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Quality Characteristics of Yellow Alkaline Noodles Enriched with Hull-less

Barley Flour 1

Article  in  Cereal Chemistry · January 2005

DOI: 10.1094/CC-82-0060

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 Quality Characteristics of Yellow Alkaline Noodles Enriched
with Hull-less Barley Flour1
D. W. Hatcher,2 S. Lagasse,3,4 J. E. Dexter,2 B. Rossnagel,5 and M. Izydorczyk2,6
ABSTRACT
Roller milled flours from eight genotypes of hull-less barley (HB) with
normal, waxy, zero amylose waxy (ZAW), and high amylose (HA) starch
were incorporated at 20 and 40% (w/w) with a 60% extraction Canada
Prairie Spring White (CPSW, cv. AC Vista) wheat flour to evaluate their
suitability as a blend for yellow alkaline noodles (YAN). The barley flour
supplemented noodles were prepared using conventional equipment.
Noodles containing 40% HB flour required less work input than the cor-
responding 20% blend noodles due to a higher water absorption at the
elevated level of HB flour addition, which probably caused them to
soften. The addition of any HB flour at either level to the CPSW flour
Barley is a widely cultivated cereal crop, well adapted to various
climatic growing conditions. In ancient Rome, barley was used in
breadmaking, while later, pearled barley became popular in soups,
stews, and porridge dishes. In the 20th century, the consumption
of barley-based foods decreased in favor of grains such as wheat,
rice, and corn. However, recent collaborative research across the
disciplines of medicine, nutrition, and agriculture elucidated the
role of several barley constituents in prevention and treatment of
certain diseases and revived the interest in barley for food purposes
(Jadhav et al 1998; Slavin et al 2000).
Barley is known for its high content of total dietary fiber (10–
20%) including β-glucans, arabinoxylans, cellulose, fructans, galac-
tomannans, and arabinogalactans. β-Glucans in particular, have
been shown to lower plasma cholesterol, glycemic index, and
reduce the risk of colon cancer (Anderson et al 1990; Jadhav et al
1998; Slavin et al 2000). Tocopherols and tocotrienols (tocols)
constitute other barley components with potential nutraceutical
properties. Benefits of tocols include antioxidant activity and
reduction of serum LDL-cholesterol (Burton and Traber 1990;
Qureshi et al 1991; Peterson 1994). Minor barley components in-
cluding phenolic compounds, phytin, vitamin E, proanthocyanidins,
and catechins have also received some attention due to their
antioxidant properties (Slavin et al 2000). Barley is an excellent
source of B-complex vitamins, especially thiamine, pyridoxine,
pantotheic acid, niacin, biotin, and folacin, as well as minerals
such as phosphorus, potassium, and calcium (Jadhav et al 1998).
The presence or absence of hulls (hulled or hull-less barley, HB)
and the inherent starch characteristics are the two most important
genetic factors affecting the composition, functionality and nutri-
tional value of barley. Traditionally, hulled barley is used for malt-
ing, whereas hull-less barley is considered more suitable for food
purposes. The presence of waxy or high-amylose genes affects car-
bohydrate metabolism, and waxy and high-amylose barley geno-
1 Paper No. 873 of the Grain Research Laboratory.
2 Grain Research Laboratory, Canadian Grain Commission, 1404-303 Main St.
Winnipeg, MB. Canada, R3C 3G8.
3 Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
4 Current address: The Food Development Centre, Portage La Prairie, MB, Canada.
5 Crop Development Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK Canada.
6 Corresponding author. Email: mizydorczyk@grainscanada.gc.ca
DOI: 10.1094/CC-82-0060
This article is in the public domain and not copyrightable. It may be freely re-
printed with customary crediting of the source. American Association of Cereal
Chemists, Inc., 2005.
60 CEREAL CHEMISTRY
Cereal Chem. 82(1):60–69
resulted in significantly decreased brightness (L*) and yellowness (b*),
elevated redness (a*), concomitant with a significantly greater number of
specks per unit area of noodle sheet compared with the control flour. The
addition of 40% HB flour to YAN decreased cook time and cooking
losses. Noodle firmness, as determined by maximum cutting stress (MCS),
was significantly increased by the addition of 40% HB flour. Noodle
chewiness, as determined by the texture profile analysis (TPA), was
affected by the type of starch in the barley samples; the addition of waxy
and ZAW HB flour decreased chewiness, whereas normal and HA HB
flour increased chewiness of composite noodles.
types are consistently higher in β-glucans than those with normal
starch (Xue et al 1997).
Hull-less barley flour has been successfully used in chemically
leavened products such as muffins, pancakes, and biscuits (Berg-
lund et al 1992). Replacement of 20% of wheat flour in yeast-
leavened bread with waxy and nonwaxy barley flour did not
substantially affect loaf volume and produced bread with slightly
softer texture (Klamczynski and Czuchajowska 1999). Fiber-rich
barley fractions have also been used to replace 20–40% of wheat
semolina in the production of pasta (Marconi et al 2000). This
replacement provided 5.4–10.4 g of dietary fiber per serving and
produced darker pasta with acceptable sensory qualities. Barley
has been added to Asian noodle products (Baik and Czuchajowska
1997), but to our knowledge, no research is available on the effect
of HB addition specifically to yellow alkaline noodles (YAN).
YAN are a major type of wheat-based noodles with distinct
quality attributes resulting from the alkaline reagent used in their
formulation. The alkali salts (1–3%) used are normally a mixture
