER SPECIFICATION SHEET

APPENDX B
SAMPLE OF HEAT
EXCHANGER SPECI FICATION
SHEET

fi:--swc- ttNGrH Plrcrr

,xchongsr Monufocturerc Atsocialion' New

York' N Y'
*n ." ot,t.,uluto,

u6 47
 API Strndrrd 850
Stor.gc Tlnk Spcctllcltlon Dlta Shcet
sh..t 1 ol3
FlL No.

hlvnlnbn (!Y Ptt!at-.)

Phdic _---

|lLr ta! ol P|.'

APPENDIX T.t* C.FdtY (t'll: |{d $rdld.le
ib ._-- Dlfi.
i.||.r h bblfir' ot
h.r.Ung T.inFnur. -.-
SAMPLE OF lF(.d D-igo s!.dic Ot vlty @

SPECIFICATION SHE -

fb.fitC Rool APg H

hoar5 Yo t'ao --
tod.r Unlto?rn t r. (cdt ld.t tGY)
Lo.dkE (p|oYLt
frdgn par APP. E: Y- --- &
lo.r. (Fle. E.t) ---
tlo.llld.rll (T&|. E 1)-
X pllllcrddr Fer O.dc
tL Bod! (3.10.4.5): Y.! l{o --_
L.d: V.lodtY (m9h)
h ld.dn dllt $finddit r (a!F 39.9):Yr--t{o.-_
Ethclr: Ftrll,-- m.t" h. F ht.

Dbnatar, nur,
rd/or 8.bin Rdtena
l,t i!i!. rs.
Co|EtL

D'C'
Court$y ot lhe An€ricon Pelroler,m Inslitur€, Woshinglon'

u8 g9
 8h.at 3 ol 3
ahrt 2 0t: Flh No.
Conalnrc on On I. (!t ttrutotur., rnr'o, Frxdr-r, ar
Ff. o.
I Manul&arcr ^tDtb!b)
Clty
$ara
S.fial tto.
2 Fabrlcator
- Doof Stt..t ( PP.
Flulh-TYP.

Clly q.l. lrllold Htlcrr grcton N@L

S.rhl No. Ittamd FY,D.: Swlno U|. aq, ll.
3 ri,hbdll Sp.dnc.tdlj sli.I F
iaadne Co{ Stltt At r
Fool iooi Ddn: no-
Eolio.n li.ll Mrnw|Y.:, i'lo. Jd E2c
6'nrictuds hr Mrflty!. llo a,|c Si.
iiru [:rJ ta- ttg. *8, ]5, s€, "d r'bb! 3€ ]e ]10)
Slioll Coul!.. (no. ot) 'r'd
Ads rudh rnd ntch6 (hdulng conBdon dowrnc.
I
a
7
t Tank Bonom: ptata litdsEaa
Scrmr (cli.d( one) _ hp _ dr,
Slope t C||.d( q'l.: To-Fto.r_caot
h. p.r
7 Bottom Annutrr Pt !. tfin. nb$ arld ltkrot- (!..
! Root to Str.ilO.rdt: Ftg. Fl
c Irbm.dhi. Wirdliidrr: yG _ t{o
Top wlidgirdr (r,rc .r ritr,ory): y.!
-l0 Rool Typ.: S'.Fpo.iad _ -- l{o _
S.tt.SI
Slop. or R.diu.
'It R6t ptrio: t chr€a
Bur Joh
l?
aid &r5 itd T.blc &t6 $t4
ll Fd rbrd.. (lidt *t v.ilthe od'tttdotr) (s.. Flg. 3.4
'nd
ll T.nk Bo(brn Cofdnt: ht do..yaa_ o _,itd.rld
Applb.tio.t Sp.dtb.ton
la Prhi S-tn cturlt S.tr.t tih.-yar _ _ eir{or.y.r
o _ Lo
16 lfiFdion By: Shog
la lvcld Ellrn|mtonr R.dofmph
supp|.?iantary uquld parFarai or ultarric
t7 Fllmr PDp.rty O
It L.rt T.'dllgr Aotb.n
Sh.ll
lg iilll T.d R.porb R.qutrrdl Ya!
Phb --
lil,o

20 Pud[rar,a Ratafaica Drar,ttg

2l T.nk SLc: Dtr'l| tar.nd |htght i, tt.
&| O.!. ot €dt0on or R.trton ot Apt -S||rd]d
-
A5O

l{ot.r Stadl atd/ot aaDatn Ji"t ttr|y !' d'dr.d b cov'r

'9'd'l
nqulrmcnt3

650 651
 Pressure Veesel Deslgn Dsta Sheet

Bcagr.4s$c!
cepaclty of v65e1: ec.ktns pte6Bure: ----l?!- P"18

VIII - Dlv. I rorka!8 !.aPe!6ttrte: ;:P9- deg' F

de.1e! code: rSrc Sectjon
coD3tructioo: <cilos1on allol'ance: 0.063 bcrl

Uateltal Speclf lcatlon8 :

APPENDIX !
No.
GlP.
No.
latcllel sP.ct!1c!tlon8 E...1orra lUooable 6t!e56

sA-204, &ade ! 17,500 P61 abl. ucs-23 3 2

SAMPLE OF PRESSU sA-215' ctade I|cA i5,000x0'8=12'000

Tbl. UCS-23
UG-24(.) 1 1

cla.€ 17,500 Tbl. ucs-23 I

forAlnS6 SA-181, 70

bolrl[g sA-193, Crrdc 816 20,000 rbl. ucs-23

9A-106, Grade B 15,000 Ibr. Itcs-23 1 1

PlPl!8
l/16 lEch asbe3to6 y-3 ,700 Fz ,75 Tb1.2-5.1

Skeich and Genelsl Dbenstone of V€6se1

4-lnch outlet ulth r€tru.n8 neck fl.nte
3€ao1e$ di8heil head, !re3€u!€ on
corcave sld€, unstayeal
8-iD(h outlet wlth la! loinr
flaige

sPeclgi cast 3tee1 oeldlng

Epeclal folted Eteel bllnd

flente

:-1./2 lnch blosdoh ourlet rlth reldtr8

653
 .10
ata APPTNDIX

Ihdgn ol Hord and Shell Dectgn of Head and Shell (contlnued)

th.lt lttcta...! !c-27 (c)tlt lh. chcck Ernt-Erdthtchlis: !G-32 (b)

l. dDlEl! r.qrd lhtcb.tr, !. pt (..rtir!e 8 - t'
Joint lfflclencv of 0'85 b€tt'en head '!d 'he11' post s'ld hcat ti'at'd
0.?0, Tbl $t-lt
fsb-:-id' (doubl. e.ld.d bur! Jotlrt "ot. U6_32 (f)
double_buitaelil fot th' c1lctDfetentlll lo'!t:
atrrl rir'\
?IiSdli-ffi6j:io-fi-3E - o'7e1
5P-t
,r-_l
trio' rc:rl
|ild coEo.lo! rllosroc.s ,?9t + .053
lr-EEfuu
F |
_
. .8j4 ts. :"1a' 6:E5
' ' 'dn.0.3l8
Z. Cb.cL pos! rold hcrt !t rtDtsr rlit r.dtoSrrpb rcqult sllrr. iii--mo-ii=iclFsrt
VCS-56, Ib1 I'CS-56 [o!. O)(r): port e!1it b!.t rrcrlE.lr r.qul..d 0.318<0.68E, thlckneB6 oR
lt
.ac.!dr 5/3 t!; frd Ucs-16 (b): 3/32<0.688, thtckn€38 oK
b.c.$. 0.8500.625r por! e.:.d b.rt !r.*!!ar t.qulr.it UFfI (a), IrCS_j7 check t!1d'lEi instde lnuckle iadlus! Uc-32 (J)
cf D$-52): r.illotr.ph r.qstr.d t-3, Cr 1, 2, 3 1f t> O.?50 r!.; (3) (0,688) . 2.053 'a'd->2 053 knuckle ;adrus 0&
b.c.ur. 0.851D0. 750 rdll.ogrrpby tr !.!ulrcd cyundlr.cal 3k1!t: rr,l-13 (a) 0.688<(1'25)('750)' 0'937
r.crlcuLtc tl{cbcrr rrqut!.al orb8 f - 0.85 (rbl DT-12, 3Eot .tr6b.d) A cyllDttrlssl 6klrt b o9llorlat for Ehe h€'ail butta€lded to the Ehell' t
t + c '?ir-s66++=ii?5ir .ll'1,.,1'lll.Ll"l'l rangeot of 1-112 In. 1e4!h l'tll be used to Provide a
b€!e1 fot the butt

c$.cl |Ppltcrbltttt of foinutr:

