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Section 1
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Vector and Tensor Analyses
1.1. Vector and tensor algebras.

Transformation of vectors and tensors
Scalar (invariant) in three-dimensional space is a quantity that is
invariant under rotations (inversion) of a coordinate system.
Vector in three-dimensional space is a collection of three quanti-
ties that are transformed under rotations of a coordinate system by
the formulas
3

Aα = aαβ Aβ (1.1)
β=1
or, according to the rules of tensor analysis,

Aα = aαβ Aβ
(where the summation over the repeated indices is assumed). Here,
Aα is the projection of the vector on the α-th axis of the rotated
coordinate system; ααβ is the coefficient of transformation, which is
the cosine of the angle between the β-th axis of the initial coordinate
system and the α-th axis of the rotated one; Aβ is the projection of
the vector on the β-th axis of the initial system.
Vectors can be written in terms of contravariant (Aα ) or covariant
(Aα ) coordinates. The square of a three-dimensional vector is the
quantity
3

Aα Aα = A1 A1 + A2 A2 + A3 A3 .
α=1
1
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2 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity and Electromagnetism
The scalar product of two vectors is defined as
Aα Bα = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3 .
Second-rank tensor in three-dimensional space is the nine-

component quantity Tαβ (α, β = 1, 2, 3), which is transformed under

rotations of a coordinate system in the following way:

Tαβ = ααλ αβµ Tλµ
(as above, the sum over λ and µ is assumed).

Analogously, a third-rank tensor in a three-dimensional space is
defined by the law of transformation:

Tαβγ = ααλ αβµ αγν Tλµν .
The tensors of higher ranks are defined analogously.

The vector quantities under inversion of a coordinate system can
be transformed in two ways. Those vectors, whose components at
the inversion of coordinates change sign (transformation x = −x,
y = −y, z = −z), are called polar vectors or simply vectors. The
vectors, whose components do not change sign under inversion of a
coordinate system, are called pseudovectors or axial vectors. (The
difference between the covariant and contravariant components of
vectors and tensors is not essential for the problems considered in
this section).
An example of an axial vector is the vector product of two polar
vectors. Analogously, the tensor of the s-th rank is called simply
a tensor, if its components are transformed under inversion as the
product of s coordinates, i.e., they are multiplied by (−1)s , and a
pseudotensor, if its components are multiplied by (−1)s+1 .
The table of the coefficients of a transformation
 
α11 α12 α13
α̂ = α21 α22 α23 
α31 α32 α33
Vector and Tensor Analyses 3
is called the matrix of transformation. In what follows, we will con-

sider the determinant of this matrix

α11 α12 α13

det α̂ = α21 α22 α23 .
α31 α32 α33
The sum of two matrices α̂ + β̂ is the matrix γ̂, whose elements

are equal to the sums of corresponding elements of the matrices-
summands:
γαβ = ααβ + βαβ .
The product of two matrices α̂β̂ is the matrix γ̂, whose elements
are formed from elements of the matrices ααβ and βαβ , which are
multiplied by the rule:
γαβ = ααγ βγβ .
The matrix γ̂ describes the transformation that is carried out
by two subsequent transformations: first, that corresponding to the
matrix β̂, and then to the matrix α̂.
The identity matrix is a matrix of the type:
 
1 0 0
1̂ = 0 1 0.
0 0 1
It describes the identity transformation (Aα = Aα ). Its elements
are denoted by the symbol δαβ :

1, if α = β;
δαβ =
0, if α = β.
A matrix of the type
 
α1 0 0
α̂ =  0 α2 0
0 0 α3
is called a diagonal matrix.
If the elements of a matrix satisfy the condition

ααβ ααγ = δβγ ,
then it is called orthogonal.
The matrix α̂−1 satisfying the conditions

α̂α̂−1 = α̂−1 α̂ = 1̂
is called the inverse to the matrix α̂.
The former describes the inverse transformation: i.e., if Aα =
ααβ Aβ , then Aα = α−1
αβ Aβ .
The matrix α̃ ˆ formed from α̂ by the substitution of columns for
rows is called transposed:
 