of sodium and potassium carbonates in ratios of 9:1 to 1:9,
although sodium hydroxide is often used in Malaysia. These salts
are important for developing the characteristic yellow color, im-
proving noodle texture, developing aroma and flavor, and modi-
fying dough, starch pasting, and cooking characteristics (Morris
et al 2000). In general, the traditional YAN should have a bright
yellow color and a firm, springy texture (Akashi et al 1999;
Crosbie et al 1999). The objective of this study was to evaluate
the impact of incorporating HB flour, derived from roller milling
of HB genotypes with differing levels of amylose, starch, BG, and
arabinoxylans (AX) on YAN color, appearance, and texture.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Falcon, a 6-row normal starch HB genotype was obtained from
James Farm (Winnipeg, MB) while the remaining 7 HB geno-
types were obtained from the Crop Development Centre (CDC),
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK. All barley genotypes
were grown in 1998. SB90354 is a 2-row normal starch genotype.
CDC Candle and SR93135 are 2-row waxy starch genotypes, while
CDC Alamo and SB94792 are 2-row zero amylose waxy starch
genotypes. The high-amylose sister lines CDC-92-55-06-48 and
CDC-92-55-06-54 are 6-row genotypes.
The HB samples were tempered to 14.5% moisture and rested
for 65 hr before pearling (20%) and milling. Milling was performed
with a five-stand mill equipped with 25-cm diameter rolls in con-
junction with a rotary box sifter and a Buhler laboratory shorts
duster according to the long milling flow described by Izydorczyk
et al (2003). A Canada Prairie Spring White wheat (cv AC Vista,
grown in 1998), milled on the GRL (Grain Research Laboratory)
pilot mill (Black 1980) was used to produce a 60% extraction
patent flour that served as both the control and as the base wheat
flour to which barley flours were added. Canada Prairie Spring
White (CPSW) wheat is often used for the production of YAN
noodles as it has sufficient protein content and quality to impart
the desired texture and color to the noodles.
Flour Analysis
Protein content (%N × 5.7) was determined by combustion
nitrogen analysis (model FP-248 Leco Dumas CNA analyzer) cali-
brated with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) according to
Approved Method 46-30 (AACC 2000). Ash and starch damage
were determined using Approved Methods 08-01 and 76-31, res-
pectively. Color of the HB flour was evaluated using a colorimeter
(Minolta CR-200 meter with a CR-231 head, Mississauga, ON).
Starch pasting characteristics of barley flour were determined with
a 13-min pasting profile using a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA, Foss
Food Technology); 3.5 g of flour (14% moisture basis) was sus-
pended in 25 mL of 0.05M solution of silver nitrate to inactivate
the α-amylase present in the sample. Amylose content of the iso-
lated, defatted starch samples was determined by potentiometric
titration (Schoch 1964).
Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity was determined according
to the method of Hatcher and Kruger (1993) using catechol as the
substrate. Peroxidase (POD) activity was determined using 1-Step
ABTS (2, 2’-azine-di [3-ethylbenzthiazoline sulfonate]) (Pierce)
as the substrate and measured at 405λ using a kinetic microplate
reader (Thermomax, Molecular Devices Corp., Sunnyvale, CA) at
a constant temperature of 20°C (Hatcher and Barker 2005).
Total starch and β-glucan (BG) content of the flour was deter-
mined enzymically using Megazyme kits (Megazyme Int. Ireland,
Ltd.) and Approved Methods 76-13 and 32-33 (AACC 2000).
Total arabinoxylan (AX) content of flours was determined colori-
metrically by the phloroglucinol reaction method of Douglas
(1981). Water-soluble (40°C) BG and AX were determined accord-
ing to the method of Izydorczyk et al (2000). Total starch, BG,
and AX analyses are reported on a dry matter basis as an average
of three measurements.
Samples were prepared for SEM by mounting HB flour particles
onto aluminum stubs covered with double-sided carbon adhesive
disks and allowed to set for 24 hr. The mounted samples were
placed in a sputter coater (Hummer VII, Anatech, Ltd.) and coated
with 50 nm of gold and examined with a scanning electron micro-
scope (JEOL JSM-6400) at 10 kV and photographed (Kodak TMAX
100 black and white professional 120 roll film.)
Noodle Preparation
All eight HB straight-grade flours were added to the wheat
flour at the 20% level, whereas only one genotype from normal,
waxy, and zero amylose waxy barley was chosen for the 40%
addition. An optimum water absorption of 37% was determined
for 100% wheat flour and the 20% HB flour blends based on
aggregate particle size, consistency, and crumb feel. A higher
absorption level (42%) was required for the 40% HB flour blends
to yield crumb mixtures with the correct parameters.
The wheat patent flour was combined with HB straight-grade
flour before mixing. The appropriate amount of a 1% kansui solu-
tion (9:1 sodium and potassium carbonates dissolved in water)
was added during a 5-min mixing regime using a Hobart mixer
(N50, Hobart Canada, North York, ON) according to Kruger et al
(1994). Control wheat noodles (AC Vista) were prepared twice
and tested separately with 20 and 40% HB composite noodles.
The moist crumb aggregate mixture was fed between the tem-
perature-controlled rollers (28°C) of an Ohtake laboratory noodle
machine (Ohtake, Tokyo, Japan) with an initial gap setting of 3
mm. The resulting sheet was folded once and passed through the
rollers, loose ends first, to simulate the industrial noodle sheet
lamination step. The noodle sheet was cut into a representative
section 25 cm long and underwent successive reduction passes of