;.i# e.ld, lbtu uU1 rvoltt cultln8 th' bevd rnto the L^nuckl''
UA-27 (c)(1) Skctch;f h€.d lnil 3b€lL shotdng ?llDcipal dlo'Dslo!! and to!'!3nc€'
0.385 sl - (0.365) (rt500) (0,85) - 5?2Oi 525<5720 forsutr fi
0,5r - (0.5) (18) - 9.01 0,750<9.0 JomuL of,

Aud frlct!..s: {EG-3ZI

l. l dlrhld ie&! dll b. u..tt, !C-32 (J) r.qulr.r rlrt rb. tl|taL buckh lritltra
rh.lll bc not 1,..r ri& 6t of rh. ou!.td. alr"o.tcl ot th. .t1!!, lor l.t. rha!
tbr.. ct!c. th. h.|tl !hlct!.ra. rh. b.l.dc .touD E.iHtlt l. ro Dot .r-
c.ral !L. outr:litc (tt6.r6t ol tbc ^lro,
rldlt, lhur lsy:
llaill. crorrn r.dtr[, t - 27 i!.<37.3t5 t!.
llllde l lcllc s.illu., Ir 4 tu.>(0.06 r 37.375 - 2.24 r!. (!) v.3!cl to bc Po.t e.lil hclt t:clted !t 1]'00'F fo! 3/4 hout
(Un-33)
tllcbcr. r€qult.d: lrA-a (d) (b) drxl.'tE Dclrtu.1bl. off.et of ctrc@fe!'nt1a1 JolEt' ' 3/16"
I- (c) .Pot cxllllitloE ot e'ldcd lotnts Pet UP-52
a . 1.00 fot rcalcrs t.rA (a)' u{-91(a) (1)
(2SE)-(0.21)
---!I!-- tot LIt - 2114 - 5.75, @ 3/32" rclnfotctEg bc!d: w-35
No of!r.! P!.Pst!t1on n.cc!.mv bett'en hcld ind sh'll b'c'u!! thlckltlt'er
x. r.4o (tbl D^i.2) 1/8 ln' ux-g(c)
t+ do no! illff.! bv Eolt lhrd '
+ 0.053
"o={i3t}*32}={i:4-rzsr
- 0.568 + 0.063 th.l.l. lulfrcG of h..d 'hrU not d'vlrtc(r)
t +c- 0.531 thu.!or. gr. h.rd phr. thtct!$r of 0,688 b (tt/16) ."'.-ir'i. lltO" rtoD 27'r rrdlus uG"81
1e
I
r-r/2", b.v€l 30' fo! $eldh8
 6t6 5tf
APPENDIX

Data Sheet for Relnforcement Calculafions (UG.3Z, -40)

Relnforcement Calculatlons for E Inch Nozzle

She1l -€r--s€.d- (€!ecrfv l

r. R.1afore.r.!t lcqut.d: Itc-37
d..crlption: (Iontltudhal butr Jcl.nt, dcJbte eelded, poEr vetd . {.260 r.. ln,
near treaEed, spct fBClotraphy) A - (a) (!!) (F) - (7.?50) (.550)(1) ^
desi'" pr66'ore ........,,"....,.,....,,. p 5_gll!tl !t trl colslil.lctl !o h.v. t.LDfolc1ng vrLu:: !G-40(d)
Jo1!! err1c1€ncy ..,.. ...,,...,...,,..., E lu5 A- l! th. not!1c eru elthto lh'
-f ' s.t..l lD th. 3h.Il . rvrtlibt'
!€*lDLo alloeabte slres6 . !. i . .. . ,. ;i.ii rlsll thtcb.i. fo! r'lEforc'E nt:
.
corlo61on all@ence
,

.h.11: (15.50-8.525) ('r37) - ,942 3q, rn.

llBrde rsdlu' .' Dorzr!: (8.623-7.750) (.137) (15,000/17'500) - .103 3q' ln.
r".-,. .;';;;:.",'..';;;;-;;",.';.,,."-
*a€+{+ (s!€clfy) befolc
"""t', "-
coiloBion atr. (cf ttc-4b)
D@rnal,h1c'.!e.6, .,rc''ii.ve of
I \ . 1.045 so. ln.
".,.J::':,i:,:::'.1,.1..i::
bhlEle lequlred thlcknels (!efere.(€:
#*
U6-Z,) ... .....,.... ._ ;;; A- - Ectrl' ln th. aotrl. rlll oultlil' th' 'h€11
!btcy!!t3
- ' rv.ll.bl! fo! r!bfotc@'D!: At - .J9Etr x. i.r.
rsr-;jta-o (.438-,$e) (2)G)
€xce8E "
thlckDea€ ....., ,...........,. r_t_ 0,137
(.43S-.139) (2) (1.s95) t" belo' for h :-:913-cs.:-$.:-
2, Norzle A- - r.L1 ritil.il .| t.i.3lorc@cat '!d !'trt b 'lircbo6t
tlalertal uEed: se€lless s.eet pt!€, sA-i06. clede B (s3h - rililoil tolaforcrocrt (U2
toaxlD@ aUorable 6t!es3 . !.... <,.. ...
80) Lach Phtc' 8-5/8 :D bv 14-5/8
j.n'l.e ittuere! of lblshcd r,.;,"r"; :"";r;;";'...:: oD)
"".,r"r
ndlnal thlcksess excluslr€ 6f
:tr* (.50O) (r4.525-8.525)
.3.000 rq. 14.
co!!.€ron 6Uoasn4. . . ,.. . .. , . r o'rt3fi! of
thlcknese lequlled for hrrp.Ere6s ,U"-rtl ,.....,.........
0.438 in. o4-belt tnch fuU ftU€t s'ld! 'losad
,_] ;;; i.raiotcf"g Plrtc .!il srolad noztlc srll:
tTPR. (.50) (.50) (.50) (4)
. .50O .q, b.
- -
3. sk€rch
".le1nforc.€Eepr ,:rhar*-ra-3fii3#isi
of
GE :{ol-:?r
dto€nslors 4: - g.soo b.
6id seidlns deialt (W_15._X5._1E.1 'o.
3. Ifdth ol .!.s of t.luforc.DcDt nolEil to v'sscl nrll:
oc-40(e)
(2.s) ('587) - 1.720 1D.

(2,5) (.438) .1.095

rn= O.l3b ptl,3 .dd.d -.1ofo!c.ocut :-9=!9q
h - 1.595 (th13 toverD6)
Y6 -- o,2q3 4. sr@rtY:
relDfotcco.!! uacdt
Al: sli.U r[a aoz . .....".'""' 1'045