α11 α21 α31
ˆ = α12 α22 α32 , α̃αβ = αβα .
α̃
α13 α23 α33
Matrices and tensors can be symmetric and antisymmetric.
The second-rank tensor Sαβ is symmetric if its components
remain invariable under permutation of indices: Sαβ = Sβα .
A tensor Aαβ , whose components change sign under permutation
of indices, is called antisymmetric: Aαβ = −Aβα .
The Kronecker delta δαβ is the unit second-rank tensor, whose
components are the same in all coordinate systems, like the tensor
eαβγ which is the absolutely antisymmetric unit third-rank pseudoten-
sor. The collection of components eαβγ has the following properties:
under permutation of two any indices, the nonzero component of
eαβγ changes its sign, and e123 = 1. Of the 27 values of eαβγ , only
six values are nonzero. Many have at least two identical indices and
are zero due to the antisymmetry (eααγ = −eααγ = 0). The nonzero
components are as follows:
e123 = e231 = e312 = −e321 = −e213 = −e132 = 1.
The tensors δαβ and eαβγ play important roles in vector and
tensor algebras.
***
Example 1.1. Let, in all Cartesian coordinate systems, the collec-

tion of three quantities aα (α = 1, 2, 3) be given, and let aα bα = inv at
rotations and reflections. Prove that if bα is a vector (pseudovector),
then aα is also a vector (pseudovector).
Solution. Since bα are components of a vector, they are trans-

formed under rotation of the coordinate system by formulas (1.1):
bα = ααβ bβ . Substituting bα in the equality aα bα = inv and com-
paring with aα bα = inv, we get aβ = ααβ aα , i.e., aβ are trans-
formed under rotations as components of a vector. Since the invariant
does not change sign under reflections, the components of aα and
bα should simultaneously change sign (polar vectors) or should not
(pseudovectors).
Example 1.2. Construct the matrices of the transformation of basis

unit vectors for the transition from Cartesian coordinates to cylin-
drical ones and those of the inverse transformation.
Solution. The spherical r = (R, ϑ, α) (Fig. 1.1) and cylindrical r =

(r, α, z) (Fig. 1.2) coordinate systems are widely used in the solution
of problems of theoretical physics along with the Cartesian coordi-
nate system, where the components of a radius-vector are given as
r = (x, y, z).
Under the transition from the Cartesian to spherical coordinate
system (eα → eα ) by the formulas eα = ααβ eα , we pass from the
α y
Fig. 1.1
z
α y
Fig. 1.2
unit vectors ex , ey , ez to the unit vectors er , eα , ez . In this case, the
coefficients ααβ are the projections of the new unit vectors onto the
old ones:
 
αrx αry αrz
ααβ = ααx ααy ααz .
αzx αzy αzz
For example, αrx is the coefficient which is determined by pro-

jecting er onto ex : the angle between these unit vectors is α. There-
fore, in order to project er onto ex , we need to multiply er by cos α.
Respectively, αrx = cos α.
By determining in this way the projections of some unit vec-
tors onto other ones, we get the matrix of the transformation from
Cartesian coordinates to cylindrical ones:
 
cos α sin α 0
ααβ = − sin α cos α 0.
0 0 1
By projecting analogously the old unit vectors onto the new ones,
we obtain the matrix of the inverse transformation:
 
cos α − sin α 0
α−1  sin α cos α 0.
αβ =
0 0 1
Example 1.3. Let n be a unit vector, whose direction in space are

equiprobable. Find the mean values of its components and their prod-
ucts: nα , nα nβ , nα nβ nγ , nα nβ nγ nδ .
Solution. The mean values are equal to the integrals:

1 1
nα = nα dΩ, nα nβ = nα nβ dΩ.
4π 4π
However, instead of the direct calculation of these integrals, it is

more convenient to use the transformational properties of the ana-
lyzed quantities. It is obvious that the quantities nα , nα nβ , etc. are
tensors, respectively, of the first, second, etc. ranks. It follows from
their definition that these quantities must be the same in any refer-
ence system. Therefore, they can be given in terms of such tensors,
whose components are independent of the choice of the reference
system.
Let us consider nα . Since there is no vector, except for the zero
one, whose components are independent of the reference system, we
have nα = 0.
The tensor nα nβ must be presented in terms of a symmetric
second-rank tensor, whose components are the same in all reference
systems. The only such tensor is δαβ . Therefore, we can write nα nβ =
λδαβ . To determine λ, the tensor should be convolved on the pair of
symbols: nα nα = n2 = 1 = 3λ, λ = 1/3. Analogously, we get
nα nβ nγ nδ = 1/15(δαβ δγδ + δαγ δβδ + δαδ δβγ ).
Example 1.4. Find the components of the tensor ε−1 αβ , inverse to the
tensor εαβ . Consider, in particular, the case where εαβ is a symmetric
tensor given in the principal axes.
Answer . The tensor inverse to the given one satisfies the relation
εαβ ε−1
βγ = δαγ . (1.2)
It is the algebraic equation for components of the inverse tensor