3.00, 2.55, 2.15, 1.85, 1.57, 1.33, and 1.10 mm over 4.5 min.
Force measurements were captured on an analog-digital board
(Labmaster DMA, Scientific Solutions, Solon, OH) interfaced to
a personal computer using commercial software (Labtech Note-
book, Laboratories Technologies, Wilmington, MA) as described
by Hatcher and coworkers (1999a). The resulting noodle sheet
was cut into three sections, with two portions held at ambient
temperature in sealed plastic containers for color and image analy-
sis, respectively. The remaining noodle sheet was cut into strands,
using a B 22 cutter and held in sealed plastic containers, at ambient
temperature, for 1 hr before cooking.
Color and Appearance
Raw and cooked noodle color was evaluated with a spectro-
colorimeter (Labscan II, HunterLab, Reston, VA) equipped with a
D65 illuminant using the L*, a*, and b* color scale at 1, 2, and 24
hr after processing. The noodle sheet was folded twice to provide
three layers of thickness for measurement and covered with a black
container to eliminate external lighting. Three measurements were
taken at two different locations and the readings were averaged.
Cooked noodles were held in a cup (Agtron, Reno, NV) for
color determination after being rinsed and drained. The container
was rotated between readings with the average of six measure-
ments recorded. All samples were covered with a black container
to maintain a consistent background and exclude light.
Images of the raw noodle sheets (25 cm2) were captured using a
commercial scanner (model 3, Microteck, Canada) at 1, 2, and 24
hr after processing and analyzed using in-house developed soft-
ware based on KS-400 software (Carl Zeiss Vision, Echting,
Germany) according to Hatcher et al (1999b) and Hatcher and
Symons (2000a–c). Delta-grey and speck size were the two
imaging parameters used to assess noodle specks during noodle
analysis. Delta-grey (0–255) represents the minimum difference
in darkness between the specks and the noodle surface and is the
threshold value that must be exceeded for a discolored speck to be
identified (Hatcher et al 1999b). Speck size is the minimum
threshold size that a speck must exceed to be detected. The noodle
images were analyzed with a delta-grey of 5 and a speck size of
6,000 µm2.
Optimum Cook Time
Optimum cook time of the noodles was determined by cooking
the sample in boiling, distilled water, removing subsamples at 30-
sec intervals, and placing them in temperature-controlled (20°C)
water. Five noodle strands from each time interval were placed
between plexiglass sheets and their inner core observed by lightly
squeezing the plates together. The noodles were optimally cooked
once the white inner core of four of the five noodle subsamples
disappeared, indicating that cooking water had penetrated to the
core.
Texture
Noodles (25 g in 400 mL of boiling distilled water) were opti-
mally cooked 1 hr after manufacturing. The cooked noodles were
drained, rinsed for 1 min with distilled water (20°C), shaken to
release any free water, and placed in sealed plastic containers for
10 min. The maximum cutting stress (MCS) test was performed at
this time with the compression (Oh et al 1983), texture profile
analysis (TPA) (Bourne et al 1978), and stress relaxation tests
(Sopiwnyk 1999) performed at 8, 16, and 24 min after the com-
mencement of the cutting test, respectively. Texture measure-
ments were performed using the TA-XT2i texture analyzer
(Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale, NY).
Vol. 82, No. 1, 2005 61
 The stress relaxation test measures the force exerted by com-
pressed noodles during relaxation (Sopiwnyk 1999). The noodles
were compressed once at a cross-speed of 0.10 mm/sec to a load
of 250 g and were held at this force for 45 sec. Relaxation time
under this procedure is defined as the time required for the
noodles to relax to 85% of the initial load force. Slower relaxation
times indicated stiffer noodles. All tests were performed on five
sets of three noodles
Water uptake (g/g) was calculated by subtracting the initial
sample weight (25 g) from the cooked sample weight and dividing
by the initial sample weight. Cooking loss was calculated by
dividing the weight of dry solids left in the beaker after cooking
by the initial sample weight.
Statistical Analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using SAS statistical
software v. 8.2 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and Proc GLM were performed to determine signifi-
cant differences. Replicated results are reported as mean values.
Noodle samples were prepared using a randomized design
blocked on the basis of flour addition level. All values were
considered significant at P ≤ 0.05 unless otherwise stated. The
coefficient of variation was <5% for all tests.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Flour Analysis
HB flour milling yields varied from 48.2 to 60.2%, with high
amylose (HA), waxy, and zero amylose waxy (ZAW) genotypes
having much lower flour yield than either normal lines (Table I) .
The protein content of the HB flours (10.6–12.8%) was similar to
that of the control wheat flour, although the flour ash levels were
approximately twice that of the control.
All HB flours were equivalent to or surpassed the brightness
(L*) of the wheat flour (Table II). HB flour redness (a*) values
were equivalent to that of the wheat flour, while HB flour yellow-
ness (b*) values were noticeably lower than that of the wheat
flour. Significant differences in the starch content of the HB
flours were observed (64.4–74.6%) with the normal starch HB
having the greatest starch content and the HA lines the lowest.
Amylose content of the HB flours ranged from 0% in the ZAW
genotypes to 42% for the HA genotypes. On average, total BG

