Porphyry Copper Deposits

Porphyry-type ore bodies are low-grade,

high-tonnage accumulations of mineralized rock
associated with intrusive magmatic bodies.

They are most commonly mined by open-pit methods, and are by far the biggest
single orebodies exploited at present.

They can range from hundreds to thousands of millions of tonnes of ore

Example:

Giant Chuquicamata deposit in Chile

In India Malanjkhand Deposit in Madhya Pradesh.

The intimately associated igneous rocks with these deposits are normally
porphyritic (that is, they contain large crystals) and range from intermediate to
felsic in composition. They include
diorites,
monzonites,
granodiorites,
tonalites
alkalic intrusions

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Almost all porphyry deposits form within volcanic arcs, both in

 continental arcs (e.g. the Cordillera of western North and South

America)

and in

 intra-oceanic island arcs (e.g. the 'Southwest Pacific' arcs of Papua

New Guinea, Solomon Islands, etc.)

The majority of porphyry deposits are relatively young ( < 75 Ma).

The ore bodies are

continuous bodies,

hundreds of metres to a couple of kilometres in diameter and depth extent,

centred on one or more of the small intrusions of the magmatic centre.

In most economic porphyries, ore grade is uniform or varies gradually with

position except where the body is cut by syn- or post-mineralisation intrusions.

Copper is the most common commodity but they are also important sources of
molybdenum and gold.

Smaller quantities of other metals, including

Ag, Sn, W, and Pd can also be refined from porphyry copper ores.

Mineralization in porphyry deposits is widely disseminated throughout the host

rocks and ore grades are very low, but because of their large size, the orebodies
can be mined profitably.

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Porphyry mineralization commonly encompasses large volumes of the
surrounding host rocks to the intrusion.

These can include igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks ranging in age
from Precambrian to Phanerozoic.

The emplacement of porphyry bodies is usually controlled by regional fault

structures and zones of fractured rock.

The intrusive bodies themselves may be composed of a single intrusion or of

multiple intrusions.

The intrusions are passively emplaced into the surrounding host by stoping and
assimilation.

Porphyry ores were emplaced at relatively shallow levels in the crust (less than 4
km) and that they may have provided the magma source for the generation of
large volcanoes on the surface which have since been eroded away.

Where several intrusions of magma are present, it is common for mineralization

to be related to the latest intrusions, which tend to be most differentiated.

The phenocryts in the intrusions indicate that their magmas were partially
crystalline when emplaced and that crystallization of the remaining melt occurred
rapidly.

Two types of orogenic belts host porphyry deposits:

those created by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental

crust along a continental margin (e.g., west coast of South America)

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 and

those found along island arcs where two oceanic plates are colliding.

Most deposits are of Mesozoic or Cenozoic age, but some are Palaeozoic.

Older Precambrian deposits are difficult to recognize because of later

deformation and erosion, but some rare examples have been found.

The Porphyry Cu deposit may be

- totally within the host rock

- partially in the stock and partially within the country rocks

- in the country rocks only

The mineralization tends to occur in concentric zones (the ore minerals

themselves are alteration minerals and are formed by the same chemical
processes that resulted in the hydrothermal alteration)

From Centre onwards

- Barren or low grade zone with minor chalcopyrite and molybdenite,

pyrite a few to 10% (disseminated ore)

- Molybdenite increases

- Chalcopyrite increases (Veinlet ore)

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 - Pyrite mineralization increased to form peripheral pyrite rich halo (10
-15% pyrite) and minor chalcopyrite and molybdenite.

The magmas that form porphyry copper deposits are thought to be generated by
the melting of subducted oceanic crust.

This crust contains a high concentration of water because of the presence

of water bearing minerals.

When oceanic crust is heated, it dehydrates and then melts to produce

magma into which the water can dissolve.

The magma is less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks;

it rises and penetrates the lower crust, where further melting and
assimilation of crustal rocks can occur.

These modified magmas can rise up to high levels in the crust.

During their ascent, the pressure drops, causing the water dissolved in the
magmas to separate—a process referred to as ‘first boiling’.

The rising magma may also begin to crystallize as it ascends, generating

crystals of minerals such as plagioclase.

These crystals eventually form the phenocrysts found in porphyritic rocks.

The exsolution of water cools the remaining magma and induces more
rapid crystallization before it can reach the surface.

Further crystallization results in more water being expelled in a process

called ‘second boiling’.

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The outer surface of the intrusive body cools more rapidly, forming a
carapace of essentially solid rock at temperatures much lower than its
centre.

This confines the remaining partially molten interior and any water
exsolving from it, resulting in a large increase of pressure (Fig. a).

Early-stage crystallization of the outer regions

of the intrusion confines partially crystallized magma and its exsolved
brine.

This causes a build-up of pressure in the intrusion, which is released by

fracturing of the carapace and its surrounding host rocks.

When the internal pressure builds up to a high enough level, the carapace
fractures and

the high-temperature fluids are released upwards into the solidified

porphyry and its surrounding host rocks (Fig. b).