Lz' aorzle ............,".,..""" 0'954

.ilahil letufoic.o.rt rod ttclds'. !:Eg

a aee g!LEgLl@{'
658 APPENDIT
APPINDIX

and Selection
Attochmcnt Weldlng for 8-tnch Ouflet (UW-fS, -16) It-Inch Lap'Jolnt l'lange Attachment

fo! !o
rtrd 6h'11 rnd t'l[fo!c1!8 '!r'rgth
l. lllo!.!1c .t!.3!G6 1p vc1d6: (Tbt. Un-lsJ r.l chcck tleldbg b'r'c'! noztl'
(!) ccabiDcd 6at rlit 31d€ loadLlt €rr.s6 1n brrt ,.1d6 I ot.h".^od hvillollrllc fotc'
'ril LB butt .'']d' (rbl n$-15)
(17500) (0.74) - ;:;;; 6t!c' 10,500 PE1
12,950 }rt '""'
(b) cmblned .[d ind s1d. lo.trlls 6t!!86 tD flllct eeld€ (u,sOO) (.60) '
of butt r"1it (cf 'h!* 4 for
drDdlloDs)
(17J00) (0.49) - ;.1;..;.; 195,450 tb.
E,560 ?.1 (ro'500) -
2, Strhrth of l,l€1d6: (r) (s,525) (.687)
!orc! to bslil' ilt'!'tet o:
noz'rc
(r) outer ftuer s.Ial b.tr..! ves6cl ratt lDd r.hfolcbg plar€ ;'";..t".Dd 24,700 tb.
(n/4) (?.750)' (525) '
6\ 04.62512) (0.500) (Es5o) - 9E,500 lb. *r' ro! b'd!o3t!tlc 'Dd
(b) :;:"'.;:'";;; ,.,u .'*' 195,460>24'700 lb. .
butt rr.ld b.tr..r v.sr.l r'ru .nd !6rzt! !'eU '.
foic' 4o0 l!'
(n) (8.52512) (.687) (12r9s0) . PlP lt rEr)t's ltd Flttrt'gs' uB'
(c) f1U€! !r.1d b.tt'ecD lorrl. |!it r.lDforclDS phr.
1.20,500 lb, 2, Fror A161 315.t192 srlrL
(1) (8.6?'s12> (0.500) (8550) . !.!.il .! 565 Ptt rt 50' F'
38,000 r!. FtoD vtti'6'! cttrlogt
(d) b!!! ultd b3rt'!.! aoz.tc ndl rlil t.bto!c!.!8 ph!.
(n) (8.625/2) (0.500) (r2950) - D,'!b!! of boltt
87,600 rb. .1t' ot bolt'
E$!: 13 lnchli
(r) .tt.!gEh 1n !.n.toD of rh. pL!. rroov.d firC-41(b)(2) boll cltcf ill'Dltct """"'""' tDchcs lons
8'625 oD bv ?'625 lD bv I
(17500) (.550) (8.6?5) - ,, o.. ;:;.;t 't!rb 'Dd' 1^5 ln' saskot - i2 rn' (D bv I tn' D -
831000 $. ;: ;;;; crirl'os' ts'
(b) .r!.Dgth of !.trt 1D vcrr.I rrtl .v.lhbl. for r.lnforc.r!.!t
(17500) (.137) (15,50 - 8,625) - 15,500 11.
(.) rclEJorc6!6r lord e.!tLd by rh! ro:rt.|'rtl
(15000) (2) (.438) (.687) - 9,030 :.b,
+ (15000) (2) (.2ee) (1,59i) . 14.330 It.
23,380 tb.
(il) rclDfolc.o.a! 1o.dt c.rrLat by r.l.DforctoS lhtc
E3!000 - (15,500 + 23,380) - 43,120 th.
4. -9.w.:
(r) 16.d !o bccrrrt.d !y rltrcb.it r.hforc.o€nr
E3,000- 16,500 - 55,500 tb,
rtr.Dtrh of rtt.clDllr - 98,500 + 120,500. 219,000 Ib.
(b) lord to b. clrrlcd by lorzh ritl - 23,380 L!,
atlen8th ol rttrchElDt - 120,500 :.b,
(c) r6.d to bc c.Flcd bt r.hfofcllt ptrt€ - 43,120 tb.
.r!.n8th of rttrclE.nt - 98,500 1!.
Attr.hD.Dr elldl[g ls lrtlsf.ctor?
 cto 661
APPENDIX
Prollmlnary Derlgn of tE.Inch Inregrel
l.lrnge
Prellmlnary Deslgn of lE'Inch Integral Flange

- (27,L25)
^c - (24.525, d.!tr! p!G..ur! - aBlestos sasket HlI1 be us€d 19 lnch ID bv 22 I'ph @
ll ,. ^ r/rS lnch flat '
S2S
:rrna!d.318n rt!.!i r ]2,OOO
Dort d.8tgn .t!€si . 2O.OOO
z, Flon Table 2-J.2t
try 1.250 ln. Dl.s!t.! bott!
root .!e. - 0.943 iq. tn, (8
,!i e6rtEar. basrc sasket Beatitts f,ldth, \o = G/z)(n - 19)/2 = o'?5o i^'
8. . 0.553 1n. rlitth, b = (1'/z) -dffr = o'D3 rn'
B.crlon fo!
I radlar effective €€,sk t sea,tjns
f
), locatlon of g.sk t load reaction' fabk
frary. 2_5'2
h hub
fi
K--
olcttca6
W d= 22'o'2(o.4)t) = 22'o ' 0'866
G = 21'1?r in'

Y
r. hub l.Drth, r, i-'JE . \\n r"-;;l;; . ,.0,,,
2. c.nt€r 11n. bolt cilclc to hub l (r.j)Db _ tly h r 3,00 1!.
3, DlntltlD bolr cllc]e itl.ecrcr for ! o.j)(r,25) - r.875 tly R.2.00 1n.
4. bo,, Bpaclna - g rn. or (2.25ror):'.;Xn; ]',:,i'li:.', trrC.24,0in.
r. nu!b!! of bot!! . r(21.0)/2.Er r 26,s
t?y 24 bolr!

Itr@. lhtt the hydrosEatlc.n.t fo!c€.

the sssk€r leactron, .rd to
dl&€re!' rle assue.r
22 lnch
r. dcal&r hydros$tl" *.,;,;,;--';,:,:;jil,I,;;i"" " *" - T":t;;;;T"i;",
"-l'-1:.'lr*tl"'
'' :"ffi;:3df,?il,;ioi?o':;oii .'".,
:Ti",*'"
(thlB cobP.rlB favolablv $lth
24)
3. elr2 - (Lr2)(0.s63 + 1.0) - .?82
4. fo! th€ crttlcat s.ctlon !t 15,875
. ,.",o- ;;; rii.-iiii-tl,(,lj:'i:1,;,':.l;i(ii:ffiiiio.l.,";;
5. "oo,"roro!
Auo,ablc bott road on s€cior "- 1",,.n ",
= (20,!oo)j0.443) -'ir,ruo ]'o.nrn
5. raBb€r te.ctloD - L8,B6o_(U2a\ G/4) (zz2) "
- 18,800 _ 8,330 - ,o,rro,*.n*,
<szsj
7. bendlEt Dooent at crlttcal lecrlon
- (18,860) (Ll2) (24,o - 18.438) - (ro,53o)(r/2)(22,00
- 52,500 - 18,750 - 33,850 tb. tu. - 18.43s)

8. cdlcutatld thlck!rcse for taillat fl

uc/r'
JT'r]il"""' %'
(uA-s2)
12,o0o - (33850) /(r/" u.,rii.t,,
..t - 2.65 1'l.
calculatsd lhlc*ness !o! lolrglrudlnat tryt.2.75 1n.
nub 6E!.s6 (UA_52)
(12,000)(r.5) - (33.850)lQ/5)(2,42r(s,2)
10.
:, e.z _ q,aa & 8I - 2,15 tn.
r€v16e estbateit ftange dlDcns1ons usrirr
aI - 2.00 h c. 15.875 + 2(2,00 + 1.875) - 24.625 1n,
R - 1.875 1n A - 24,525 + Z(t.25) - 27 -I25 tn.
h - (3)(2 -.563) .4.31 .ay 4.50 1!.
 663
APPiNDIX

Bllnd Flange for l8-Inch Manway Flange

(c)(2)r t - a rld/s + t ' 78!nrc/sd3 F&' uc-34(J)

I, !r@ uG-34 ',

( 2r.13-r SZ Fro6 shect IO: n ' 453'000 Ib'

:!'c' QI2) (24 '625-2L'133) ' r'745 16'
d ' G ' 21'$3 1!'
B ' 184'000 lb'

Psi (sA-181 c1'6s forSlot)

3. rroD shcet 1: s - 17,500 ?O

DESICT COIIDIIIOI{S
pcrrurc,r- 525 pri t!op.!.tu!.. @! C - O.3o UG-34(d)

g.rr.., #'rat tqge.ro:. Fl"tD r z?'aD - 2.359

2.359 + 0.061 - 2.422 u6€ 2-112 thlcls"63

rddlat cortoslo! lltotaoce I

5. Sk.tch of bllniM!!8'

2-114 b. dla., sPot face fo! Euts

I-5l8 lD. dla.