TABLE II
Color Measurements of Hull-less Barley
and Wheat Flour

Hull-less Barley Colora

Type and Cultivar L* a* b*
Normal
Falcon 93.2 –0.47 6.79
SB90354 93.2 –0.22 5.83
Waxy
CDC Candle 93.3 –0.45 5.72
SR93135 93.3 –0.69 7.26
Zero Amylose Waxy
SB94792 93.4 –0.59 6.89
CDC Alamo 93.1 –0.39 6.45
High Amylose
CDC-92-55-06-54 92.8 –0.28 5.32
CDC-92-55-06-48 92.8 –0.14 4.81
Wheat
Fig. 1. RVA pasting profiles of hull-less barley flours Falcon, CDC-92- AC Vista 92.7 –0.72 9.01
55-06-48, CDC Candle, CDC Alamo, and AC Vista flour. a Brightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*).

TABLE I
Sample Characterization of Hull-less Barley and Wheat Floura
Starch β-Glucans Arabinoxylans
Hull-less Barley Yield Content Damage Amylose Total Soluble Total Soluble
Type and Cultivar (%)b (%) (%) Content (%) Proteinc Ash PPOd PODe (%) (%) (%) (%)
Normal
Falcon 60.2 74.4 2.8 23.8 11.9 0.76 84 387 3.48 1.63 1.38 0.28
SB90354 57.6 74.6 4.9 24.3 11.0 0.79 94 489 3.94 1.57 1.37 0.30
Waxy
CDC Candle 52.7 73.4 4.3 4.3 10.6 0.83 118 307 3.96 1.71 0.90 0.16
SR93135 50.4 72.9 4.8 4.8 10.8 0.86 64 263 4.37 1.99 0.81 0.18
Zero Amylose Waxy
SB94792 50.3 71.7 4.0 0 11.7 0.86 50 433 3.97 1.98 1.00 0.13
CDC Alamo 51.4 70.8 5.2 0 11.9 0.88 138 358 4.23 2.18 1.10 0.15
High Amylose
CDC-92-55-
06-54 51.6 69.9 4.1 41.4 11.8 0.79 36 306 3.93 2.47 1.60 0.49
CDC-92-55-
06-48 48.2 64.4 3.3 41.8 12.8 0.78 19 257 4.06 2.63 1.82 0.50
Wheat
AC Vista 60.0 75.5 6.9 nd 12.3 0.44 17 171 0.72 0.35 1.69 0.45
a Values are expressed on a dry matter basis.
b Yieldis expressed on an as-is moisture and on a whole barley basis.
c% N × 5.7 wheat and barley.
d Polyphenol oxidase activity expressed as nmol of O /g/min.
2
e Peroxidase activity expressed as pyrogallol units/g/min.