ε−1
αβ Its solution takes the form
.
∆βα
ε−1
αβ = , (1.3)
|ε|
where ∆βα is the cofactor of an element εαβ .

Formula (1.3) implies that the necessary condition of the exis-
tence of the inverse tensor is |ε| = 0. In view of the well-known
property ∆βα εβγ = δαγ |ε|, we see with regard for expression (1.2)
that the inverse tensor satisfies also the condition
ε−1
αβ εβγ = δαγ .
If εαβ is a symmetric tensor given in the principal axes, εαβ =

ε(α) δαβ (no summation over α), then ε−1 1
αβ = ε(α) δαβ .
Problems
1.1. Two directions n and n are defined in a spherical coordinate
system by the angles ϑ, α and ϑ , α, respectively. Find the
cosine of the angle between them.
Answer . cos ϑ = n n = cos ϑ cos ϑ + sin ϑ sin ϑ cos(α − α ).
1.2. Prove the identities:
(a) [A × B]
· [C
× D]
= (A · C)(
B · D)
− (A · D)(
B · C);

× B]
(b) [A × [C × D]
= (A · [B × D])
C − (A · [B
× C])
D
· [C
= (A × D])
B − (B · [C
× D])
A.
1.3. Prove that if aα = Tαβ bβ in any coordinate system, Tαβ is a

second-rank tensor, and bβ is a vector, then aα is also a vector.
1.4. Prove that ∂aα /∂xβ is a second-rank tensor.
1.5. Prove that if Tαβ is a second-rank tensor, and if Pαβ is a
second-rank pseudotensor, then Tαβ Pαβ is a pseudoscalar.
1.6. Show that if the tensor Sαβ is symmetric, and the tensor Aαβ
is antisymmetric, then Aαβ Sαβ = 0.
1.7. Prove that the sum of diagonal components of a second-rank
tensor is an invariant.
1.8. Let the components of the vector a in all coordinate systems

be linearly presented in terms of components of the vector b:
aα = εαβ bβ . Prove that the collection of quantities εαβ is a
second-rank tensor.
1.9. Show that the collection of quantities Aαβγ Bαβ , where Aαβγ
is a third-rank tensor, and Bαβ is a second-rank tensor, is a
vector.
1.10. Find the law of transformation of the collection of volume inte-
grals Tαβ = xα xβ dV under spatial rotations and reflections
(xα and xβ are Cartesian coordinates).
Answer . Tαβ form a second-rank tensor.
1.11. Construct the matrices of transformation of basis unit vectors:
under the transition from the Cartesian coordinates to spher-
ical ones and, conversely, from the spherical coordinates to
Cartesian ones; under the transition from the Cartesian coor-
dinates to cylindrical ones and, conversely, from the cylindrical
coordinates to Cartesian ones.
1.12. In all Cartesian coordinate systems, let us set a collection of
quantities eαβγ with the following properties: eαβγ changes its
sign under the permutation of any two indices, and e123 = 1.
Show that the collection eαβγ forms a third-rank pseudoten-
sor (totally antisymmetric unit third-rank pseudotensor).
Answer . Only 6 quantities of the 27 are nonzero. The remain-
ing quantities have at least two identical indices and are trans-
formed to zero due to the antisymmetry (eααβ = −eααβ = 0).
The nonzero components are (see page 4)
e123 = e231 = e312 = −e321 = −e213 = −e132 = 1.
Let us consider the expression α1α α2β α3γ eαβγ . Remember-

ing the definition of a third-order determinant and using
the definition of eαβγ , we write this expression in the form
α1α α2β α3γ eαβγ = |α̂| = +1 = eαβγ . Let us transpose two
indices on the left-hand side, for example, 1 and 2. We get
α2α α1β α3γ eαβγ = −α1β α2α α3γ eαβγ = −e123 = e213 . . .
It is seen from these relations that eαβγ is transformed

under rotations as a third-rank tensor. The quantities eαβγ are
invariant under the transformations. Therefore, their collec-
tion forms a third-rank axial tensor. It has a valuable property:
its components are the same in all coordinate systems.