2-Ll2 La,

1/4 tn.

a,zt6

AT,LOI'A3II STRESSES

II'IESS CAI,CI'IJITIONS
lolgl.tudtral hub .tt.!3r
- (fu) /(r.e
S"
!!dl.el fLrs. .tr!!!, sR - (€x)/(!t") -
!raa6!t.l fhng. !rr..., S- - (nt/
3,Zoo
664 66!
APPTNDII APPENDIX
Dolo Sh€ca for Relnforcement Calcula ons (UG_37. .40)
R€inforcement Cslculations for l8'Inch
Manway

Alternate Method: Load Calculations Based on Nozzle and Vessel O'

D'
1. sh.u ..-.fl..t-{ !p.cl fy)
d..cllPtlod:
*:f+:+:i*tr!lsr,-_cr!!b""1d.d.,.,t ""1@, 1. roral(load rld of !'rEfolcaleEt
- 333'000 1b.
d..lar p!!!su!. ,.. .. .... .. p 525 e.r.
i:r5!iliig,r'"-
loht .fflc1€ncy or retiro'!c'eit . ]!.
Drtbuo .llor,!bt. lticls ......,.,.....
, ,.. .,....
,..,....,
E 0.85
s 17.500 prt
'' ""'tfi.9i HTlJ:li",S:$,*'a 192,300

corroslon alloe.rc.
0.063 1n.
,.'.'""til,?i ?fi:l:;:li ii::tt.;'*' salr'!hlcraeE6 . 10,310 1!.
lDltd. r.d1us of .h.Il,--elr-rr-qr erora r.Cr--, e- .lsr,-^t.-n
---r.a&.-(!p.clfy) .bcfolc corro.io! atlorarc. 1. lddcd ..,,.,., a,
.Fh.-1o.1 .. -* E*i"tJd ""-t. ".u['j..'i,;'e6su!' ln Dozzl€ - 9,450 h rb.
L, K.D t8 1p. - 16,260 rb. cot!.
!oEl 1 thlchr.!3, .xclulive of corroslon ltloelnc. . . . . . . , . .. (s25) (18) (1.72)
Elnlelr !€qut!.d thtches3 (!.fe!cnce uc_27) .€! .hc.r 4
....,..,. 0.687 ln. v'63'r r'au tbtckncss
. 15, 000 h 1!.
. ... ., ,... . t! 0.550 1n. '. "'.Ti!o8i ?;;"b'?i:,;llo;i"'o'
(.500) (z) (1.72) (15,000) 25,800 1!. co!r.
.
".''iii.!Li"i"ti,$l-;:llii;,'": :":":::*
iio:iioi - is,iso r.rzl'10,310+ e'550
1.5,860
19,E50
lb, .6t.
$' cor!.
" r'hfolc'Dent
t- Lo.it to b€ csrrlcd by rdd'd . 124'840 lb. .5t.
.xc.33 lhlcla.us 333.000 - 192'300 - 15'660 120'840 t!. cor!'
.,.,..r !_r, 0.137 ln iillooo - rsz'loo - 19'850 (h ' 1'72 1D')
2. Nozzl.
8. Are! tcqul!.d of add'd !'b!o!c€o'dt . ?.13 h.2 cst'
lrtellal ! r.&t€.s ar..l plpe.
ur.d 5A_106. clad€ ! (Sch 40) 124,840/17,500

'' -* :i.'fi"*"";inl',i'i:*
E :ri!ur! .11@rbt. srr.l3
ln3td. dl.roete! of flnt6hed op€ing h colrod€d cordltlon .
r.5.000
'**ii"vi-il4' :ttt?l rD bv 27'5 ,o'b o! . .-.^.
('75) ('7s) (2) (1/2)
' 7't2 ta'Z

roElnat thlcltless a(clualv€ of colloslon aUorance , , .

.. . ,.. .,... d 17,0 1n, r'e1d6
' : +*16.l!_
...,...,,..... t .500 ln.
thich.sr r!qu1!ed for hoop .t!.Bs (UG-27). ,. ..,. .. .. ..... ,.. ,..... . ' 10. StllDarh of lebforclacnt rdded . 134,400 lb.
.304 ln. (7,58) (u,s00)
.." - rci:+fu:ilt tudth
"---"(i:5t(.e87)
h
of 6ta of r!bfo!c'D!Dl'(Eh16 bE 1.72 1n.
' 1.72 1r' tover's)
Skerch of lltnforceE.rt slrh dtuen6lopE and,eldlnr detall (Uw_15._15._18) oa
( 2.5) (.500) ' 1'25
p1u6 rdd.d
'.*. ' l:ti snlo|Al!
tr, =.SoO o'tal t"ovc'l
road calcd.lEeil to hev' €t'1't€d 1n th'
t-r.=.'b4 (52l) G7.37512)(L8)
fo! t'lD-
StrcDAth ot Detal ,! vcss?l vall ivs11abl!
38,350 lb.
,60 (,13?) (34-18) (17'5oo)
fo! reinfotc'ocot 19,860 r!,
tl+ DIA StlcEgth. of nozzle 'sll 'vru!bl' 134.400 1b.
str.dSth of rdil"d lctufolc'oc[t lotal 6t!€$tth - I9?,-0!!-l!.
the load calculated to
b.cau6e the total 6tt'ngth trc€ed6 the il.31F 16 GatlgfactorY
hsr,e €:(16t.d 1n th. lcta1 r'oov'o t
 c66 &,
APPENDIX
Dota Sheet for Relnforcement Calculadons
(UG-37, .4()) ln Dished Head
Relnforcement Calculatlon for 4'Inch Nozzle

1. sh.U or H..d (sp.cltv)

o..cllptlonr dbh€d, 27 tach crorrn r.dlus. *ca of !'lhfolc'Dent - 56,600 Ib.
d.slgn pr.s!u!€ .,.,.............,_
4 lnch tpuckt€ rldlus '''"Eli?iL;?,:i"i:!;t':*ii'
rolnt €rrlcr".cy . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . : ::: ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' P
'. ..i::i!l(;:,i;.: f!l"-,ift.;''!et.torc"e"
525 p.{l . 3t,200 tb.
E'<ite .lro$sbte E

corlos1on ellorance".,""",...
. .....,.,.....,..
",.,... :,''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
. .....,,,................. s t7.500 prl ,. ".i::i!},::;":"1:;iii,f;:il hcrd e'r'1'chlct$esa - 5,110 Lb.
c h, not'le
rnsl.e redlu. or she11, o! ,,",." ;;;';;;;";:
;_.;;;;;"'..
0.063
4. Iolit crrrl.d by lotzle tr1l 'lu' to P!t'6ur€ 1n
- 2,350h Ib.
tphellca] radlus (!p.crfy) beror€ corro6r.or (525) (4.50) (b)
itro,aac€ 1s of nozlle erU outBlde of h'rd thlcv'lle63
add.d ,. ..... .. ,. ,. .. 5. 6t!en8th -
:: t'#*
8'220b Lb.
(.2?4) (h) (2) (r5,Ooo)
;:$": .' .: :: ::
H*lll"L!i";'i1"""1:'x;:uc-37(b)' 6. 6tt.Ee!h of Dozzl. r.11 rvrtl'bl' fo!
"' .'i,iii"iielito--
r'1Efolc'Deal
('3!' h'1)
z,rso)c') - 11,000 ]b. .3t.
uA-4(d) t! - 9,160 lb. .o!r.
E ' r, !t. 1 """' ll* 5,140 + 4,020
load to b. crrrl.d bt tildcd rebfotc'ocnt Ib. crt.
cxce88
'' .rE!ffi:E - i-#-4j+Ar=-sEi 33:333 : 8i:i331*;13!'- 5E,600 - {4,740
-
-
10,400
13,850 lb, corr.
thlckle6.
2. Nozzl€ """"1"" t-t! rr.! t!qu1r.d of tildcil tclafolc" !! b. Itt
- 0.694 6q.
eat.riat used: s€apl€ss ,tett ptpe. 10,400/15,000
S4_106, clade B, schedule 80 Fc! of rclDfolc.lcnt u!.d: tson 5/8 tnch f1l1'! a'eldt
Da:(letrD aUoralte st!!3s
.. ,...,.. iiJa.'.iii'i-rr"" cxtcnsto! Eo22]' Inlld€ of h'rd
s 15.000 p.r (.525) ( ' 625) (' 5) (4)
- .781 tq. b.
lns1i'e i,rsDete! of frEtsh€i, .".,,;;.;;.;;;;.; ldcldEr - .342 sq. b.
;;;;;;;;.....:..: d aor21.: (.625) ('274) (2)
DcelDar. thrck..s. e*.lusive 3.9s1 1p.
or ..r;""r""
lb'
,hlcknes. r€qu1led ., o*".L *#
"rr*"--^:--
**,"'iiXl,i']lllll......:. :.. :.. "ii98il tii,iSS'i'iS?i,iili3', - 18,810