62 CEREAL CHEMISTRY
content was ≈5× greater in the HB flours than in the control
wheat flour. Maximum total BG was found in the flour of the
waxy cultivar SR93135, while Falcon flour displayed the lowest
value. The HA flours contained the greatest amount of soluble
BG. The lowest soluble BG levels were detected in the two
normal starch cultivars. Normal amylose and HA starch genotypes
exhibited total AX comparable to that of wheat flour, whereas the
waxy and ZAW starch lines had significantly lower levels. The
HA lines displayed soluble AX levels equivalent to that of the
wheat flour, while the other genotypes exhibited significantly
lower amounts.
Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) starch pasting profiles demonstrated
differences among various HB flours and the wheat control flour.
Profiles of one line from each HB starch type are compared with
the wheat control in Fig. 1. The waxy HB flour with ≈4%
amylose yielded the highest paste viscosity (PV) and the shortest
peak viscosity time. The ZAW line also exhibited rapid swelling
and a higher viscosity peak than the wheat flour. Compared with
the waxy lines, however, the ZAW showed a lower peak viscosity
followed by a sharp viscosity breakdown. Slightly lower starch,
but higher protein contents in ZAW flours (Table I) and a smaller
proportion of large starch granules (>8 µm) in ZAW starches, as
previously shown (You and Izydorczyk 2002), could partially
contribute to the lower peak viscosity of the ZAW samples. The
absence of amylose in the ZAW flours is probably responsible for
their rapid viscosity breakdown. As anticipated, the HA genotype
yielded lower PV values than all others, including the wheat flour
(Song and Jane 2000). The paste viscosity peak time of HA flours
was very similar to that of wheat and HB flours with normal
starch. The highest final viscosity (FV) values were observed for
the normal HB flours. The waxy and ZAW flours displayed lower
FV values than AC Vista and the other HB flours.
The starch pasting characteristics of AC Vista flour supple-
mented with HB flour at both a 20 and 40% addition level were
also investigated (Fig. 2). Addition of normal and HA barley flour
increased and decreased the peak viscosity, respectively, as anti-
cipated from the individual pasting profiles of barley flours. The
Fig. 2. RVA pasting profiles of 20 and 40% blends of hull-less barley flours and AC Vista flour.
swelling characteristics of blends containing waxy and ZAW
barley flours were clearly influenced by the increased content of
amylopectin as the viscosity developed faster and two distinct
viscosity peaks corresponding to HB and wheat starch were
observed. Overall, however, the blends had lower peak viscosity
values than individual components, likely due to the dilution
effects. Only blends of wheat and HB flour with normal starch
reached higher final viscosity values compared with the AC Vista
control flour.
Processing Requirements
Addition of HB flour (20%) to wheat flour had variable effects
on the energy requirements during sheeting of the resulting
noodle crumb. Noodles containing ZAW barley flour and normal
barley flour (SB90354) displayed significantly increased work
requirements during sheeting compared with the AC Vista control
sample, while the remaining samples imparted no significant effect
(Table III). At 40% addition, all blends required less energy than
the control, but only for Falcon was this reduction significant. It is
thought that noodles containing 40% HB flour required less work
input than their corresponding 20% blend noodles, primarily due
to the higher water absorption at the elevated level of HB flour
addition (42% vs. 37% for 40% and 20% HB supplementation,
respectively). It is also possible that at the higher HB addition, the
noodle doughs were weaker as they contained less functional
wheat gluten and hence required less development. The barley
flour supplemented noodles were prepared using conventional
equipment with no special adjustments required. No handling
difficulties or dough breakage were experienced with the higher
(40%) barley flour blends, but the water absorption had to be
elevated to 42% (vs. 37% for the wheat control).
Raw Noodle Color and Appearance
Normally, clear, bright yellow noodles, free of any darkening or
discolorations are favored by traditional YAN consumers (Mis-
kelly and Moss 1985; Morris et al 2000). The yellow color of
alkaline noodles is attributed to the presence of naturally occurring
Vol. 82, No. 1, 2005 63
colorless flavanoids in flour that become yellow under alkaline
conditions (Morris et al 2000).
The addition of 20% HB flour resulted in a significant decrease
in raw noodle brightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) compared with
the wheat control noodles at all time intervals (Fig. 3A,B). A
significant increase in noodle redness (a*) was also observed
relative to the wheat noodle (Fig. 3C) for all HB noodles. These
effects on L* and a* were more pronounced at the 40% HB flour
addition level (Fig. 3 D,F). Addition of HB flour at the 40% level
resulted in noodle b* values that were not significantly different
from the control up to 2 hr after processing for SB94792, CDC
Fig. 3. Time-dependent changes in color of yellow alkaline noodles with
20 and 40% addition of various HB flours.
64 CEREAL CHEMISTRY
Candle, and CDC Alamo. However, all HB noodles displayed
significantly lower b* values than the control by 24 hr.
PPO and POD enzymes are believed to play a key role in the
darkening and deterioration of noodle color over time. Oxidation
products from the reaction of both of these enzymes can bind with
proteins to yield undesirable pigmentation of noodles (Francis
and Clydesdale 1975). PPO levels in all but the HA cultivars were
significantly greater than that of the wheat control flour (Table I).
POD activity was also elevated in all HB flours relative to the
wheat flour control. Discoloration in barley-based products may
occur due to oxidative polymerization of phenolic compounds
catalyzed by PPO and inorganic ions (Jerumanis et al 1976; Theuer
2002). Barley grain is unique among common cereals, being es-
pecially rich in numerous polyphenols, phenolic acids, pro-
anthocyanidins, and catechins known for antioxidant properties
(Bravo 1998). Barley contains 1.2–1.5% of total polyphenols
compared with 0.02–0.04% in wheat (Theuer 2002). Pearling
significantly reduces, but does not totally devoid barley of its poly-
phenols, as it removes a great proportion of the polyphenol-rich
tissues such as bran, seed coat, and aleurone.
Image analysis was used in the present study to determine the
number and size of specks on a fresh noodle sheet. The addition
of any HB flour at either addition level significantly increased the
number of specks on the noodle sheet in comparison with the
control, both initially and over time (Fig. 4A,B). At the 20 and
40% HB levels, the number of specks at 1 or 2 hr represented a
15–20 fold increase in the number of specks compared with the
control wheat flour. However by 24 hr, although still significantly
greater in number, the magnitude of the difference had declined
appreciably. The number of specks on the noodle sheet increased
with increasing HB content. While the average speck size detected
on noodles containing HB flour was significantly larger than
those found on the wheat control noodle initially (1 hr) and at 24
hr, the level of addition did not have a significant influence on the
average speck size (Fig. 4C,D). The specks in barley-supple-
mented noodles originate from fragments of testa, endosperm cell
walls, and aleurone of barley, as clearly indicated by the micro-
scopic examination of HB flours (Fig. 5). These tissues consist
primarily of β-glucans, arabinoxylans, and other nonstarch polysac-
charides, thus increasing the content of dietary fiber in noodles.
While color and appearance generally play an important role in
consumer acceptance and choice of food, certain food markets are
more open and skewed toward less conventional products. For
example, the traditional buckwheat noodles of Japan (soba) and
Korea (naengmyon), deviate significantly from the common bright
yellow or white color, but offer highly desirable texture, taste, and
nutritional values and therefore are well established in their
respective marketplaces (Hatcher 2001).
Noodle Cooking Characteristics
An optimum cook time of 7 min was determined for the wheat
flour control noodle, while those containing 20% HB flours
required 6 to 8.5 min (Table III). Addition of either of the normal
amylose HB flours at the 20% level significantly increased cook
time to 8 and 8.5 min, whereas noodles containing waxy HB flour
significantly shortened cook times compared with the control.
The addition of 40% HB flour to YAN decreased cook times in
all cases. Waxy and ZAW noodles were particularly affected, with
cook times of only 3.0 min. The decreased cooking times
observed at the 40% addition are likely due to the increased water
absorption required at this level of HB addition, thus promoting
more rapid heat transfer and quicker gelatinization (Hatcher et al
1999a). Faster and more pronounced swelling characteristics of
waxy and ZAW samples, as shown in Fig. 1, could also contribute
to shorter cook times of the composite noodles.
Water uptake during cooking of the 20% HB noodles was signi-
ficantly elevated only for the HB flour with normal starch, with
no significant changes observed for other HB noodles compared
with the control (Table III). At the 40% level, noodles containing
Falcon (normal) had slightly higher but not significantly different
water uptake than the control. Noodles prepared with 40% waxy,
HA, or ZAW HB flours displayed significantly lower water uptake
values.
All composite noodles exhibited significantly lower cooking
losses, most likely due to the shorter cooking times compared with
the control sample. This was especially evident for the noodles
containing waxy and ZAW barley flours (Table III).
Cooked Noodle Appearance
Traditional YAN consumers prefer cooked YAN to have a bright
yellow color. At both levels of addition, the barley-supplemented
YAN had significantly decreased cooked noodle brightness com-
pared with the control wheat noodles (Table IV). Blends containing
40% HB flour exhibited lower L* values than their 20% counter-
parts (Table IV). Redness (a*) values significantly increased on
addition of all HB flours. At the 40% HB addition, a significant
shift from the green (negative numbers) to the red (positive) scale