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 High-temperature brines are released into the fractured rocks, resulting in
potassic alteration and low-grade copper mineralization.

The release of pressure and loss of fluid cause further crystallization

deeper into the intrusion.

The release of these fluids and the concomitant drop in pressure induces
crystallization deeper in the intrusive mass, and the cycle begins anew.

This cyclic process continues and the carapace and the fractures
generated within it migrate downward to greater depths (Fig. c).

As the influx of magmatic fluids wanes, meteroic waters invade the solidified
intrusion, become heated, and react with the rock, causing phyllic alteration.

These circulating fluids can also generate argillic alteration of the periphery of the
phyllic zone as well as propylitic alteration further from the intrusion.

Eventually, confining pressures, caused by the overlying rocks, rise to the point
where fracturing cannot occur, and the process ceases.

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Although water is an important component released from the magma as it
crystallizes, other components can also be expelled from the melt.

Trace metals in the magmas may also partition into the brines, causing
enrichment of valuable metals in these high-temperature fluids.

When the brines are expelled during fracturing, they pass through rock with
which they are no longer in chemical equilibrium.

This results in an exchange of chemical components between rock and fluid, a

process known as ‘hydrothermal alteration’. ↓

This exchange causes changes to the fluid as well as to the wall rock. At the
same time, cooling of the fluid can occur. ↓

Taken together, these two processes induce gradual changes in the physical and
chemical properties of the fluid. ↓

These changes bring about the precipitation of ore minerals in the fractures,
together with other gangue minerals such as quartz and potassium feldspar.

The hydrothermal alteration generated during the formation of porphyry

deposits is one of their distinctive features.

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In the idealized model, alteration zones centred on the porphyry intrusion consist
of

the potassic,

phyllic,

argillic, and

propylitic zones.

The central potassic zone is characterized by the presence of potassium-

bearing minerals such as orthoclase and biotite. Anhydrite, chlorite, and sericite
may also be present.

Veins in the potassic zone are filled with minerals similar to those found in the
altered wall rock.

It is caused by brines which are composed of a high proportion of magmatic fluid

and have very high temperatures (400–700 °C).

In the early stages of development these magmatic fluids are expelled upwards
and outwards into fractured rock which, at the same time, prevents the incursion
of more dilute fluids at lower temperatures from the surrounding wall rock (Fig.
1b).

Phyllic alteration surrounds the potassic core and has the mineral assemblage
quartz–sericite–pyrite.

During the formation, most of the original silicate minerals in the rock are broken
down by the hydrothermal fluids and replaced by sericite or clay minerals, or
both.

Excess silica is generated which forms quartz.

Iron is released from the alteration of iron bearing minerals as well as it is added
by the fluid form pyrite.

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This alteration is due to incursion of cooler meteoric water into the porphyry
environment. This water gets heated, rises and reacts at the same time with the
host rocks.

Due to continuous supply of meteoric water convection is set around the

periphery of the intrusion overprinting the pre-existing potassic assemblage.

Argillic alteration is normally found on the periphery of the phyllic zone, and is
characterized by the presence of clay minerals like kaolinite and montmorillonite.

These minerals typically form when hydrothermal alteration is caused by acidic

heated fluids.

Most minerals are unstable when in contact with such fluids and break down,
releasing most of the metals in their structures.

During this process, the rock acts as a neutralizer of the acidic fluid, and metals
are exchanged for hydrogen ions.

Metals such as silicon and aluminum are less soluble in these fluids and remain
as quartz and clay minerals.

Isotopic evidence shows that argillic alteration is caused by hydrothermal fluids

composed mainly of meteoric water.

The propylitic alteration zone extends outward from the intrusion into less
altered host rocks.

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It is identified by the common occurrence of chlorite and calcite as alteration
products of biotite and hornblende in the host.

Other minerals that are present in this zone include pyrite and epidote.

Propylitic alteration represents the weakest alteration found in porphyry coppers.

It is caused by heated convecting meteoric water.

Ore minerals in porphyry deposits are commonly found in concentric

zones around the intrusion, much like the alteration zones.

The central potassic core normally contains low-grade mineralization

consisting of minor chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and pyrite.

These minerals occur in dense microfractures in the altered host intrusion.

Along the contact between the potassic and phyllic alteration zones,
higher-grade ore is found; this consists of chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and
pyrite hosted in microfractures and larger fracture networks.

The total sulphide mineral content may be as high as 10–15 per cent;
copper concentrations vary from 5 to 10 kg per tonne of ore.

Mineralization in the argillic and propylitic alteration zones is typically of

low grade and uneconomic.

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Generalized model for porphyry Cu deposits showing relation of ore minerals,
alteration zoning, supergene enrichment and associated skarn, replacement, and
vein deposits.