'- - GE{"',u -.##Ifi.rrtft%, '' "sric--s'l' vtil!.h of r!.. o! t.bfotc'o'!t' i

h . 0.565 14.
,. . <2.5) (274)
sr@s!,
loril crlcul.t.d to h|vc 'ttl!!'d 1r !b' E !!I t'Dov€il 33,400 Ib.
G2s\ /.rl2' (27 + 1.25)(4.50)
.r?.nrrh
- -i,z-igl of Dc!41
h herd rve1llble to! lelnfolc'ocnt 13,050 1b.
<t. poz - t'50)(17t5oo)
9,150 1b.
.!rc!8th of Dozzlc aall tv'tlablc to! t"nfo!"o'Dt
14. 18.810 lb.
strcaEth of !.ld.il r.l.folcr[clt
!ct.1 itlcntth 41,020 10.
lb' Gxc'ed6 th€ lold of 33'400 tb'
b.ciuse th. tot.l strGrtth of 411020
thc dlsis! ls .!!l3f'ctorY
. ^to
 APPENDIX

,
MATERIAL SPECITICATIONS

Tubes

Seamless

CARBoN STEEL ASMB SA-179 cold drawn'

ASME SA-210' sPecifY grade'

APPENDX E r,ow ALLoY T** i:MB it-?33; ,o** o"u".

specify grade'
SAMPLE OF VARIOUS llrcs AIIoY STEEL ASME SA-213'
ASME 5A-268' sPecifY
grade'

MATERIALS FOR PROCESS NICKEL AND NICKEL A[oY ASME 5B-163' specify alloy and
temper'

ASME SB-234' specify alloy

and
EQUIPMENT ALUI,flNUM AND ALLl4I\ruM ALI'oY
temPer'

ALLoy
coppER AND coppER
iiil| |i.lll, |fl-1,il llli ill lilill.
Welded
resistance welded'
CARBoN STEEL ASME SA-214' electric
SA-249' specify grade'
HIGII Au-oY STBEL ASME

ShelIs,Chonne|s,Covers,F|ootingHeods,TubesheEts,ondF|onges

PtPe
G^rade B or Grade A'
CARBoN STEEL ASME 5A-106 seamless' A'
ASME SA-53 Grade B or Grade

SA-335' specify grade'

I-ow AILoY STEEL ASME

A[oY STEEL ASME 54.-376' specify grade'

IIIGH
ASME SA-312' sPecifY grade'

ASME SB-241' specify alloy

and
ALUMnfl,\4 AND ALUMINT'M
A[oY'
temPer.

Coppen AND coPPER ALLoY' ASME SB-42'

668
. ASME SB-43, sPecifY temPer'
 ato 671
APPENDIX
Plat
Foryings
CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA_2g5 Grade
C for plates up to 2_in. rhick.
CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA-105 Grade I or II'
ASME SA-S15, specify grade.
ASME SA-181 Grade I or tr'
ASME 5,{_516, specify grade.
ASME 5A-266 Class I or 2'
Low Au.oy STEEL. ASME SA-204 fuebox quality,
speciry grade.
L,ow AND IIIGH Au-oY SrBEL' ASME SA-182' specify gpde'
ASME SA_203 Grade B firebox quality ior plates
ASME 5A-336, sPecifY class'
to 6 ft thick.
ASME SA_387, specifi grade. ' ASME 58-160' specify temper'
NICKBL AND NICKEL AIr-oY
ASME SA.357 ASME 58-164, specify temper and class'
IIrcH Au.,oy STEEL. ASIVIE SA_240, specify ASME 58-166, sp€cify temper'
type.

NTCKEL AND Nrcrcr Ar,roy. ASME 58_162, specify ternper. ALUI"ff.IUM AND ALUMINUM ALLoY' ASME SB-247' specify alloy and
temper.
ASME SB-127, specifu temper.
ASME 58-168, specig temper. Bolting
Al-ulvrtrutvr AND AruMtrnM Aury. ASME SB_209, specify alloy and Stu/s artd Stttd Bolts
Emper.
Au,oY STEEL. ASME SA-193, specify grade'
CoppER AND CoppER Arioy. ASME SB_ll, specify type.
ASME 58_96, specify alloy. NICKEL AND NICKBL ALt oY ASME 58-160' specify temper'
ASME 5B-169, speci$ alloy and temper. ASME 58-164, specify temper and class'
ASME SB_171, specig altoy. ASME 58-166, sPecifY temPer.
ASME 58402, specify alloy.
ATLoY ASME SB-2 I 1 ' specify ailoy and
ALu\,m{uM AND ALUMINUM
Castings temDer.

CARBoN STEEL. ASIVIE 5A_216, specify

grade. Nurs
ASME SA-352.
CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA-194 Grade 2H' minimum requirement'
l,ow Alroy STEEL. ASME SA-217, specig grade.
grade'
ASME SA_352, sperify grade. AIIoY STEEL. ASME SA-194, specify
IIrcH ALLoy STEEL. ASME SA_351, specify
grade. NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOY. ASME 58-160, specify temPer.
' ASME SB.IS' specify temPer and class.
CoppER ALLoy. ASME 58_61 valve bronze. ASME 58.166, specify temPer.
ASME 58-62 cast brass.
specifY alloY and
ALUm{uM AND ALUMn'rL'4 ALLoY' ASME SB-211,
GRAY IRoN. ASME SA_278 Class 30. rcmper.

ALUTTNUM AND ALUMTNUTVi ALLoy.

ASME 58_26.
 APPENDIX

UNDER THE ASME BOITER

AND
APPROVAT OF NEW MATERIATS
PRESSURE VESSEL CODE

A. Code PolicY
Pressure Vessel.Commiftee to
1. It is ttle policy of the ASME Boiler and
'' ;d.il;.'i;;il.ion s""ti* n onlv such Specifications that have been
in
for Testing and Materials
adopted by the Amencan Society
approval will normally be for
2. lt is expected that requests foi CoatSp#fication.
APPENDX F materials for which tn.r. ,.'t'nSiV
For other materials'
to develop a Specification which can
request should be rnuO" to 'CiTN{
Le^oresented to the Code Codmittee'
REQUIRED DATA FOR
B. MechonicolProPerlies
MATERIAL APPROVAL IN THE l. Together with the Specification for
the material'-the inquirer shall
sfess
fumish
values for
to but" ailoyalte
the Committee with uO"qout" ouil-on-*ttl"h
ASME SECTION VIII CODE inclusion in the applicable stress ible'
The data shall include
elongation' creep strength'
values of ultimate
and stress-
il;;;;dd."l.futh, reductio;i;a'
and welded joints over the.lang:-1f-.temperatures
rupture strength of base metar
etty treatment that is required to produce
at which the materiut i, to u" ot"O'
healt
ue'fuiii Ott"tiu"o' Adequate data,on the notch
the tensile properties strouto
ii"titt temperatures must he furnished'
toushness in the proposed
'ung"
temp;;a;iunge contimpluted witl be usetul to the
Seriice experience in the
Committee.
2'Ifthematerialistobeusedinvesselstooperate.underextemalpressure,
sfess-strain curves (tension titp*1ti*l shall be fumished for a range of
"t
design temPerature desired'

C. WeldobilitY
intended
data on the weldability^of material
The inquirer shall furnish complete tests
and performance
for welding including <lata on piocedure secton 'qlalification
x
w-etaing tests shall be
made in accordanc" *itr' t'"
or
"qliitt"nis which the
i" material is to be used'
made over the full range tr friJt""tt to ar
Pertinent information, such ul t'"ut tt"ut-"nr.Jequ]red: -suj::etibility
be given'
in *elding the material shall
ffi;;;; il;ount or
"*p"ti"nt"
D. PhYsicol Chonges
characteristics and the degree of
It is important to know the structural stability
-^i
i"tpttutut". of new materials' The
retention of properties *itft "-pJt*t treat-
as forming' welding' and thermal
influence of fabricution p'""ui"i totft
ments of the mech*i""f p"p"tt[t '
Jo"iiltty' .-d ti'tt":At:: of the material
i"r'"i" a degraclarion in eroe-el::.Tav be cool-
encoun-
;fi.i,ilil;il"'i"irv *n'ges of exposure or heat Eeatment'
tered. Where particot' t"tp"'ut*"
672
6f4

ing r0tcs, combinetions of mechanical working and thermal treatmenh,

cotion practices, and so on, cause significant changes in the
properties, microstructure, resistance to brittle fracture, and so on,
it is of prima
importance to call attention to those conditions which should be avoided
seryice or in the manufacture and fabrication of parts or vessels from
material.