TABLE III
Cooking Properties of Wheat Flour and Hull-less Barley (HB) Flour 20 and 40% Blendsa
Energy Req. (total work/g) Cook Time (min) Water Uptake (g/g) Cooking Loss (g/g)
Flour Type and Cultivar 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40
Wheat flour
Control (AC Vista) 19.3cd 19.6a 7.0bc 6.5a 1.02bc 0.91a 0.11a 0.12a
Normal
Falcon 19.0d 14.4b 8.0a 6.0ab 1.06a 0.92a 0.10a 0.08b
SB90354 22.1ab 8.5a 1.06a 0.10ab
Waxy
CDC Candle 21.0bc 17.7ab 6.5cd 3.0d 1.01bc 0.84bc 0.07b 0.04c
SR93135 20.5b–d 6.0d 0.99c 0.08b
Zero amylose waxy
SB94792 23.6a 20.2a 7.0bc 3.0d 1.03ab 0.86b 0.08ab 0.04c
CDC Alamo 23.6a 6.0d 1.03ab 0.08b
High amylose
CDC-92-55-06-54 20.9bc 19.4a 8.0ab 5.0c 0.99c 0.81c 0.11a 0.08b
CDC-92-55-06-48 21.1bc 17.1ab 7.0bc 5.5bc 0.99c 0.82c 0.09ab 0.08b
a Values followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P < 0.05).