Some Important points on Porphyry Cu deposit

May be
- Totally within the host stock
- Partially within the stock and partially within the country rock
- In the country rocks only

They

- Occur in subvolcanic environment

- Associated with some high level stocks
- Associated with subaerial calc-alkaline volcanics
- Zones of alteration close upwards
- Potassic zones die out
- As the upper limit of economic mineral is reached silicic and argillic
alteration important
- Downwards porphyry changes to equigranular
- Intrusions have low silica/alkali ratio
- Host pluton may be
Syenite
Monzonite
Diorite
Or alkali intrusions
- Biotite may be the most prominent K mineral when orthoclase may not
develop, plagioclase is main feldspar
- Significant gold may occur and Mb/Cu is usually low
- Quartz less chlorite, epidote, and albite fairly common

Accessory metal
Either
Mb – continental crust
Or
Au – island arc

Dimensions are enormous

which means

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 very large volume of rock (both country rock and parent plutons) has been
permeated by hydrothermal solution

Crackle brecciation

- Brecciation occurs due to expansion as volatiles are released from the

magma
- Fractures are filled with the mineralization to form stockwork
- Its zone is circular in outline
- Larger than the ore body
- Fades out in propylitic zone

The host magma of the deposit reaches about 0.5 to 2 km of the surface.

This leads to equigranular crystallization in its outer portion.

As crystallization proceeds, anhydrous minerals form and liquid magma

becomes richer in volatiles.
So vapour pressure increases.

If vapour pressure exceeds confining pressure then retrograde boiling

occurs.

If retrograde boiling occurs in largely consolidated rock tensile strength of

the rock acts against the vapour pressure to rise above the confining
pressure.

So expansion takes place and extensive and rapid brecciation takes

place.

Crystallization and bubble formation causes absorption of heat so that in

the central part of the pluton T of the system falls.

So rapid cooling takes place at a later stage.

This results in increase in nucleation sites and rapid nucleation takes

place.

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 So a fine grained groundmass is formed. That is why the intrusion is
porphyrytic in nature.

As retrograde boiling takes place

Aquous phase (hydrothermal solution) is produced.

Fugacity of oxygen (fO2) controls fractionation of S into the aquous phase

Fugacity of oxygen (fO2 ) in a magma is largely determined by the

Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio of the magma

Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio depends on the source rock that has generated the
magma

So

Aquous fluid separated from I type magma with higher fO2 tend to produce
S rich porphyry Cu mineral

Aquous fluid from S type magma may deposit S poor Sn oxide

mineralization

S isotope studies show that S in porphyry Cu deposit is largely of upper

mantle or remelted oceanic crust origin

Water associated with sericites from the phyllic zone of alteration are
depleted in O18 relative to Bt of the potassic zone

Connate waters from the country rocks are involved in the sericitization

Whereas

Meteoric water is involved in phyllic alteration by hydrothermal fluids

Field and microscope data show that

Potassium silicate and propyllitic alteration

↓
Phyllic and argillic alteration (later)

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Porphyry body cools, solidifies and generates magmatic hydrothermal fluid

- This fluid reacts with the porphyry and the surrounding rocks

- This gives rise to central potassic alteration. At this stage much of

metals and S are probably introduced.

- Away from the intrusion convective circulation of water takes place due
to thermal gradient
&
Propyllitic alteration takes place

- As the intrusion cools, meteoric – connate hydrothermal system

mineral and lower T minerals – sericite, propyllite, clay minerals form.

- They replace part of potassic alteration zone minerals such as feldspar

and biotite.

- Economic deposit of porphyry Cu deposit forms if the parent magma is

enriched in Cu.

- Cu prefers octahedral sites in both melt and crystalline phases

- Magmas with more octahedral sites will contain more Cu in the melt at
the retrograde boiling stage and more likely to give rise to Porphyry Cu
Deposits

- Octahedral sites are directy proportional to alumina : alkali ratio

&
Mineralized intrusions have higher ratio than barren intrusions

- If Cu behaves as an incompatible element during early stages of

crystallization due to poor development of magnetite and augite
Then
The melt becomes enriched in Cu

- Metal distribution in porphyry deposits strongly correlates with the

regional

Time – Space distribution of host intrusions

And not the
Host of the intrusion itself

- Porphyry Cu deposits are subduction controlled

- The final concentration of Cu into stockworks is an upper crustal
process

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 Porphyry Mo

- Have many features common with Porphyry Cu deposits

- Average grades – 0.1 – 0.45 MoS2
- Sometimes Sn – W may be produced as a by product
- Stockworks are more important than disseminations
- Shape of the ore body may be like

Inverted cup hollow cylinder Tabular inverted bowl

Porphyry Sn & W

- Both these deposits have many features similar to the porphyry Cu

deposits.
- Large volume of rocks contain 0.2 – 0.3% Sn
- Potassic zone of alteration is absent
- The stockworks have inverted cone shape
- Sericitic alteration grades outwards into propylitic alteraion and pyrite
halos may be present
- In porphyry W hydrothermal alteraion zones do not show a regular
concentricity
- Grades ~ 0.2 W with Mo

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