1.13. Prove that the components of a second-rank antisymmetric
tensor under a rotation of coordinates are transformed as the
components of a vector.
Answer . Let us write the tensor Aαβ in the form of a table:
 
0 A12 −A31
 
Aαβ = −A21 0 A23 .
A31 −A23 0
Denote:A23 = A1 , A31 = A2 , A12 = A3 . These three rela-
tions can be rewritten as Aα = 12 eαβγ Aβγ , where eαβγ is the
totally antisymmetric third-rank unit tensor. But since eαβγ
is a third-rank tensor, and Aβγ is a second-rank tensor, the
quantities Aα (α = 1, 2, 3) form a vector; Aα is called the
vector dual to the tensor Aαβ .
1.14. To write the formulas for components of the vector product of
two vectors and the curl of a vector with the help of the unit
antisymmetric tensor eαβγ . Determine how these quantities
are transformed under rotations and reflections.
Answer . [A α = −eαβγ Aβ Bγ , rotα A
× B] = eαβγ ∂Aγ , [A
× B]

∂xβ
and rot A can be considered as antisymmetric second-rank ten-
sors or as vectors dual to them, whose components do not
change their signs under a transformation (pseudovectors).
1.15. Prove the equalities:
(a) eαβγ eγδε = δαδ δβε − δαε δβδ ;
(b) eαβγ eβγδ = 2δαδ .
· [a × b], where Tαβ is any
1.16. Show that Tαβ aα bβ − Tαβ aβ bα = 2 ω
second-rank tensor, a and b are vectors, and ω is the vector
equivalent to the antisymmetric part of Tαβ .
1.17. Transform the product (a · [b × c ])(a · [b × c ]) into the sum
of terms that contain only the scalar products of vectors.
Hint. Apply the theorem of multiplication of determinants or
use the third-rank pseudotensor eαβγ .
Answer .
(a · a )(b · b )(c · c ) + (a · b )(b · c )(c · a )
+ (b · a )(c · b )(a · c ) − (a · c )(c · a )(b · b )
− (a · b )(b · a )(c · c ) − (b · c )(c · b )(a · a ).
1.18. Find the values of the following expressions averaged
over all directions: (a · n)2 , (a · n)(b · n), (a · n)n, [a × n]2 ,
[a × n][b × n], (a · n)(b · n)(c · n)(d · n), if n is a unit vector,
whose all directions are equiprobable, and a, b, c, and d are
constant vectors.
Hint. Use the results of Problem 1.18.
Answer .
a2 /3, (a · b)/3, a/3, 2/3a2 , 2/3(a · b);

1/15[(a · b)(c · d)
+ (a · c)(b · d)
+ (a · d)(
b · c)].
1.2. Vector analysis

In an arbitrary orthogonal coordinate system q1 , q2 , q3 , the square of
the length element is given by the formula
dl2 = h21 dq12 + h22 dq22 + h23 dq32 ,
and the volume element
dV = h1 h2 h3 dq1 dq2 dq3 ,
where
2 2 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
hi = + +
∂qi ∂qi ∂qi
are functions of the coordinates (Lamé coefficients).
The differential operations are written as follows:

= 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
div A (h2 h3 A1 ) + (h1 h3 A2 ) + (h1 h2 A3 ) ;
h1 h2 h3
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3

e1 e2 e3

h1 h3 h1 h2
h2 h3

= ∂
rot A ∂

∂ ; (grad ϕ)i =
1 ∂ϕ
;
hi ∂qi
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3

h2 A2 h3 A3
h1 A1

1 ∂ h2 h3 ∂ϕ ∂ h1 h3 ∂ϕ
∆ϕ = +
h1 h2 h3 ∂q1 h1 ∂q1 ∂q2 h2 ∂q2

∂ h1 h2 ∂ϕ
+ .
∂q3 h3 ∂q3
the differential operators ∂ act on the

In the formula for rot A, ∂qi
elements of the last row of the determinant. In a spherical coordinate
system:
x = r sin ϑ cos α, y = r sin ϑ sin α, z = r cos ϑ;