Fig. 4. Time-dependent changes in speck count and speck size in yellow alkaline noodles with 20 and 40% addition of various hull-less barley flours.
Bars with different letters within each group (1–9) are significantly different at P ≤ 0.05.

Vol. 82, No. 1, 2005 65

was observed. The HB ZAW cultivar CDC Alamo displayed the
highest a* value while noodles prepared from normal HB flour
(Falcon) displayed the lowest. In all cases, cooked noodle yellow-
ness values decreased on addition of 40% HB flours. In general,
the presence of barley flour in the YAN resulted in darkening
(browning) of the cooked noodles but no differences in cooked
noodle color over time were detected.
Cooked Noodle Texture
Texture is considered to be among the most important quality
attributes of a cooked alkaline noodle with firmness, elasticity,
and smoothness being the key criteria (Miskelly and Moss 1985;
Akashi et al 1999; Crosbie et al 1999).
None of the HB flours significantly affected cooked noodle firm-
ness, as determined by MCS, relative to the wheat control at the
20% addition level (Fig. 6A). Very small differences were seen
within HB samples of the same starch type, except for the HA
class where noodles containing CDC-92-55-06-54 flour displayed
significantly higher MCS than those containing CDC-92-55-06-
48 flour. Noodles prepared using normal HB flours had signifi-
cantly lower MCS than those prepared using waxy HB flours.
While small differences in MCS were seen at the 20% addition
level, significantly greater MCS values than in the control were
detected in all noodles containing 40% HB flour. Waxy and ZAW
HB blended noodles displayed the highest MCS values, signifi-
cantly higher than both normal and HA noodles. These differences

TABLE IV
Color of Cooked Hull-less Barley (HB) and Wheat Flour Blend Yellow Alkaline Noodlesa,b
AC Vista and 20%HB Blend Noodles AC Vista and 40%HB Blend Noodles
L* a* b* L* a* b*
Wheat control (AC Vista) 67.15a –3.37c 26.29a 65.54a –3.41e 26.80a
Normal
Falcon 61.99b –0.69b 23.89b 58.30b 0.81d 23.76b
SB90354 61.07bc –0.52b 23.64b
Waxy
CDC Candle 61.69bc –0.71b 23.30bc 57.74b 1.35c 22.84bc
SR93135 62.13b –0.61b 24.13b
Zero amylose waxy
SB94792 61.53bc –0.05a 23.96b
CDC Alamo 60.35c 0.18a 23.52b 56.30b 2.40a 22.80bc
High amylose
CDC-92-55-06-54 60.37c –0.07a 23.69b 56.76b 1.88b 23.01b
CDC-92-55-06-48 60.73bc 0.19a 22.25c 56.37b 2.07ab 21.97c
a Values followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P < 0.01).
b Brightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*).

Fig. 5. Components of hull-less barley flours (top, CDC Alamo; bottom, CDC 92-55-06-48) showing starch (S), protein (P), fragments of cell walls
(CW), aleurone (A), and bran particles (BP). Bars at the bottom of each SEM micrograph represent 10 µm.