E. Potenls

The inquirer shall state whether or not the material is covered by patents
and
APPENDIX G
whether or not it is licensed and if licensed the limitations on its manufacturt.

F. Code Cose
F O R P ROV
ID IN G
.
P NOC-T
..-DATA
O U NE
FOR CODE CHARTS
In exceptional circumstances, the Code Committee will consider the issuance
of
a Code Case effective for a period of three years permitting the use
of a material
provided that the following conditions are mec -FOR
l. The inquirer provides evidence that a specification for the material ic
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
before ASTM.
The material is commercially available and can be purchased within tho
DESIGN
specified range of chemical and tensile requiements and other require-
ments described in B.
The inquirer shows that there will be a reasonable demand for the mate-
rif by industry and that there exists an urgency for approval by meang
of a Code Case.
The request for approval of the rnaterial shall clearly describe it in ASTM
Spelincatiol foll, including such items as scope, process, manufacturc,
conditions for delivery, heat teatment, chemical and tensile requ E-
ments, bending properties, testing specifications and requirements,
workmanship, finish, marking, inspection and rejection.
5. The inquirer shall furnish the Code Committee with all the data specified
inB0oE.

675
 676 APPENDI
q aPPENDIX
On occasion the ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Committee is rcqucsrctr ((r
provide for a new material chan for external pressure design such ai thosc irr
Appendix V of Section VIII, Division l. The SGDE/SCD requires reliable rlttu
upon which to base the construction of charts. The SG is not in a position to
develop or evaluate the required data. Consequently, the SGDE recommends thc
following procedures to be followed in providing the SG with adequate and
reliable data.
1, The compiling and evaluation of material data are rightfully the re-
sponsibility of the Subcommittee on hoperties of Me1ds. The threc
subgroups involved would be the SG on euenched and Tempered Steel,
the SG Strength-Steel and High Temperature Alloys, and the SC
Strength-Nonferrous Alloys.
2. Upon receipt of an inquiry for a new chart, the secretary should refer the
inquiry ro the appropriate SG of SCp. The SG shall ditermine whether
or not adequate data are available or whether the inquirer shall be re-
quested to supply the required data. The SG should screen and
evaluate
the data and forward them to the SGDE with their commenrs or recom_
mendations. The Materials SG should clearly identify the material and
define its use as to product form and, where applicabie, any restrictions
on the method of fabrication of the completed pressure vesiel (i.e., heat
heatment or welding limitations).
3. It is su€gested that, to expedite processing of inquiries, a specific individ_
ual might in some cases be designated as the member iesponsible for
liaison with SGDE. This member would be responsible for the trans-
mission of approved data to SGDE.
description of the data required for proper preparation of the design charts
_ _A
follows. It is felt that these are minimum requirements for the preparation of
reliable charts. The use of so-called typical stress-strain curves based on a
statistically significant volume of data may be satisfactory if the region between
the proportional limit and the yield shength is accurately reprisented. The
developrnent of the tangent modulus in this region is a critical step. It is sug-
gested that this description be prepared in a form suitable for attachment to any
requests for material data from an inquirer.
A copy follows of a description of the method used to derive the material
curves on the charts directly from the laboratory stress-strain curves. It was felt
that this procedure might enable the Materials Subgroups to better evaluate our
data requirements. The balance of the lines on the chart are functions of the
geometry of the vessel, and so do not change with material of construction.
DATA NEEDED BY THE SG EXTERNAL PRESSURE FOR THE
PREPAMTION OF CODE CHARTS FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE DESIGN
For the use of the SG on Strength Properties and the SG on Nonferrous Mate_
nals.
677
l. The nrinirnurn specilied yield strength or yield point (statc which) as
given in the specifications for the material.
2. Stress-strain curves representative of the material at the following tem-
perarures:
(a) Ambient (room) temperature.
(b) The highest temperature for which coverage is desired'
(c) One or more intermediate temperatures as may be desirable to
facilitate interpolation on the chart.
Temperatures at some multiple of 100'F are preferred'
The shess-strain curves should extend to at least the 0'37o offset point
(to ensure being able to obtain reliable values of the tangent modulus to
O.2Vo offset). Consideration should be given to extending tests to higher
values of strain for possible future use with stress intensity values in the
elasto-plastic range. (This is much less expensive than to run additional
tests at a later date.)
Stress-strain curves in compression are preferred. It is recomrnended
that compression tests be made in accordance with ASTM Specification
E-9, Standard Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic Materials'
Stress-strain curves from tension tests will be acceptable if there is
sufficient background of information to show that there is no substantial
difference between the stress-strain characteristics of the material in
tension and compression. Data should indicate whether tension or com-
pression tests were made.
3. The expected properties of the material at the temperatures described
above, for material having the minimum specified properties, are as
follows:
(a) Yield strength or yield point (state which).
(b) Proportional limit.
(c) Elastic modulus (state whether by the dynamic method or from
stress-strain curves).
4. The condition of the material as stated in the specifications, for example,
annealed, hot finished. cold drawn. temper. and so on'
5. Stated whether intended for welded construction. The above data should
properly include the effect of the heat of welding on the properties of the
rnut".iut. It it acceptable in such cases to use data for the material in the
annealed condition .
6. The inquirer should supply data from at least three specimens at each
temperature and that these specimens should preferably be taken from
more than one "production lot" or "heat."
 ,.Q

^i
iiri
.t:
ir
APPENDX H
CORROSION CHARTS
"i?

I
i:t
i:t
trl

t"t
I rl
1"t
t"l
I 8l
| 31

l;t
l3l
tl
i
t^t
rl 3l

!l il
't"l
tI
,t .:t
't"l

.-".;*, ,,",^, ., " ".. 1 :Y:l;:li":i "'"" """"^'".'"''"'" ""

'" '

Corro3ion chorls courtesv o( t}E Nooter CorPototio'' St l-oois' Mo'

679
678
 I
6l
a a
,,i..'-:''l': I
tt iI ti
':
l.
:X:l'..i:: ; ;tl ':

ri

il
rlll r ll'i il i '1.'ll
I
i

i
;
!
ill:il:lilt .:- l
-l
ti t::
t^""
lr li litl
ti lit ti
i
i ,G
I i
.i
tw
Ti
ii *l
:l
rii ^",1
;r*-
l% Ti "l
.!l iil
it tl
IT

t; t:
il

680 68r
 ;{

APPENDIX

VARIOUS ASME DESIGN

EQUATIONS
l

l
I
l

I
i..
:l!:9,
l

l
lrl

ll
l

642
683
 t-. I
oll ^l

El sl ol ql I
qt
ol al
ol*
@l
nl
ilr-lc-l
?l
xl ..
*
RI

oqlg
u'^ +l* ol cr o16
EE qt +l* +l& +l& c.l
JI- /rl lle.l
r..t |
6dt :l 8 U^ Tl
I
aa v)
&l el I

a.t {l €l =l
ill
vl
C] [.l \l EI
wl
-:t q,l AI {il

r* ls "l;
l- ll @lo
9^ l.E le lo I

fte
='d sl? *F
l&
-lg 11
q) sl+ nl? Hl; n[ nle ;l:
Fd ta(
$l?
IE la
ul* afu lo< la< lo Klt l\rr lr
lE ro

li
fr.
lc^l

re lt lft rq l* lt lr-
(l)^ sl* lft la ld ^l-
El; El* dlL El*
Fl+ > t>
t?
!.=
rl? rl? Rl? gII FII ri)
3 lu lR .it., !1\ ld
lu lH
(ir v
R
lR tca
lc.l l+
lH ltrl
l?r
lc.l
cil