hr = 1,
hϑ = r, hα = r sin ϑ;
∂ϕ eϑ ∂ϕ eα ∂ϕ
grad ϕ = er + + ;
∂r r ∂ϑ r sin α ∂α
= 1 ∂ (r 2 Ar ) + 1
div A
∂
(sin ϑ Aϑ ) +
1 ∂Aα
;
2
r ∂r r sin ϑ ∂ϑ r sin ϑ ∂α

1 ∂ ∂Aϑ

(rot A)r = (sin ϑ Aα ) − ;
r sin ϑ ∂ϑ ∂α
1 ∂Ar 1 ∂(rAα )
ϑ=
(rot A) − ;
r sin ϑ ∂α r ∂r
α = 1 ∂(rAϑ ) − 1 ∂Ar ;
(rot A)
r ∂r r ∂ϑ

1 ∂ 2 ∂ϕ 1 ∂ ∂ϕ 1 ∂2ϕ
∆ϕ = 2 r + 2 sin ϑ + 2 2 .
r ∂r ∂r r sin ϑ ∂ϑ ∂ϑ r sin ϑ ∂α2
In a cylindrical coordinate system:

x = r cos α, y = r sin α, z = z;
hr = 1, hα = r, hz = 1;
∂ϕ eϑ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
grad ϕ = er + + ez ;
∂r r ∂α ∂z
= 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aα ∂Az
div A (rAr ) + + ;
r ∂r r ∂α ∂z
1 ∂Az ∂Aα ∂Ar ∂Az
r=
(rot A) − ; α=
(rot A) − ;
r ∂α ∂z ∂z ∂r
1 ∂ 1 ∂Ar
z=
(rot A) (rAα ) − ;
r ∂r r ∂α

1 ∂ ∂ϕ 1 ∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
∆ϕ = r + 2 2 + 2.
r ∂r ∂r r ∂α ∂z
and ϕ, the following identities hold:
For any A
rot grad ϕ ≡ 0, div rot ϕ ≡ 0, div grad ϕ ≡ ∆ϕ.
The below-presented basic integral theorems connect volume,
surface, and contour integrals.
Ostrogradskii–Gauss theorem:

div AdV = · dS,
A (1.4)
V S
where V is some volume; S is the closed surface that bounds this
volume.
Stokes theorem:

· dl =
A · dS,
rot A (1.5)
l S
where l is a closed contour; and S is any surface that relies on this
contour.
must be a differentiable
In formulas (1.4) and (1.5), the vector A
function of the coordinates.
***
Example 1.5. Using the Ostrogradskii–Gauss theorem, calculate

the integral

I = r(a · n) dS,

if the volume enveloped by the closed surface is equal to V ; a is a

constant vector, and n is a unit vector normal to the surface.
Solution. Here, like in a number of other cases, it is convenient to

consider the scalar product of the integral by any constant vector c:

c · r(a · n)dS = (c · r)an dS = div((c · r)a)dV

= (a · c) dV = (a · c)V.
Since c is a constant vector, this implies that I = aV .
Problems
1.19. Calculate div r, rot r, grad( p · r), grad pr
3
r , and (
p · ∇)r, where
r is a radius-vector; and p is a constant vector.
1.20. Find the divergences and the curls of the vectors (a · r)b,
(a · r)r, [a × r], and r × [a × r], where a and b are constant
vectors.
Answer .
div(a · r)b = a · b, rot(a · r)b = a × b, div(a · r)r = 4(a · r);
rot(a · r)r = a × r, div[a × r]r = 0, rot[a × r] = 2a;
div r × [a × r] = −2(a · r), rot r × [a × r] = 3[r × a].
1.21. Calculate grad ϕ(r), div ϕ(r)r, rotϕ(r)r, ( p · ∇)ϕ(r)r. The

function ϕ(r) depends only on the modulus of the radius-
vector.
Answer . grad A(r)
· B(r),
grad ϕ(r) =
rr ϕ , div ϕ(r)r = 3ϕ +
p · ∇)ϕ(r)r = pϕ +
r(
pr·
r) ϕ .
rϕ ; rotϕ(r)r = 0, (