66 CEREAL CHEMISTRY
in noodle firmness were strongly related to the cooking time of iness of cooked noodles. The presence of β-glucans, arabin-
composite noodles. In particular, the addition of waxy and ZAW oxylans, and various phenolic compounds in barley samples could
flour at the 40% level significantly decreased the cook time, result- also contribute to the overall texture of YAN. Izydorczyk et al
ing in increased firmness of cooked noodles. (2001) reported that addition of β-glucans and arabinoxylans to
The TPA chewiness parameter of cooked noodles was clearly
affected by the type of starch in the barley samples (Fig. 6B). In
general, the addition of waxy and ZAW barley flour decreased,
whereas normal and HA barley flour increased the chewiness of
composite noodles, although the differences were not significant
in all cases. This trend was more evident at the 40% level. Normal
and HA lines exhibited significantly greater chewiness values than
did waxy or ZAW lines. At the 40% addition level, normal and
HA starch blended noodles displayed significantly chewier noodles
than did the control, waxy, and ZAW lines.
Minimal impact on noodle resilience, relative to the control
wheat flour noodle, was found when any HB flour was blended at
the 20% level. Only the waxy CDC Alamo blended noodle
exhibited decreased noodle resilience relative to the control (Fig.
6C). However, when the level of HB flour was increased to 40%,
the waxy, ZAW, and HA blended noodles displayed significantly
lower resilience values than the control noodle. No significant
difference was detected in the resilience values between these three
HB starch types. Noodles prepared from the normal amylose
content HB flour Falcon were equivalent to that of the control
noodles and distinct from the other HB noodles.
Stress relaxation time provides insight into the overall structure
of the noodle matrix. The addition of 20% of either normal amylose
HB flour resulted in a significantly stiffer noodle than the control
or any other HB noodle (Fig. 6D). The HA HB flours also
resulted in stiffer noodles, however the increase was significant
for only one line, CDC-90-55-06-48, compared with the control.
Addition of either 20% waxy or ZAW HB flours resulted in a
significant decrease in noodle relaxation time relative to the con-
trol. No significant differences were detected between samples of
the same starch type. Noodles prepared using 40% HB flours exhi-
bited trends similar to those prepared at 20%. Noodles prepared
from the normal HB (Falcon) displayed significantly stiffer noodles
than the control, while those prepared from the two HA lines
remained equivalent to the control. Both the waxy and ZAW 40%
blended noodles underwent further significant declines in their
relaxation times relative to that of the control.
The effect of barley flour addition on YAN texture is complex,
as many opposite or counterbalancing factors could contribute to
the overall texture profile of composite noodles. For example, MCS
appeared to be especially affected by the cook time of noodles,
whereas the chewiness and stress relaxation time parameters were
clearly affected by the type and characteristics of starch in barley
flour. In general, addition of barley flour containing waxy and ZAW
starch decreased the chewiness and relaxation time parameters
compared with the control sample. The addition of normal and HA
barley flours increased firmness and chewiness of noodles. These
results were not unexpected. Waxy barley starches have been
reported to have very slow retrogradation kinetics (Czuchajowska
et al 1998; You and Izydorczyk 2002). Seib (2000) also reported Fig. 6. Maximum cutting stress and texture profile analysis parameters of
that increased flour swelling ability, decreased paste rigidity, and yellow alkaline noodles with 20 and 40% addition of various hull-less bar-
enhanced deformation of starch granules caused by reducing ley flours. Bars with different letters within each group (1–9) are signi-
amylose content contributed to softer texture and higher spring- ficantly different at P ≤ 0.05.

TABLE V
Correlation Coefficients Among RVA Starch Pasting Characteristics and Textural Parameters
of Yellow Alkaline Noodles Containing 20 and 40% Hull-less Barley
Peak Viscosity Breakdown Final Viscosity Setback
Max. cutting stress –0.2892 –0.2396 –0.7607* –0.7730*
Resistance to compression 0.1445 0.1353 0.5258* 0.6089*
Chewiness 0.1423 0.1391 0.6634* 0.8021*
Resilience 0.6332* 0.5941* 0.7637* 0.6584*
Relaxation time 0.3735 0.4129 –0.1445 –0.2590

Vol. 82, No. 1, 2005 67

wheat doughs significantly increased their elastic and viscous
moduli. Physical entrapment and covalent bonds are thought to be
responsible for partial insolubility of these polymers. Because YAN
are prepared in alkaline medium, it is possible that solubility of
these compounds is increased during processing. Their interaction
with water and other flour components could also affect the texture
of noodles.
The relationship between texture attributes and RVA pasting
profile parameters of flour blends indicated significant correlations
to final viscosity and setback (Table V). These results are in part
consistent with those reported by Crosbie et al (1999). However,
unlike Crosbie et al (1999), only resilience was significantly cor-
related with peak viscosity and breakdown. The introduction of
barley flours of differing starch characteristics in our studies, which
resulted in two distinct viscosity peaks in some cases (Fig. 2),
may account for this discrepancy.
CONCLUSIONS
Yellow alkaline noodles containing a blend of a CPSW patent
wheat flour and HB flours (20 and 40%) exhibiting different starch
properties and elevated levels of nonstarch polysaccharides were
prepared with minimal processing difficulties. Changes in noodle
appearance were due to significant decreases in noodle brightness
and yellowness, combined with increased redness and speckiness.
Therefore, barley-enriched YAN might not appeal to traditional
YAN consumers. However, they may be acceptable to a more non-
conventional or health conscious population. Consumer acceptance
and interest in novel foods to diversify their dietary intake, even at
the expense of the traditional or common appearance, is growing.
The brown color of cereal-based products is currently perceived
as a healthy alternative to white, refined, and nutrient-depleted
products (Stauffer 2003). A clear understanding of the origin of
color and specks in noodles (phenolic compounds and dietary
fiber) substantiated by evidence of health benefits of these com-
pounds is needed to help consumers in making educated food
choices. Another advantage of barley addition to noodles is the
possibility of texture modification. It appears that starch charac-
teristics (amylose-to-amylopectin ratio) play an important role in
altering the texture of noodles. However, the effects of other barley
components on noodle texture should also be explored.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The financial assistance from the Alberta Barley Commission, Can-
adian Wheat Board, Agricore United, Ltd, the Saskatchewan Agriculture
Development Fund, and the Western Grain Research Foundation is
gratefully acknowledged. We would like to thank the following for their
invaluable assistance: M. J. Anderson, H. Facto, R. Desjardins, and L.
Dushnicky.
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