E E --^S*
:l

A
g, F* F, gest E E $ *EEl" H*
Bg $e :t $Eg 'l tE .i
e

$e $

685
6U
 Toble J.l Roundobouf lt Full X-Royed

FULL S POT
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
F X-RAY X RAY
FULL SPOT
L SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
L X-RAY X_RAY

J, E. t.o .85 t.o t.o

HEAD s,.R Ot
too% loo% looo/o too,/o
APPENDIX
J.E t.o I.O l.o .85
,= 5r
JOINT EFFICIENCY FACTORS qQ too% too% rco% looY.
SHELL
2!)
2 J.E
Y,', t.o t.o t.o .85
o/
z too% IOO/o too% too%
9

Toble J.2 Roundqbout ls Portiol X-Royed

FULL SPOT
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
n X'RAY X.RAY
FULL S POT
SEAMLESS sEAMLESS SEAMLESS
L
L X-RAY X. RAY

J. E. t.o t.o .85 I,O I,O

LJtrAN
too% too% too%' rco% too%

ia J.E t.o t.o l.o LO .85

,= s,
''E-
rco% too% too% too% na%
6
SHELL
29 J. E, .85 .85 .85 .85 Q5
=ii
== t-
z
o no% too% too% rco% too%

697
 Tobb J.3 Roundqbout lr Spor X-Royed
l-l- NO 5EAIVLEsS SEAMLESS
X-RAY
FULL SPOT
SEAMLESS
L X-RAY X-RAY

J, E. .85 LO t.o
HEAD sf.R
too% 63 lo 6)./o
APPENDX K
J.E LO .85 R5
>=
q u-, ^t^
t 6)
^-O/ /o too% roo% SIMPLIFIED CURVES FOR
SHFI
EXTERNAL LOADING ON
I

zi" J.E .85 .85 .85

56 too% too% too% CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Toble J.4 Roundobout ls Not X-Royed

tA SPOT
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS sEAMLESS
D X- RAY

FU LL SPOT
tL SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
X- RAY X-RAY

J. E. t.o .85 t.o t.o

TI-EAD
q 6U /o too% ^-o//o
6) ^- o/
6a /o

cio J.E t.o t.o 85 .85

==
g<D 80% ^-o//a
63 too% taao./
tww /o
qHFI I

2 i," J.E .70 .85 .85 R5

fi
G6
2
1
too% too% too% lOOo/o
689
688
 .,Vr|!-.'dp... " f{tr

| | | I tttl | | | ttl t.o ,,",,'_

Nr

M,
/\,'^
/No
:
\:
\" L
3
J J
z
Bending str$s = I(, [,| tt".ottd"tMcD K,lNv,i)ld"Tll'l"ll
#, Mambrane 3tres =

=
-_//
7l-
/

0.001 0.q)1
0. t0 1.0 '1.0 10.o
| 0.0 0,r0

'' ,/D-r
Figut K. I t'{o.crt tl6 a @"/ tn) duc to an ex".nol cir.",mfrronr'ror mon,.nr ,,L on o circuro. cyrnd".. (d"/'{i.) luc to on trLrnol mofieni i'lc on o cird,,lor qlind€r'
figurc K,2 , .mbrono forct N6,a

690 691
 '.,Mm*-- . ., ?rL!!4. .rrlllltrtr

rrtttttl I | | lll llrr

t4s

Mo

\ 0.t 0

'".,,**j"ilj;*N E
\o
cq
{
Bendins strels = ff, t,nr', lr,rr.,, Mombrane stress = *"t*,,,, to.rtr7lffi
" * \t 0.01

\T\\-
''1
\
0.001 0.001
0.10 0.10 r 0.0 1.0

r = --js-
,E_r
F'o'rrcK'3,{om*r,{k,(d./roducroon.xtlmor '/D.r
ro.,girudinor mom.nr /lt on o cir.oror cy'indor. Fig!ru X.,t lrt mbrsn€ tor.e NF,a (d"t/r.) doe to on €xlrrnol nomcnl 14 on o circulor Eylindar.

692
693
 ."'!M'RF'*..-

t.o I I | | | lll
-

=\

\
0.10
D!,lT

N
3

;a
Bonding gtre$ = ,(, (ttt', d /
=
Eenditg rtre$ = tr, {it(,
0.01
,00f
T
'- \
2(x) V
6m

0.001 I tl I ttl
0.r0 1.0 to.o 0.10 1.0
- 'lo a= 7"1./6)T
,/DF
Figir. K.6 Bcnding mdnGnt ir(,,it.lu.lo on.xtornol rodiol lood on o cirorhr cylinder' 't'l'/Pon longi|vdlnol
Fi$r. K.5 Lnding morn€nt t{(&A du. lo on od.rnof rodiol food P on o .ir.ulor qlindf'. tl/p on oxi., l,|,/P on lrols€rt. qxb.
longihdinol arb, ,t{a/P on frunwrn <uit.

695
694
 F*-- ., --,
'!U;|F "a?.e!.r,ry@!

1.0
I tt tl tttl

\.",

ri t--
e
{ J
E

lvlembrane 9tr6ss = I(, (Nt c.6flnft

0.01

0.00t
0.10 1.0 0.001
0.10 1.0

,/aA ./87
Figuro K.7 rrtemhrone iorce r.,h,a t/p due io on .x|€rnsl rodiol lood p on a cirorlor
cylind.r (rqnw.r.. orh).
Figure K.8 ,rt mbrcnc lorc6 N(,rI/P due io on sxi.rnol rodiol lood P on o cirsrlor <ylinder (loqgiludiml
arir).

696
697
 -,wF6'-*- .,.._.-*".- *rr'w'|
Converrlon to SI Unltr

Multiply English Units Bv Factor To Get SI Units

Ilch 0.0254 Met€r

U.S. gallon 0.003785 Metef
Foof 0.02832 Metef
Pound mass 0.4536 Kilograrn
Pound force 4.448 Newton
psi pressure 6,894.8 Pascal
Bar 100,000 Pascal
Btu 1,055.056 Joule
APPENDIX Horsepower (550 ftlb/s) 745.7 Watt
Fracture toughness (ksi V-in) 1.1 x 106 Pa Vm
CONVERSION TABL "F cF - 32)/1.8 'c
General Conversion Units

Multiply By Factor To get

Foot3 7 .48 U.S. gallon

Bar 14.50 psi
Mile 5280 Foot

Conversion to English Units

Multiply SI Units By Factor To Get Enelish Units

Meter 39.370 Inch

Metef 264.201 U.S. gallon
Metef 35.311 food
Kilogram mass 2.205 Pound mass
Newton 0.225 Pound force
Pascal 0.m0145 psi pressure
Pascal 0.00001 Bar
Joule 0.0m9478 Btu
Watt 0.001341 Horsepower (550 ft-lbh)
Fncture toughness Pa \6 0.9091 x 10-6 ksi Vin
"c l.8c + 32 T'

699
-.-latFr'i@*,.