1.22. Calculate grad A(r) · r, div ϕ(r) · A(r),
rotϕ(r) · A(r),
p · ∇)
(

ϕ(r)A(r).
Answer .
+ r (r · A

gradA(r) · r = A );
r
r );

gradA(r) · B(r)
= (A ·B+A ·B
r
ϕ + ϕ (r · A
);

divϕ(r)A(r) · r = (r · A)
r r
ϕ + ϕ [r × A ];

rotϕ(r)A(r) · r = [r × A]
r r
p · r ).
p · ∇)ϕ(r)A(r)
( = (ϕ A + ϕA
r
(a) grad(ϕψ) = ϕgradψ + ψgradϕ;
= ϕdivA
(b) div(ϕA) +A · gradϕ;
−A
= ϕrotA
(c) rot(ϕA) × gradϕ;
× B)
(d) div(A =B · rotA −A · rotB;

× B)
(e) rot(A =A · divB
−B · divA · ∇)A
+ (B − (A
· ∇)B;

(f) grad(A · B)
= A×rot
+B
B ×rotA+(
B · ∇)A+(
A · ∇)B.

and B
The scalars ϕ and ψ and the vectors A are functions of
the radius-vector r.
· grad(A
(a) C · B) · (C
=A · ∇)B
+ B(
C · ∇)A;

· ∇)[A
(b) (C × B] × (C
=A · ∇)B
−B × (C · ∇)A;

(c) (∇ · A)
B = (A · ∇)B + Bdiv

A;
× B]
(d) [A · rotC
=B · (A
· ∇)C
−A · (B
· ∇)C;

× ∇] × B
(e) [A · ∇)B
= (A +A × rotB
− Adiv
B;
(f) [∇ × A]
×B = Adiv
B − (A
· ∇)B
−A × rotB
−B
× rotA.

1.25. Transform the volume integral

(gradϕ · rotA)dV

into a surface integral.

Answer .

(gradϕ · rotA)dV = [A × gradϕ]dS = ϕrotAdS.

1.26. Using the Ostrogradskii–Gauss theorem, calculate the

integrals

I = r(a · n)dS, I = (a · r)ndS,

if the volume enveloped by a closed surface is equal to V ; a is

a constant vector; and n is a unit vector normal to the surface.
Answer . Here, like in a number of other cases, it is convenient
to consider the scalar product of the integral and a random
constant vector c:

c · r(a · n)dS = (c · r )an dS = div[(c · r) × a]dV

= (a · c) dV = (a · c)V.

Since c is a random vector,this implies that (a · n)rdS =
aV . In the same way, we get (a · r)ndS = aV .
1.27. Transform the integrals over a closed surface (b is a constant
vector, and n is a unit vector normal to the surface)

I = nϕdS, I = [n × A]dS, I = (n · b)AdS

into the integrals over the volume inside the surface.

Answer .

nϕdS = gradϕdV, [n × A]dS = rotAdV,

(n · b)AdS
= (b · ∇)AdV.


1.28. Using the Stokes theorem, calculate the integral I = ϕdl.
Answer .

ϕdl = [n × gradϕ]dS.
1.29. Prove the identity

(A · rot rotB
−B
· rot rotA)dV

= × rotA]
[[B − [A
× rotB]]
· dS.

1.30. Show that V AdV =0
= 0 and An = 0 if, respectively, divA
inside the volume V and on its boundary.
1.31. Show that the divergence of the vector
r )
1 div A(

A+ grad dV
4π |r − r|
is equal to zero.
1.32. For a three-dimensional second-rank tensor, prove the
Ostrogradskii–Gauss theorem:

∂Tαβ
dV = Tαβ dSα .
∂xα
Hint. Start from the Ostrogradskii–Gauss theorem for the vec-
tor Aα = Tαβ aβ , where a is any constant vector.
1.33. To find a solution of the Laplace equation in a spherical coor-
dinate system for a scalar function that depends on only one
coordinate: (a) on r; (b) on ϑ; (c) on α.
Answer .
B ϑ
(a) A + ; (b) A + B ln tan ; (c) A + Bα.
r 2
1.34. Find a solution of the Laplace equation in a cylindrical coor-
dinate system for a scalar function that depends on only one
coordinate: (a) on r; (b) on α; (c) on z.
Answer . (a) A + B ln r; (b) A + Bα; (c) A + Bz.