INDEX

Aluminum alloys, 53 British code, 10,26

Anchor chair design, 434 Brittle frac$!e, 63
Annular plates in flat bottom tants, 476 ASME fractute criteria, 68
ANSI A58.1 building code, 567 crack shape fador, 7l
ANSI 83l piping code, organization' ? factors inlluencing, 75
ANSI831 .3, chemigl plant & pet. ref. 6eory,75
piping, trozzle Einforcement, 383 BucklinS:
ANSI83l.l, Power Piping code: conicalheads, l?5
allo{able rtiesses, 22 cylindels, I 14
nozzle rcbforcement, 379 hemisphedcal heads, 159
ANSI 896. I welded aluminum alloy storage tanks,
496 Chatpy V-trotch test, 63
circular flat plate6, 184,274, See dlsoF]3:tuads
ASME code:
allowable etlemal pressur€ stlesses, 19 andcove$, types
allowable tensile srEsses, l? Compressionring,490
desiSn criteria, 3l concretE properties, 428
extemal F€ssui€ design, 218 conical hesds andta$itiols, 168' 256
ftacfirrc ctiteria, 6E cone-cylindet jutrctiotr; 169
history,4 discontiNity analysis, l?2, 256
nozzle reinforceme , Section I, 349 exienalI'tessute, 175, 261
nozzle rcinforcement, Section VIII- I Cotrversiotr iables, 698
' Copper aloys, 55
359
nozzleFinforcement, SectionVI[_2' 368 Corrosion,46
ofgaoization,6 Corrosion chan6, 6?8
Austsalian code, 9, 23 Creep rate, 50
Airtofi ettaging, see Prestressing Cylinder€:
Axial comprssion, 238 bucklioS,l14
eld load, t 18
Base ring design, 423 sideandendloads,l16
Belgian code, 9, 23 side loed, I 14
. Bijlaardstsesses(WRC 107), 394 discottinuity analysis, 92
Blind flanges, 294 long cylinders, 96
Boltdimensions,425 shortcylinders,l0T
Bolted flanged connectioas, 27 8' 298 stes6 duc to intsmal Pr€s$txe, E4
flarye bolting design, 292 ASME equations for cilinders 206 '
flange contact facings, 279 ft€rmal stess, I 19

701
 702 INDCX tw INDEX

( '7((hos lov l il'r' rrtrlc, 2| conrprrison ol lhcory a'r(l ASMtI tin'nrtrrr. Rool:s,462
Materialcost,52
2711 Material specifi cations, I6 Rupturc strcngth,5 |

l)csi8tr critcrin,3l Force stres$ cquations, 39 Mat€rial strength Properties:

I)csi8n cquations, vffii)us ASME, 6113 creeprate,50 Saddle design, 449
Fracture analysisiagrant, 65
d
l)osign spccifications, l5 5l Sample of, specification shects:
Fmcture toughness factor, ?0 rupture strength,
Discontinuity stresses, 208 specified minimumyield strength, 49 API,648
Frenchcode,9,24
conical heads andtmnsitions, 172 heat exchangers, 646
Full-face gasket flange, 3 l0
cylinders,92 pressure vessel design, 652
Natuml frequency, 577
gross,208 vanous materials for proce\s equipmenl.66l
Gaskets,28l Nelsonchart, TT
hemisph€rical h€ads and transilions, 52 Netherlandscode, l0 Secondary stress, 209
I asbestos,282
local,208 Selection of v€ssels, I 4
delta,287 Nickel alloys,56
Drop weight test, 65 Noncircular crcss section vessels, 596 Shelldesign:
designrules, ASME,290
doubl€-cone,288 allowable stresses, 6 I 0
API,470,483
Earthquake loading, tall vessels, 567 ASME code, Section VIII-1,601' 619
ASME,206
flatmetal,283
Ellipsoidal heads, I63 basic equations,612,62l ' 623 Skftdesign:423
high-pressure type, 285
ASME design for exlemal pressure,255 jacketed,285 design methods, 61 0 Spherically dished coven, 324
ASME equations for intemal pressure, 249 Lloyd's register of shiPPing, 630 Stiffening ringsr
lensring,286
Expansionjoints, 53? Swedishcode,62T allowable gaps, 23 1
metallic O- and C- rings,28l
design, ASME,226
Extemal loading, simplified curves for cylinders, metal ring, 285 Nonferrous materials andalloys, 53
Strain-defl ection equations, 35
689 rubber o rings, 28 I Nonmetallic vessels, ASME Section X, 77
Extemal pressure design, 218 Nozzles: Strength theories: 30
spiral wound,285
conical heads and transitions, I 75 , 26 I Stress intensity catagode s,32,209 ,213
Germancode,9,24 extemal loadings,394
cylinders, I 14 fatigue evaluation, 392 Stress-strain relationships, 33
Guide to vadous codes, 636
ellipsodial heads, 255 stresses,407 Supporc, vessel,422
Gustfactor,5T5
hemispherical heads, I 59 Iegs,438
procedurc for providing data for code charts, 675 ring girders, 443
Heat exchangers, 502 Openings,336
tallvessels,588 saddles,449
H€at transfer equipment, 501 ligament eff iciency, 387
torispherical heads, 255 skins,423
Heattrealing,6l invessles of noncircularcross section, 601
loads,338 Swedishcode, 10,26
Hemispherical heads and transition sections, stresses and
Fenousalloys,60 t42 Out-of-ioundness of cylinders extemal pressure'
Fixedtubesheets, 519, 523 ASME equations for intemal pressure, 247 235 Tallvessels:
Flange calculation sheets: buckling strength, 159 design considerations, 566
revene flange with ring-type gasket, 32 I earthquake loading, 567
. discontinuity analysis, 152 Peak stress,209
ring flange with ring-type gasket, 320 thermal stress, 1 58 Pressure vessel usage, 4 extemal prcssure and external loading,59l
slip-on or lap-type with ring{ype gasket, 3 l9 High-pressure vessels, 54 I PrestressiIg: extemal pressure only, 5 88
slip-on with tull-face gasket, 322 Hydrogen embrittlement, 76 layered-wal I vessels, 5 58 intemal pressure and external loading' 585
welding-neck flange wirh fhll-face gasker, 323 Hydrostastic test, fordetermining maximumdefecr solid-wall vassels, 543 intemal pressure only, 5 8 I
welding neck flange with ring-rype gasket,3l8 sizE,'74 Primary stress , 209, 210 wind loading,573
Flanged and dished heads,255.See also Purchaseorders, 15 Tanks, re? Flat bottom tanks
Torispherical heads, 255 Intemalprcssure: TEMA;502
Flanges: heads,247 ,250,252 Rectangular fl at plates, 1 93 Themalsress:
blind,294 shells,206 Rectangular vessels, 597 cylinders, 119
flalface with metal-to-metal contact, 317 tallvessels,582 Reverse flangcs, 307 general,2l I
tull-face gasket, 3 10 Italiancode,9,25 Reinforced openings I hemispherical heads, 158
revefse,307 reinforcemenl I imits, 346 local,2l I
nng-type gaskets, 298 Japanesecodes, 10,25 reinforcement rules, ANSTASME 83l.l ' 379 Tilanium,56
Flat bottom tanls, 461 Joint efficiency factors, 686 r€inforcement rulcs. ANSTASME B31.3' 383 Torispherical heads, I 67
ANSI B.96.I (aluminum ranks),496 reinforcemenl rules, Scction I, 349 ASME design forexlemal pressure, 255
APt620,482 K Factors,70 reinforcemcnlrules. SectionVIII-1,359 ASME equanon\ for inlemal pres!ure. 24t)
API650,462 reinforcemcni rules, Section VIII 2' 368 Tubesheets:
AWWA D 100,498 Layered vessels, 54? theory,343 ASMEdesignforu{ube, 514
Flat-face flange with metal-to-metal contact, 317 prestressing of, 558 S€edbo openings TEMA design for fixed, 523
Flat heads and cov€rs, types,270 Ligament efficiency of openings, 3 87 Required data for material approval in ASME-VIII, TEMA design for utube, 505
ASME formulas, 276 in v€ssels of noncircular cross section,60l theoretical design for fixed, 5 19
circular plates, unifom loading, 2?4 Lugdesign,442 Ringgirders,443 theoretical design for u{ube, 508
 -...@''W;

Unlform bulldlnl codc, 56? F$nca,9,24

U.tubo oxchug.n, 5 14
Vortcx shcdding, 578
Wind loading, tall vessols, 573
lvoddwide pleisure vessel codes, 9
Au6b'dia,9,23
Belgium, 9, 23
Cze.hoslovakia,23
Ccrinany, W.,9, 24, 639
lraty,9,25,6n
lapa\ l0,25,643
Ncth€.lands, 10, 640
Sweden, 10, 26,641
United Kingdom, 10, 26, 638
Yield strength, sp€cilied minimum, 49
Zilconium,56