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July 15, 2017 8:1 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity. . .

9in x 6in b2938-ch01 page 1

Vector and Tensor Analyses

1.1. Vector and tensor algebras.

or, according to the rules of tensor analysis,

2 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity and Electromagnetism

The scalar product of two vectors is deﬁned as

Second-rank tensor in three-dimensional space is the nine-

component quantity Tαβ (α, β = 1, 2, 3), which is transformed under

(as above, the sum over λ and µ is assumed).

The tensors of higher ranks are deﬁned analogously.

Vector and Tensor Analyses 3

is called the matrix of transformation. In what follows, we will con-

α31 α32 α33 

The sum of two matrices α̂ + β̂ is the matrix γ̂, whose elements

4 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity and Electromagnetism

If the elements of a matrix satisfy the condition

The matrix α̂−1 satisfying the conditions

Vector and Tensor Analyses 5

Example 1.1. Let, in all Cartesian coordinate systems, the collec-

Solution. Since bα are components of a vector, they are trans-

Example 1.2. Construct the matrices of the transformation of basis

Solution. The spherical r = (R, ϑ, α) (Fig. 1.1) and cylindrical r =

6 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity and Electromagnetism

For example, αrx is the coeﬃcient which is determined by pro-

Vector and Tensor Analyses 7

Example 1.3. Let n be a unit vector, whose direction in space are

Solution. The mean values are equal to the integrals:

However, instead of the direct calculation of these integrals, it is

nα nβ nγ nδ = 1/15(δαβ δγδ + δαγ δβδ + δαδ δβγ ).

8 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity and Electromagnetism

It is the algebraic equation for components of the inverse tensor

where ∆βα is the cofactor of an element εαβ .

If εαβ is a symmetric tensor given in the principal axes, εαβ =

1.3. Prove that if aα = Tαβ bβ in any coordinate system, Tαβ is a

Vector and Tensor Analyses 9

1.8. Let the components of the vector a in all coordinate systems

e123 = e231 = e312 = −e321 = −e213 = −e132 = 1.

Let us consider the expression α1α α2β α3γ eαβγ . Remember-

10 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity and Electromagnetism

It is seen from these relations that eαβγ is transformed

its components are the same in all coordinate systems.

Vector and Tensor Analyses 11

a2 /3, (a · b)/3, a/3, 2/3a2 , 2/3(a · b);

1.2. Vector analysis

dl2 = h21 dq12 + h22 dq22 + h23 dq32 ,

and the volume element

dV = h1 h2 h3 dq1 dq2 dq3 ,

12 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity and Electromagnetism

The diﬀerential operations are written as follows:

 e1 e2 e3 

 the diﬀerential operators ∂ act on the

x = r sin ϑ cos α, y = r sin ϑ sin α, z = r cos ϑ;

Vector and Tensor Analyses 13

In a cylindrical coordinate system:

14 Problems and Solutions in Special Relativity and Electromagnetism

Example 1.5. Using the Ostrogradskii–Gauss theorem, calculate

if the volume enveloped by the closed surface is equal to V ; a is a

Solution. Here, like in a number of other cases, it is convenient to

Since c is a constant vector, this implies that I = aV .

1.21. Calculate grad ϕ(r), div ϕ(r)r, rotϕ(r)r, ( p · ∇)ϕ(r)r. The

Vector and Tensor Analyses 15

α31 α32 α33

Solution. The spherical r = (R, ϑ, α) (Fig. 1.1) and cylindrical r =

Example 1.3. Let n be a unit vector, whose direction in space are

1.8. Let the components of the vector a in all coordinate systems

a2 /3, (a · b)/3, a/3, 2/3a2 , 2/3(a · b);

e1 e2 e3

the diﬀerential operators ∂ act on the

if the volume enveloped by the closed surface is equal to V ; a is a

Since c is a constant vector, this implies that I = aV .

1.21. Calculate grad ϕ(r), div ϕ(r)r, rotϕ(r)r, ( p · ∇)ϕ(r)r. The

if the volume enveloped by a closed surface is equal to V ; a is